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Topological Spaces
1.1 Basic Concepts
We start with the assumption that we intuitively understand what is meant
by a set. For us, set is a collection of well defined objects. We have a set X and let
J be a collection of subsets of X satisfying:
(T1) J , X J , where is the empty set (or say null set).
(T2) Suppose we have an arbitrary nonempty set J and to each J
we have a subset A of X such that A J , then our J has the property that
A J , where A = {x X : x A for at least one J}.
Suppose we are given a set X. Now our aim is to find collections B and J of
subsets of X satisfying:
(i) B J , (ii) J satisfies (T1), (T2), (T3), and (iii) J = {U X : x U implies
there exists B B such that x B U }.
3
B1
x
B3
B2
Figure 1.1
Suppose a collection B of subsets of a given set X satisfies the conditions (B1), (B2).
Then using (iii) we can define J and such a collection J satisfies (T1), (T2),
and (T3).
Let us prove the following theorem:
Theorem 1.1.2. Suppose a collection B of subsets of a given set X satisfies:
(B1) For every x X there exists B B such that x B.
(B2) B1 , B2 B and x B1 B2 implies there exists B3 B such that
x B3 B1 B2 .
4
pq
The so-called null set (or empty set) is a subset of X. Whether satisfies the stated
property? What is the stated property with respect to our set ? If x then there
exists B B such that x B , where are we in the truth table? Whether there
is x ? The answer is no. So our statement x is false. In such a case whether
q is true or false it does not matter and p q is true. So the conclusion is that the
null set has the stated property, therefore by the definition of J , J .
To prove (T2): Suppose J is a nonempty set and for each J, A J . Now we
will have to prove that A J .
J
A 6= . Let x A , then
there
exists
0 J
such that x A0 .
Now
let
x A1 A2
then
x A1 and
Remark 1.1.3. The topology J defined as in theorem 1.1.2 is called the topology
generated by B. If we want to define a topology on a set X then we search for a
collection B of subsets of X satisfying (B1), (B2) and once we know such a collection
B then we know how to get the topology generated by B. Such a collection B is
called a basis for a topology on X and the topology generated by B is normally
denoted by JB .
d(x, y) =
p
(x1 y1 )2 + (x2 y2 )2 + (x3 y3 )2 , then B(x, r) is the usual Euclidean
Note. Our statement namely x A implies there exists r > 0 such that B(x, r) A
is a conditional statement. The so-called empty set (or null set) is a subset of our
space X. Whether empty set has the stated property? What is the stated property?
Well, following the same argument as given in theorem 1.1.2 we see that has the
stated property. Now it is easy (if not obvious) to prove:
X has the stated property.
A, B X such that A, B have the stated property then A B has the stated
property.
Consider a nonempty set J. Suppose for each J, A X and A has the
stated property, then A has the stated property. That is the collection
J
Theorem 1.2.2. In a metric space (X, d) for each x X, r > 0, B(x, r) is an open
subset of (X, Jd ).
Proof. Let y B(x, r). Then d(x, y) < r. Let s = r d(x, y). If z B(y, s),
then d(y, z) < s = r d(x, y). So d(x, y) + d(y, z) < r. By the triangle inequality,
d(x, z) < r. That is z B(x, r). Thus B(y, s) B(x, r). Hence B(x, r) is open.
XKA is
(1.1)
J
c
A is a
countable subset of X. If
Ac
Suppose not. This implies for at least one 0 J, Ac0 6= X, A0 Jc implies Ac0 is
a countable set. Since Ac Ac0 , Ac is a countable set (subset of a countable
J
set. Hence
A Jc .
(1.2)
(1.3)
From Eqs. (1.1), (1.2), and (1.3), Jc is a topology on X. Now let us give some
examples to illustrate the natural way of obtaining topologies once we know bases
satisfying (B1) and (B2).
Now let us consider the special case X = R, the set of all real numbers and
d(x, y) = |x y| for x, y R. Then d is a metric on R. What is the collection
B = {B(x, r) : x X, r > 0}. Note that B(x, r) = (x r, x + r) = (a, b), where
0
x=
a+b
2
Figure 1.2
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is closed.
(iii) If A1 , A2 are closed sets then A1 A2 is also a closed set.
Use induction to prove that finite union of closed sets is closed.
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Now let us prove the following theorem which tells us when a subcollection B
of a given topology J on X generates the topology J .
Theorem 1.2.8. Let (X, J ) be a topological space and B J . Further suppose for
each A J and x A there exists B B such that x B A. Then B is a basis
for a topology on X and JB = J .
Proof. First let us prove that B is a basis for a topology on X.
(B1) Let x X. Since X J , by hypothesis, there exists B B such that x B.
(B2) Let B1 , B2 B and x B1 B2 . It is given that B J . Hence B1 , B2 J
and this implies B1 B2 J . Now x B1 B2 and B1 B2 J implies there exists
B3 B such that x B3 B1 B2 . From (B1) and (B2) we see that B is a basis
for a topology on X.
B1
b2
b1
B2
a1
a2
Figure 1.3
Now let us prove that JB = J . Let U JB .
Claim: U J . If U = then this implies that U J . Otherwise let x U. By the
definition of JB there exists Bx B J such that x Bx U . This implies that
Bx = U and hence U J .
xU
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metric on R2 .
AS
Exercises 1.2.13. (i) Let S1 = {(a, ) : a R}. Prove that S1 is a subbasis for a
topology on R. Find out the topology J1 generated by S1 .
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is
defined as
15
Theorem 1.3.3. For any subset A of a topological space (X, J ), A is the largest
open set contained in A.
Proof. If A = then A = . For A 6= , let us prove that B = A is an open
set. Due to theorem 1.3.2, it is enough to prove that (A ) = A = A . If A =
then A = and we are through. Also by definition A A . Let x A . Then
by the definition, there exists an open set Ux such that x Ux A. Note that for
each y Ux , y Ux A. That is y A and there exists an open set Ux such that
y Ux and Ux A. This implies that y A . That is y Ux implies y A implies
Ux A . We have the following:
x A and,
there exists an open set Ux such that x Ux , Ux A .
This implies that x A . That is x A implies x A implies A A . Also we
have A A implies (A ) = A . From the theorem 1.3.2, A is an open set. Also
by definition, A A.
To prove the second part assume that B is an open subset of X such that
B A. Now we aim to prove B A . Which is obvious since for each x B there
exists an open set B such that x B and B A. Hence by definition B A .
Consider X = {1, 2, 3}, J = {, X, {1}, {1, 2}} and A = {1, 2}. What is
A0 , the collection of all limit points of A. Is 1 A0 ? The answer is no. Since {1} is
an open set containing 1, but {1} AK{1} = {1} {2} = . Is 2 A0 ? Again the
answer is no. Since {2} is an open set containing 2 and {2} AK{2} = {2} {1} = .
Is 3 A0 ? First find out all the open sets containing 3.
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Here the whole space X is the only open set containing 3 and X AK{3} =
{1, 2, 3} {1, 2} =
6 . That is for each open set U containing 3, the condition namely
U AK{3} =
6 is satisfied. Hence 3 is a limit point of A. That is 3 A0 . Here A0 = {3}.
What is A, the closure of A? By definition A = A A0 = {1, 2} {3} = {1, 2, 3}.
Now let us prove that for any subset A of a topological space X,
A is a closed set and A A.
Whenever B is a closed set such that A B then A B that is we aim to
prove:
Theorem 1.3.4. For a subset A of a topological space X, A is always a closed set
containing A and it is the smallest closed set containing A.
Proof. Let us prove that (A)c = XKA is an open set. Hence we will have to prove
that interior of (A)c is itself. Let x (A)c then x
/ A. Hence there exists an open
set U containing x such that U A = U Ac . This imply that x is an interior
point of Ac , but we have to prove that x is an interior point of (A)c . So it is enough
to prove that U (A)c .
Suppose not. Then there exists y U such that y
/ (A)c implies y (A). Also
U is an open set containing y. Hence U A 6= . This is contradiction to U A = .
We arrived at this contradiction by assuming that U is not a subset of (A)c . Hence
U (A)c , where U is an open set containing x and x (A)c . Therefore every point
of (A)c is an interior point. This implies that (A)c is an open set and hence A is a
closed set.
Now let B be a closed set containing A then we will have to prove that A B.
That is to prove A B c = .
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Example 1.4.6. Bl = {[a, b) : a, b R, a < b}, Jl = JBl is known as the lower limit
topology on R and Js Jl . Hence (R, Jl ) is a Hausdorff space.
Note. Weaker topology is Hausdorff implies stronger is also Hausdorff.
and x U
|xk yk |
2
U = R R R Uk R R and V = R R R Vk R R .
Clearly, x U , y V and U V = R R R R R = . Hence
X = Rw is a Hausdorff space.
Note. ( 1
, 1 ) is not an open set in the product topology on Rw .
n n
n=1
Exercise 1.4.13. Let (X, J ) be a topological space such that for each x in X,
{x} is closed in X. Then prove that an element x A0 if and only if for each open
set U containing x, U A is an infinite set.
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Hence Ai = ( Bi ) Y is open in JY .
iI
iI
i=1
(1.4)
(1.5)
(1.6)
Result 1.4.24. Let (X, J ) be a topological space and B is a basis for J then for
each Y X, BY = {B Y : B B} is a basis for JY .
Proof. Let U JY and x U. U JY implies U = V Y for some V J . Now
x V, V J and B is a basis for J this implies that there exists B B such that
x B U. Therefore B Y V Y = U. Now B Y BY such that x B Y U.
Therefore BY is a basis for JY .
and
(Y, J 0 )
be
topological spaces
and
let
(Y, J 0 )
function
and
x0 U
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, 1 ) ( 1
, 1 ) = ( 1
, 1 ). Then U Jb , f 1 (U ) = {t R : f (t) U }
( 1
2 2
3 3
n n
= {t R : (t, t . . .)
n=1
, 1)
( 1
n n
n=1
= U } = {t R : |t| <
1
,
n
n N} = {0}, and
{0} is not an open set in R. Hence f is not a continuous function. But the same
f : R (Rw , J ) is a continuous function, when we consider the product topology J
on Rw .
Theorem 1.5.6. A function f : X Y is continuous if and only if for every subset
A of X, f (A) f (A) (where it is understood that X, Y are topological spaces).
Proof. Now assume that f : X Y is continuous. To prove for A X, f (A)
f (A). Now f (A) is a closed set in Y and f : X Y is a continuous function
implies f 1 (f (A)) is a closed set in X. Also A f 1 (f (A)) f 1 (f (A)). That
is f 1 (f (A)) is a closed set containing A. Hence A f 1 (f (A)). This gives that
f (A) f (f 1 (f (A))) f (A).
Conversely assume that for A X, f (A) f (A). Let F be a closed set in
Y and A = f 1 (F ). Now f (A) f (A) implies f (f 1 (F )) f (f 1 (F )) F = F.
Hence f 1 (f (f 1 (F ))) f 1 (F ). This gives that f 1 (F ) f 1 (F ). This proves that
27
1
t
is a homeomorphism.
t
1t
is a homeomorphism.
+ y2
x-axis
( 1, 1)
(1, 1)
( x, 1)
Figure 1.4
Exercise 1.5.11. Let A and B be two distinct points in R2 and be a curve joining
A and B as shown below: That is : [0, 1] R2 is a one-one continuous function.
B
(t )
Figure 1.5
Then prove that : [0, 1] {(t) : t [0, 1]} is a homeomorphism. That is [0,1] and
{(t) : t [0, 1]} are equivalent topological spaces. That is, there is a homeomorphism
2
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