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Leadership dimensions
Within the context of the behavioural science, more
particularly organisational behaviour, Robbins et al., (2004)
broadly defines organisation, which I adapt (for the
express purpose of this review) to include the word
financial, and now reads, a consciously coordinated
social unit, composed of two or more people, that functions
on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common
financial goal or a set of financial goals.
Leadership dimensions
By giving the organisation a requisite financial purpose, I
intentionally narrow the definition to exclude social units
such as army corps, schools, political parties, sporting
teams whose raison dtre materially differ to that of
financial-centric organisations. This small but significant
change gives contextual clarity and purpose to many of the
key leadership principles being explored in this work and
reflects this reviews underlying interest in occupationrelated behaviour.
Leadership dimensions
The above definition of the organisation clearly
establishes its relational dependency on the workings
of groups in an open system model. More precisely, it
relies on groups of two or more people to coordinate
as a social unit in order to achieve its financial goals.
In
effect,
this
principle
postulates
that
the
Leadership dimensions
Furthermore,
behavioural,
when
notably
investigating
issues
such
organisational
as
leadership
to
departments.
individuals,
dyads,
work-groups,
and
Leadership dimensions
To begin the conceptual classification of key leadership
dimensions
and
sub-dimensions/factors
contained
in
and
key
compress
the
leadership
dimensions
and
sub-
Leadership dimensions
This task is validated by the fact that conceptual
definitions of leadership components employed in
empirical, theoretical, and meta-analytic studies have
typically evolved independently of one another and
lacking in alignment with one guiding theoretical
perspective, as respective authors strive for differentiation
and prominence by developing new rather than
consolidating existing concepts (Schriesheim et al., 1999;
and Raush, 2005).
Leadership dimensions
In
keeping
with
the
rudimentary
three-dimensional
of
group
support,
the
leaders
intelligence
and
Leadership dimensions
Leadership dimensions
Background
biographical:-
factors
those
can
that
be
can
grouped
be
as
objectively
non-biographical (dynamic)
Leadership dimensions
Personality and Background Factor Scale (PBFS), biographical
factors are what they are, and cannot be changed by human
interference, however non-biographical factors are not prescribed by
nature and can be manipulated to diverging levels of complexities
and temporal constraints. It is generally accepted that, of the nonbiographical
factors,
personality
is
stable
and
straddles
the
Leadership dimensions
Background
biographical:-
factors
those
can
that
be
can
grouped
be
as
objectively
non-biographical (dynamic)
Leadership dimensions
This phenomenon is such that researchers in leadership
theory are polarised (Brown, 1988; and Barrick et al., 2001) as
to how much of leader or follower behaviour is shaped by
personality
characteristics,
but
has
not
discouraged
the
Leadership dimensions
Leadership dimensions
Personality:- Pe
Personality is the unique pattern of psychological
and behavioral characteristics by which each person
can be compared and contrasted with other people
(Bernstein et al., 2006:540) and dimensions of
individual differences in tendencies to show consistent
patterns of thoughts, feelings and actions (McCrae et
al.,
1990:23)
which
are
shaped
by
hereditary,
Leadership dimensions
The study of personality has to date been voluminously
covered from an empirical and theoretical perspective as
personality traits are deemed valid predictors of behaviour
(Hough et al., 1990; Barrick and Mount, 1993:111; and
Kornor and Nordvik, 2004:49) and more broadly by Cooper
and
McClenaghan
organisational
(2008:1:2)
behaviour
when
they
presupposes
stated
that
that
human
Leadership dimensions
The accuracy of predicting behaviour is enhanced by the
empirical observation that human behaviour, especially in
the workplace, is relatively consistent across situations and
time. That is, human behaviour is driven by a persons
personality, which is most resistant to change. To that end,
various models have been developed to try, to the extent
possible, to make an objective assessment of otherwise
subjective traits of human personality, i.e., Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator.
Leadership dimensions
However, the MBTI has not been clinically proven to be a
valid measure (Robbins et al., 2004:103), unlike Allport and
Cattells Five-Factor-Model (FFM) which Costa and McCrae
(1992)
comprising,
extraversion
(e.g.,
sociable,
talkative
and
trusting),
dependable,
Conscientiousness
persistent
and
(e.g.,
responsible,
achievement
oriented),
Leadership dimensions
Although disagreement abounds amongst academics as to the
theoretical validity of FFM (Block, 1995) in predicting leadership
style and recently confirmed by Bono and Judge (2004:908) in
summary, results of the present study provide the first metaanalytic evidence on the relationship between personality and
transformational and transactional leadership. Results indicate
generally modest validities overall
Leadership dimensions
It is worth noting that even though personality as an active metamoderator of leadership behaviour has been the subject of
leadership research since the early 1970s, not much work had been
done on the five distinct domains of FFM (Murphy and Ensher,
1999:562) until Berneths research. This point is further reinforced
by my analysis of work undertaken by Schriesheim et al., (1999:63113) where the authors chronicled the evolution of LMX theory with
an analytical focus on the theoretical definitions (57 identified) and
Sub-Domains (164 identified) embedded in 147 LMX studies (10
theoretical and 137 empirical) from 1972 to 1998.
Leadership dimensions
My
analysis
entails
qualitative
and
quantitative
Leadership dimensions
The FFM is by far been the dominating force in contemporary
research in personality (Bernstein et al., 2006:555) across
different cultures (Barrick and Mount, 1993:111) and as a
consequence has substantively contributed to our ability to
predict behaviour. However, as Bernstein et al., (2006:555)
caution, even if the big-five model is correct and universal, its
factors are not all-powerful, because situations also affect
behaviour. To put it in context of leadership theory, this
suggests that leader or follower behaviour is not moderated by
personality
alone,
but
is
instead
positively
or
negatively
Leadership dimensions
Accepting the above, it is reasonable to assert that
personality is remarkably stable (Kornor and Nordvik,
2004:45; and Robbins et al., 2004:101), is genetically wired
(Tellegen et al., 1998), therefore complex and resistant to
change,
influences
non-biographical
factors
of
Leadership dimensions
Values:- V
Values comprise our feelings of what's right or wrong, are
shaped from our formative years by environmental factors. They
are generally stable, and enduring, thereby often impede
objectivity and rationality. They assist in shaping our attitudes
and general behaviour (Rokeach et al., 1989:775-84); or as
Ravlin and Meglino (1987:667) put it: - values influence the
selection and interpretation of external stimuli, thereby affecting
the organisation of behavioral choices or the formulation of
alternative courses of action.
Leadership dimensions
Mahsud et al., (2010) narrow it down to ethical
leadership
which
they
maintain
includes
altruism,
Leadership dimensions
As indicated on the high-low continuum in Fig. 1, values
are the most resistant to change out of the six dynamic
factors (values, needs, motivations, attitudes, capabilities,
and skills) that are driven by personality. It has been
successfully argued that values of individuals in an
organisational setting vary according to their occupational
cohorts (Munson and Posner, 1980; and Frederick and
Preston, 1990).
Leadership dimensions
Rokeachs Value Survey identified that executives, union
members, and activists had diverse value sets, which he
grouped as terminal and instrumental. For the executive
cohorts
terminal
security,
happiness
values
freedom,
whereas
included
sense
of
instrumental
self-respect,
family
accomplishment,
values
consisted
and
of
Leadership dimensions
Reverting to the connection that Ravlin and Meglino
(1987); Rokeach et al., (1989); Ayman et al., (1995); Varma
et al., (2005); and Mahsud et al., (2010:565)
make
Leadership dimensions
As Frederick and Weber (1990:132) rightly state when
discussing
the
organisations:-
way
different
cohorts
behave
in
Leadership dimensions
Ethical values are likely to encourage leaders to use
more
relations-oriented
behaviours
with
provide
advancement.
equal
opportunities
for
career
Leadership dimensions
A leader who values humility and fairness is more
likely to provide recognition to subordinates who
make important contributions to the mission rather
than claiming credit for them. Leaders with strong
ethical
values
will
not
deceive
or
exploit
Leadership dimensions
Needs: N
A need is a biological requirement for well-being
(Bernstein et al., 2006:401), which captures the essence of
Maslow
(1943)s
hierarchy
of
physiological,
safety,
Leadership dimensions
However those basic needs are influenced by personality
along with values and vary in form and motive from one
individual to another. As researched by Sheldon et al.,
(2001), a group of college students cited the need for
autonomy, relatedness to others, competence, and selfesteem to prevail over the need for luxury or selfactualisation.
Leadership dimensions
Further to this, Baumeister and Leary (1995); and Oishi
et al., (1999) make the point that needs associated with
basic survival and security generally take precedence over
those relating to self-enhancement or personal growth.
That being said, it is reasonable to draw the inference that
human behaviour in an organisational setting is most likely
to exhibit motives for affiliation, power, and achievement.
To that end, research has established a strong relationship
between needs and job performance
Leadership dimensions
Motivations:- M
Motivation is the process that account for an individual's
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort towards
attaining a goal (Mitchell, 1997), it is the interaction of the
individual and the situation (Robbins et al., 2004:164); it is
the force, either internal or external to a person that
arouses enthusiasm and persistence to pursue a certain
course of action. The individual is constrained by his
personality and to an extent, the situation is moderated by
that individuals values and needs.
Leadership dimensions
Accepting that intensity relates to how hard the work effort is
and that the direction of that effort either accrues to the
individual or the organisation, then given the situation, the goal
may not be attained unless there is a degree of persistence:duration of effort. Building on Daft and Pirola-Merlo (2009:230)
who posit that people have basic needs, such as the needs for
food, recognition or monetary gain, that translate into internal
tension that motivates specific behaviour to fulfil those needs
Leadership dimensions
it will be the intimate fusing of personality, values and
needs of the individual that will lead the effort: - behaviour
required for intensity, direction and persistence. It must
also be said that motivation is fluid and dynamic, so much
so that it must be kept in check to ensure that it is justified
in context of the structure, goals, and visions of the
organisation.
Leadership dimensions
Attitudes:- At
Attitudes comprise cognitive, affective, or behavioral elements
that reflect our likes as well as dislikes and is evaluative in intent
(Olson et al., 1993) which is consistent with the thinking of
Bernstein et al., (2006:70) except that they go further to say that
attitudes are derivatives of values, which is further reinforced by
Ayman et al., (1995:152) by writing that values assist in shaping
attitudes as well as general behaviour, to which
Robbins et al.,
(2004:70) add:- attitudes are less stable and complex than values,
which is consistent with where they respectively situate on the PBFS
continuum.
Leadership dimensions
As Brooke et al., (1988) reason, attitudes are manifested in a
broad triad of organisational dimensions: - job satisfaction, job
involvement, and organisational involvement. Job satisfaction
refers to the individuals own evaluation of whether or not
he/she is gratified by the job at hand and more or less reflects
his/her present and future needs. Depending on those needs,
the resultant behaviour may be counter-productive to personal
and/or organisational goals.
Leadership dimensions
On the other hand job involvement is more of a
psychological concept. It is the extent that the
individual
connects
and
identifies
with
the
job
Leadership dimensions
It is a form of self-efficacy which Bandura (1977) defines
as the conviction that one can successfully execute the
behaviour required to produce the outcomes and similarly
Schyns and Von Collani (2002: 227) describe occupational
self-efficacy as ones belief in ones own ability and
competence to perform successfully and effectively in
situations and across different tasks in a job.
Leadership dimensions
Organisational commitment is the last of Brookes
attitudinal dimensions and manifests much the same
emotions as does job commitment except that, Blau and
Boal (1987) point out, it is centered on the organisation
and its goals rather the job, and defined by Mowday et al.
(1982:27)
as
identification
organisation.
relative
with,
and
strength
of
involvement
an
in,
individuals
a
particular
Leadership dimensions
Meyer and Allen (1991:67) went further to break down
this
commitment
into
three
dimensions:
affective,
refers
to
the
employees
emotional
Leadership dimensions
To that end Mael and Ashforth (1992); and Dutton et al.,
(1994) reveal that most people desire to belong to and
identify with an organisation that is believed to have
socially valued characteristics. Regardless of whether their
opinion
is
accurate,
such
internal
employees
own
Leadership dimensions
This phenomenon is often referred to as perceived
external prestige (Mael and Ashforth, 1992), or construed
external image (Dutton et al., 1994) and is of increasing
interest to researchers and practitioners for the reason that
it has broad implications for attitudes and behaviours in
organisations (Herrbach and Mignonac, 2004).
Leadership dimensions
Leadership dimensions
Capabilities:- C
Capabilities
developed
which
is
necessary
to
achieve,
consisting
of
classified
as
number
aptitude,
verbal
spatial
visualisation,
and
memory.
Conversely,
Leadership dimensions
Capabilities:- C
Capabilities
developed
which
is
necessary
to
achieve,
consisting
of
classified
as
number
aptitude,
verbal
spatial
visualisation,
and
memory.
Conversely,
Leadership dimensions
Capabilities:- C
Capabilities
classified
as
comprehension,
perceptual
speed,
reasoning,
spatial
visualisation,
number
aptitude,
inductive
and
and
memory.
verbal
deductive
Conversely,
Leadership dimensions
Based on the above, capabilities are vital links in the chain of
goal
achievement.
In
dynamic
organisational
setting,
Leadership dimensions
Irrespective of personality, values, needs, motivations and
attitudes; efforts to achieve a goal better or worse that another
can and will to a large extent depend on capacity. Saying that, if
the capacity to do exists and the individuals needs, motivations
and attitude are where they ought to be, then learning and
training can bridge the gap between what one individual can do
well and another do better. This obviously hits a chord with Daft
and Pirola-Merlo (2009:60) who write that the differences in task
readiness (affected by training, ability, skills etc.) call for a
certain type of leadership style that differs for members with a
high level of task readiness and training can change leadership
behaviour and attitudes
Leadership dimensions
Similarly, a study of MBA graduates by Cheng and Ho (2001)
showed that, since individuals with high commitment to their
careers have the intention of improving skills and performance in
their jobs, they are likely to exert considerable effort towards
learning the training content. As a result, research has been
exploring the underlying attributes and behaviours of leaders who
successfully perform these contemporary leadership roles in order
to identify leadership selection and training criteria for the
recruitment and development of effective leaders (Church and
Waclawski, 1998).
Leadership dimensions
Skills:- Sk
Skills
Leadership dimensions
Competence can be considered in terms of technical,
general business, and interpersonal skills (Gabarro, 1987;
Butler, 1991; and Mishra's, 1994) all of which are needed
in nearly all roles, but individually in some more so than
others. At the end of it all, the individual who travels well
along the PBFS continuum but falters before acquiring the
necessary skills may become inextricably failure-bound.
Leadership dimensions
Dr. Maurice Roussety is an Executive Consultant at DST
Advisory and Lecturer in Small Business, Franchising and
Entrepreneurship at Griffith University in Queensland,
Australia. Maurice holds a PhD from the Griffith University
in Intellectual Property and Franchise Goodwill Valuation.
He also holds a Masters degree in Leadership and a Master
of Business Administration.