Evs Book

Environmental Science
and Engineering
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A TEXTBOOK OF
B.Sc.
Environmental Science
MATHEMATICS
and Engineering
VOLUME - II
(THEORY & PRACTICAL)
AND
Key to the Textbook
As per latest ANNA UNIVERSITY Syllabus (2013 Regulation)
Solved Question Papers of
Major Universities of Andhra Pradesh & Telangana
For III Semester Civil, EEE, EIE, CSE, IT and Bio-Tech

For IV Semester Mech, Chemical
FOR DEGREE CLASSES
For V Semester ECE, Auto
ForSyllabus
VI Semester
(As per New Common Core
for B.BME
Sc. First Year Students of the
Universities in Andhra Pradesh from the academic year 2008 - 2009)
V. VENKATESWARA RAO
N. KRISHNAMURTHY
Dr. Arun Luiz T
M. Sc.
Former Vice Principal and
(Ph.D,
Head of the Department of Mathematics
Hindu College, GUNTUR
B.V.S.S. SARMA
M. Sc.
Former, Senior Lecturer in Mathematics
V.S.R. & N.V.R. College, TENALI
IIT
M. Sc.
Former Head of the Department of
Madras) Mathematics
V.V. College, HYDERABAD
S. ANJANEYA SASTRY
M. A.
Former Head of the Deptt. of Mathematics
V.S.R. & N.V.R. College, TENALI.
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2015, Dr. R.L. Madan
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PREFACE
As per the directions from The Supreme Court of India, UGC has made mandatory a course
of Environmental science for undergraduate students in Indian universities. This book has been
written to cater the needs of B.E./B.Tech students according to the new syllabus prescribed by
Anna Universtiy (Regulation 2013).
This book comprises of five units which covers the entire syllabus. Topics like ecosystems
and biodiversity, environmental pollution, natural resources, social issues and human population
and environment. This book has been written in a simple and lucid manner. Most of these topics are traditionally taught in environmental science and engineering in several universities and
institutes. Figures and tables are incorporated wherever necessary to make the concept clearer.
This book also contains short questions with answers, review questions and university question
paper. Author hopes that this book will be useful for both students and faculty alike.
Despite all precautions and care, some error or misprints might have been left inadvertently.
The author welcomes comments, suggestions and criticisms for the improvement of the book.
Kindly mail your comments to arunluizt@ssn.edu.in

Dr. Arun Luiz T
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Author would like to extend special thanks to my father, my brother, my friends, students and
department colleagues for their constant encouragement. This book would have never been published without my mothers blessings. I dedicate this book in her memory. SSN Management is
acknowledged for the support. Author thanks Chand and Company Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi for fast
efficient publishing.
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Arun Luiz is currently working as Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry in SSN
College of Engineering, Kalavakkam. He completed his Master in Science from St. Marys
College, (University of Calicut), Sulthan Bathery, Kerala in 2002. He stood first in his college
for BSc and MSc (Chemistry). He received his PhD in Inorganic Chemistry from IIT Madras
in the year 2010. His research interest includes phosphorus based ligands in synthetic inorganic
chemistry and organometallic chemistry. He has published two books on engineering chemistry
and has many research papers in reputed national and international journals. He has a great
passion towards teaching.
About The Book

T
he contents of the book has been written according to latest syllabus of Anna University
Chennai (2013 Syllabus).
Study material is simple on explanation and guide to further information.
Correct and updated information is furnished.
Figures, diagrams and tables are given to explain concepts clearly.
Objecitve type, short answer and essay types questions are included.
Latest Anna University questions have been mentioned. Solved question paper is given.
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SYLLABUS
GE6351 Environmental Science and Engineering
UNIT IEnvironment, Ecosystems and Biodiversity
Definition, scope and importance of Risk and hazards; Chemical hazards, Physical hazards,
Biological hazards in the environment concept of an ecosystem structure and function of an
ecosystem producers, consumers and decomposers-Oxygen cycle and Nitrogen cycle energy
flow in the ecosystem ecological succession processes Introduction, types, characteristic
features, structure and function of the (a) forest ecosystem (b) grassland ecosystem (c) desert
ecosystem (d) aquatic ecosystems (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries) Introduction
to biodiversity definition: genetic, species and ecosystem diversity biogeographical classification of India value of biodiversity: consumptive use, productive use, social, ethical, aesthetic
and option values Biodiversity at global, national and local levels India as a mega-diversity
nation hot-spots of biodiversity threats to biodiversity: habitat loss, poaching of wildlife,
man-wildlife conflicts endangered and endemic species of India conservation of biodiversity:
In-situ and ex-situ conservation of biodiversity.
Field study of common plants, insects, birds
Field study of simple ecosystems pond, river, hill slopes, etc.
UNIT IIEnvironmental Pollution

Definition causes, effects and control measures of: (a) Air pollution (Atmospheric chemistryChemical composition of the atmosphere; Chemical and photochemical reactions in the atmosphereformation of smog, PAN, acid rain, oxygen and ozone chemistry;- Mitigation procedures- Control
of particulate and gaseous emission, Control of SO2, NOX, CO and HC) (b) Water pollution:
Physical and chemical properties of terrestrial and marine water and their environmental significance; Water quality parameters physical, chemical and biological; absorption of heavy
metals - Water treatment processes. (c) Soil pollution - soil waste management: causes, effects
and control measures of municipal solid wastes (d) Marine pollution (e) Noise pollution
(f) Thermal pollution (g) Nuclear hazardsrole of an individual in prevention of pollution
pollution case studies
Field study of local polluted site Urban / Rural / Industrial / Agricultural.
UNIT IIINatural Resources

Forest resources: Use and over-exploitation, deforestation, case studies- timber extraction, mining,
dams and their effects on forests and tribal people Water resources: Use and overutilization of
surface and ground water, dams-benefits and problems Mineral resources: Use and exploitation,
environmental effects of extracting and using mineral resources, case studies Food resources:
World food problems, changes caused by agriculture and overgrazing, effects of modern agriculture,
fertilizer-pesticide problems, water logging, salinity, case studies Energy resources: Growing
energy needs, renewable and non renewable energy sources, use of alternate energy sources.
Energy Conversion processes Biogas production and uses, anaerobic digestion; case studies
Land resources: Land as a resource, land degradation, man induced landslides, soil erosion
and desertification role of an individual in conservation of natural resources Equitable use
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Syllabus xi
of resources for sustainable lifestyles. Introduction to Environmental Biochemistry: Proteins

Biochemical degradation of pollutants, Bioconversion of pollutants.
Field study of local area to document environmental assets river/forest/grassland/hill/mountain.
UNIT IVSocial Issues and the Environment

From unsustainable to sustainable development urban problems related to energy water conservation, rain water harvesting, watershed management resettlement and rehabilitation of people;
its problems and concerns, case studies role of non-governmental organization- environmental
ethics: Issues and possible solutions 12 Principles of green chemistry- nuclear accidents and
holocaust, case studies. wasteland reclamation consumerism and waste products environment
production act Air act Water act Wildlife protection act Forest conservation act The
Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules; 1998 and amendments- scheme of labeling
of environmentally friendly products (Ecomark). enforcement machinery involved in environmental
legislation- central and state pollution control boards- disaster management: floods, earthquake,
cyclone and landslides. Public awareness.
UNIT VHuman Population and the Environment

Population growth, variation among nations population explosion family welfare programme
environment and human health human rights value education HIV/AIDS women and
child welfare Environmental impact analysis (EIA)- -GIS-remote sensing-role of information
technology in environment and human health Case studies.
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CONTENTS
Preface
Acknowledgements
About the Author
Syllabus
v
vii
ix
x
1. Environment, Ecosystems and Biodiversity

1.1 Environment Studies: Definition, Scope and Importance

1.2 Hazard and Risk
1.3 Ecosystems

1.4 Structural Aspects of Ecosystems

1.5 Function of Ecosystems

1.6 Major Ecosystem Types
1.7 Biodiversity

1.8 Levels (Types) of Biodiversity

1.9 Values (Importance) of Biodiversity
1.10 Classification of Species
1.11 Hot Spots of Biodiversity
1.12 Red List of Threatened Species (Red Data Book)
1.13 India As a Mega Diversity Nation
1.14 Biogeographical Classification of India
1.15 Threats to Biodiversity
1.16 Conservation of Biodiversity
Anna University Questions
1
1
2
6
6
7
15
22
22
22
24
25
26
27
28
30
31
34
2. Pollution
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Atmosphere

2.3 Oxygen and Ozone Chemistry

2.4 Air Pollution
2.5 Smog

2.6 Acid Rain

2.7 Particulate Pollution

2.8 Air Pollution Control Devices

2.9 Emission Control of NOx, CO, HC
2.10 Indoor Air Pollution
2.11 Air Pollution Case Study
2.12 Water Pollution
2.13 Waste Water Treatment
2.14 Water Pollution Case Studies
35
35
36
38
40
42
44
45
46
48
48
49
49
54
56
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xiv Contents
2.15 Soil Pollution

2.16 Solid Waste Management
2.17 Marine Pollution
2.18 Noise Pollution
2.19 Thermal Pollution
2.20 Nuclear Hazards
2.21 Nuclear Hazards Case Studies
2.22 Role of an Individual In Prevention of Pollution
57
58
60
61
62
65
66
68
69
3. Natural Resources
3.1 Introduction

3.2 Forest Resources

3.2 Water Resources

3.3 Mineral Resources

3.4 Food Resources

3.5 Land Resources

3.6 Energy Resources

3.7 Equitable Use of Resources for Sustainable Lifestyles

3.8 Environmental Biochemistry
71
71
72
74
81
83
87
92
100
100
102
4. Social Issues and the Environment

4.1 Sustainable Development

4.2 Urban Problems Related to Energy

4.3 Water Conservation

4.4 Watershed Management

4.5 Resettlement And Rehabilitation Issues

4.6 Role of NGO

4.7 Environmental EthicsIssues And Possible Solutions

4.8 12 Principles Of Green Chemistry

4.9 Climate Change
4.10 Waste Land Reclamation
4.11 Consumerism And Waste Products
4.12 Environmental Legislation
4.13 Enforcement Machinery Involved in Environmental Legislation
4.14 Environmental Impact Analysis/Assessment
4.15 Ecomark
4.16 Diaster Management
4.17 Floods
4.18 Earth Quake
4.19 Cyclones
4.20 Tsunami
103
103
104
104
106
107
108
108
109
109
111
112
113
118
119
120
120
122
123
125
126
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Contents xv
4.21 Landslides
4.22 Public Awareness
128
128
129
5. Human Population and the Environment

5.1 Population

5.2 Population Characteristics

5.3 Variation of Population Among Nations

5.4 Population Explosion

5.5 Environment and Human Health

5.6 Family Planning

5.7 Women and Child Welfare

5.8 HIV/AIDS

5.9 Human Rights
5.10 Value Education
5.11 Environmental Impact Analysis/Assessment
5.12 Role of Information Technology in Environment and Human Health
131
131
132
134
137
138
139
140
142
144
145
146
146
149
Appendix 151
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Unit
ENVIRONMENT,
ECOSYSTEMS AND
BIODIVERSITY
SYLLABUS
Definition, scope and importance of Risk and hazards; Chemical hazards, Physical
hazards, Biological hazards in the environment concept of an ecosystem structure
and function of an ecosystem producers, consumers and decomposers-Oxygen
cycle and Nitrogen cycle energy flow in the ecosystem ecological succession
processes Introduction, types,
Characteristic features, structure and function of the (a) forest ecosystem (b) grassland
ecosystem (c) desert ecosystem (d) aquatic ecosystems (ponds, streams, lakes,
rivers, oceans, estuaries) Introduction to biodiversity definition: genetic, species and
ecosystem diversity biogeographical classification of India value of biodiversity:
consumptive use, productive use, social, ethical, aesthetic and option values
Biodiversity at global, national and local levels India as a mega-diversity nation
hot-spots of biodiversity threats to biodiversity: habitat loss, poaching of wildlife,
man-wildlife conflicts endangered and endemic species of India conservation of
biodiversity: In-situ and ex-situ conservation of biodiversity.
Field study of common plants, insects, birds
Field study of simple ecosystems pond, river, hill slopes, etc.
1.1 |ENVIRONMENT STUDIES: DEFINITION, SCOPE AND

IMPORTANCE
The word Environment is derived from the French word Environ which means surrounding.
Environment is the sum total of inter relationships that exists among living organisms and non
living things like air, water and land.
Environmental science is an interdisciplinary area that integrates physical, chemical and biological sciences. It deals with the study of the environment, problems faced by the environment
and their solutions.
Rapidly growing human population, technological development and indiscriminate use of natural
resources have resulted in the degradation of environment. Thus, the need and scope of environmental studies have become more significant in the current scenario due to the following reasons:
Environment issues being of international importance
Environment issues like global warming and ozone depletion, loss of biodiversity etc are
not merely national issues but are international issues. International efforts and cooperation
are required to address these problems.
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2 Environmental Science and Engineering
Problems associated with industrialization and development

Rapid growth of science and technology resulted in industrialization. This rapid industrialization has caused severe environmental damage due to its activities.
Population explosion
Total world population has crossed 7 billion. This population explosion will cause depletion
of all natural resources.
Natural resources: Conservation and management
Due to over exploitation, many natural resources are being depleted at an alarming rate.
Proper steps have to be taken for their preservation.
Ecology and Biodiversity
Diverse ecosystem of earth is affected by human activities. Environmental education helps
to create awareness among people.
Environmental pollution and control
Human activities have resulted in wide spread pollution of land, water and air. Irrecoverable
damage to environment can happen if pollution is not checked.
Methods to propagate environmental awareness

Among students through education: Schools, colleges, universities etc
Among people through mass-media:Through articles, environmental rallies, movies,
documentaries, street plays, TV serials.
Among the planners, decision-makers and leaders:Orientation, training through workshops
and training programs.
Publication of environment-related resource material:in the form of books, booklets or
pamphlets.
World Environment Dayis celebrated every year on June 5th to create a global awareness
for environmental protection. The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was
organized from 516 June 1972 in Stockholm, Sweeden. This was the first attempt made by
global community to deliberate on environmental protection. Since 1972, World Environment
Day is celebrated on June 5th.
Name
Date
World water day
March 22
Earth day
April 22
World environment day
June 5
World population day
July 11
1.2 | HAZARD AND RISK

Hazards and risks are often mentioned in relation to occupational safety and health. These are
defined as the following.
A Hazard is a potential source of harm or adverse health effect on a person or persons.
Hazard can be an object or a situation which may cause harm. Improper earthing or wiring,
non-uniform pavements, unguarded machinery, a fire, an explosion and a sudden escape of toxic
gas etc are hazards.
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Environment, Ecosystems and Biodiversity 3
Examples of Hazards and Their Effects:
Workplace Hazard
Example of Hazard
Example of Harm Caused
Thing
Knife
Cut
Substance
Benzene
Leukemia
Material
Asbestos
Mesothelioma
Source of Energy
Electricity
Shock, electrocution
Condition
Wet floor
Slips, falls
Process
Welding
Metal fume fever
Practice
Hard rock mining
Silicosis
A risk is chance or probability that a person may be harmed or suffers adverse health effects
if exposed to a hazard. Risk can be high or negligible.
Factors that influence the degree of risk include:
The amount of exposure of a person to a hazardous thing or condition,
The way person is exposed (e.g., breathing in a vapour, skin contact), and
The severity of the effects under the conditions of exposure.
Risk = hazard + exposure
Though, the terms Hazard and Risk are often used interchangeably, they are not essentially the
same. For example, water spill in a room can result in a slipping hazard to people who enters
the room. If access to that area is prevented by a physical barrier (or wet floor board) then the
hazard would remain though the risk would be minimised.
Types of hazards
Environmental hazards are of the following types
1. Chemical hazards
2. Physical hazards
3. Biological hazards or bio-hazards
1. Chemical hazards in the environment

A chemical hazard is any substance that can cause harm, primarily to people. It includes chemical accidents like explosions, leakage, fire etc. Severity of the chemical hazard depends upon:
Concentration of the chemical.
Physical state of the chemical (solid, liquid, gas).
Mode (inhalation, swallowing, skin contact etc) and duration of exposure.
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Classification of chemical hazards

a) Explosives:
Explosive are chemicals that result in a sudden, instantaneous release of pressure, gas, and heat
when subjected to sudden shock, pressure, or high temperature.
Examples of explosive and potentially explosive chemicals include:
Compounds containing the functional groups azide, nitro, peroxide etc. Eg: Nitrocellulose,
Trinitrotoluene (TNT).
b) Flammable and Combustible Liquids:
Flammable Liquid: A liquid having a flash point below 100F (38C)
Eg: Acetaldehyde, ethyl ether, acetone, benzene, ethyl alcohol.
Combustible Liquid: A liquid having a flash point above 100F (38C).
Eg: Kerosene, nitrobenzene.
c) Poisons:
A poison is a substance that is capable of causing the illness or death of a living organism if
swallowed, breathed in, or absorbed through the skin. Some poisons causes instantaneous harm
while some other poisons (heavy metals, pesticides) accumulate inside the body or a period of
time and can result in slow death
Eg: Potassium cyanide, methyl alcohol, carbon monoxide.
d) Corrosive:
A corrosive is a chemical that can result in visible destruction of living tissues (often irreversible
destruction) by chemical action at the site of contact.
Eg: Concentrated mineral acids, bases etc.
Suggestions to minimize risks due to chemical hazards

Use the smallest quantity of the chemical possible (explosives, poisons etc).
Always wear appropriate gloves, lab coat or apron, safety goggles or explosion-proof shields
when working with potentially explosive chemicals.
Corrosive chemicals should be handled in a fume hood to avoid breathing corrosive vapors
and gases.
Inflammable liquids when used, keep containers away from open flames.
Properly dispose of any hazardous waste according to the instructions.
2. Physical hazards in the environment

A physical hazard is defined as some factor present in the environment that can cause harm to
the body without necessarily touching it. They can be detected through your sense of touch or
sight. These hazards arise at work due to the influence of various forms of energy. They include
noise, temperature, lighting, vibration and radiation. These also include natural disaster events
such as earthquakes, tornadoes, volcanoes, blizzards, landslides and droughts.
Physical hazards and their health effects
Sl No
Physical hazard
Health effect
1.
UV radiations
Can damage DNA and can cause skin cancer and cataract.
2.
Noise
Painful and irreparable damage to ear. Can cause elevation in blood pressure, heart beat etc.
3.
Temperature
High temperature can lead to dizziness, dehydration, head

ache etc.
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3. Biological hazards in the environment

Biological hazards are of biological origin. It includes organisms, or products from an organism,
that could be harmful to humans. They include pathogenic bacteria, viruses and parasites, and
also toxins (poisons) that are produced by organisms. Biological hazards are the cause of the
majority of human diseases.
Bacteria: Cholera, tuberculosis, leprosy and many diarrhoeal diseases
Viruses: Hepatitis B and C, HIV, measles and polio
Parasites: Lice, worms etc
Biological agents enter the body when they are inhaled, eaten (ingested) or absorbed. Once inside
the body, these infectious agents can multiply quickly and may be passed from one person to
another.
Controlling biological hazards

The best way to prevent illness is to reduce or eliminate exposure to biological agents. Some
methods to reduce biological hazards are
Practice good personal hygiene (e.g. regular hand washing)

Have properly sterilized food, water etc.
Clean and disinfect work surfaces often.
Injury and wounds must be given first aid and given immediate medical attention to
minimize the chance of infection.
Examples of Environmental Health Hazards by type of Agent
Physical
Chemical
Biological
Noise
Solvents
Animals (rodents, wild
Lighting
Acids/bases
animals, pets)
Radiation
Metals (Pb, Cd, Hg)
Bacteria
Vibration
Poisons
Viruses
Temperature
Dusts (asbestos, silica, wood)
Spores/fungi
Electricity
Pesticides
Pests
Air pollutants/particulates
Insects
Principles of hazard management
Chapter-01.indd 5
Establish the context and identify the hazard

Hazard/risk analysis and evaluation
Communicate and consult
Treat the hazard/risk
Monitoring and reviewing
Record keeping
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1.3 |ECOSYSTEMS
The term Ecology is derived from the Greek words Oikos (home) + logos (study). Ecology deals
with the study of organisms in their natural habitat and their interactions with their surroundings.
The surroundings consists of other living organisms (biotic) and physical (abiotic) components.
Ecology: The study of plants and animals in their relation to each other and with their environment.
Ecology is the study of ecosystems.
Ecosystem: An ecosystem is a group of biotic communities or species interacting with one
another and with their non-living environment exchanging energy and matter.
Types of Ecosystem:
a) Natural Ecosystems:
These ecosystems are capable of operating and maintaining themselves under natural conditions.
A classification based on their habitat can further be made:
Terrestrial ecosystems: This ecosystem is related to land and the type of vegetation. Eg:
forest, grassland and desert.
Aquatic ecosystems: This ecosystem is related to water. It is further classified into two
types based on salt content.
a) Fresh water ecosystem:
Running water ecosystem. Eg: River, streams.
Standing water ecosystem: Eg: Pond, lake.
b) Marine ecosystem:
Eg: ocean, sea or estuary.
b) Artificial Ecosystem:
These are maintained by man. These are manipulated by man for different purposes, e.g., croplands, artificial lakes and reservoirs, townships and cities.
1.4 | STRUCTURAL ASPECTS OF ECOSYSTEMS

Two major structural components of ecosystem are
(i) Abiotic components
(ii) Biotic components
i) Abiotic components
Non-living components (physical and chemical) of an ecosystem collectively are called abiotic
components.
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Main abiotic factors of the ecosystem are include

Climatic factors: solar radiation, temperature, wind, water currents, rainfall.
Physical factors: Light, fire, pressure, geomagnetism
Chemical factors: Acidity, inorganic salts.
ii) Biotic components
Living organisms or living members in an ecosystem form biotic components. It includes plants,
animals and microorganisms present in an ecosystem.
These consists of three types (a) producers, (b) consumers, and (c) decomposers or reducers
(a) Producers
Producers are mainly the green plants, which can synthesize their own food by the process of
photosynthesis. In the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll, green plants covert CO2 and water
into starch (food). They are also known as photo autotrophs..
Certain microorganisms produce food by the oxidation of certain chemicals in the absence of
sunlight. They are known as chemosynthetic organisms or chemo-autotrophs.
(b) Consumers
Consumers are organisms which cannot prepare their own food but depend on producers or other
organisms for food.
Primary consumers or Herbivores:They feed directly on green plants. They are also known
as plant eaters. Eg. rabbit, deer, sheep, insect
Secondary consumers or carnivores: They feed on herbivores, hence called secondary consumers.
Eg. small fish, frog.
Omnivores feed on both plants and animals. Eg. humans, rat, fox, many birds.
Tertiary consumers: They feed on secondary consumers Eg. big fish, snake.
Detritivores (Detritus feeders or Saprotrophs): They feed on dead organisms, plant or animal
matter. Eg. Earth worms, fungus, termites, ants etc
(c) Decomposers
Decomposers derive their nutrition by decaying dead plants and animals. They break down the
complex organic molecules to simpler molecules. Eg: Various bacteria and fungi
1.5 | FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEMS

Major functions of ecosystems are the following:
(i) Food chain, food webs and trophic structure (Ecological pyramids)
(ii) Energy flow in ecosystem
(iii) Cycling of nutrients (Biogeochemical cycles)
(iv) Primary and Secondary production
(v) Ecosystem development and regulation
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1.5.1 Food chains, food webs and ecological pyramids

FOOD CHAIN
The transfer of energy within the ecosystem (among various levels) by a sequence of eating and
being eaten is known as food chain.
Some common examples of simple food chains are:
(i) Grass grasshopper Frog Snake Hawk (Grassland ecosystem)
(ii) Phytoplanktons Zoo plankton small fish Large fish (Marine ecosystem)
Some features of food chain:
Involves nutritive interaction between the various biotic components of an ecosystem.

A food chain is always straight (unidirectional flow of energy).
Usually 80 to 90% of potential energy is lost as heat when energy is transferred from one
level to another.
Shorter food chains provide greater available energy and vice-versa.
Most food chains have no more than four or five links.
If any of the intermediate steps in the food chain is removed, other succeeding links of
food chain will be affected.
Types of food chain

I. Grazing food chain: Here, green plants (primary producers) are eaten grazing animals
and they are further eaten by carnivores. This type is food chain is found common in grassland
ecosystem and grassland ecosystem.
Eg: Grass Rabbit Fox
II. Detritus food chain: It starts with dead organic matter. Organic matter is broken down into
simple nutrients by bacteria and fungi.
Eg: Leaf litter algae crabs small carnivorous fish large carnivorous fish
(Pond ecosystem)
Eg: Dead organic matter fungi bacteria (Forest ecosystem)
III. Parasitic food chain:In parasitic food chain, producer or consumer has parasites. These
parasites extract food from them. However, the energy transfer through this kind of food chain
is not significant.
Producer Herbivores Parasite Hyperparasites
Trees Fruit eating birds Lice and bugs Bacteria and fungi
FOOD WEBS
Many organisms will depend upon more than one source of food. Most consumers feed on more
than one type of organism and most organism are eaten by more than one type of consumer.
A network of food chains which are interconnected is called food web. This is also called the
web of life as it shows many interrelationships in nature.
Significance of food chain and food web

Food chain/web explains the feeding relationships and interaction between organisms in
any ecosystem.
To understand the energy flow mechanism and matter circulation in ecosystems.
To track movement of toxic substances and the problem of Biological magnification in
the ecosystem.
To analyse the link between biological diversity and stability of an ecosystem.
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Food Chains and Food Webs- A Comparison
Food Chain
Food Web
1. Simple structure
1. Quite complex structure
2.Unidirectional
2. Multi directional
3. Number of organisms are less
3. Number of organisms are large.
4.Food chain is a single strand of different

levels of energy transfers.
4.Food web will show many food chains in a

particular ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
Ecological pyramid is a graphic representation of trophic levels and functions of an ecosystem.
Ecosystem characteristics such as number, energy and biomass show a regular decrease as it
moves to next trophic level and the figure obtained is a pyramid. Most ecological pyramids begin
at the bottomwith the producers and proceed through different trophic levels.
Typical ecological pyramid

Ecological pyramids are of three general types as under:
(i) Pyramid of numbers: It shows the number of individual organisms at each trophic levels.
(ii) Pyramid of energy: It shows the rate of energy flow and/or productivity at successive
trophic levels.
(iii) Pyramid of biomass: It shows the total biomass present in each tropic level in the food
chain.
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i) Pyramid of numbers
Pyramids of numbers show the relationship between producers, herbivores and carnivores at
successive trophic levels in terms or their numbers. Shape of the pyramid varies from ecosystem
to ecosystem as the number of organisms at each level is variable.
Upright, partly upright and inverted are the three types of pyramid of numbers. An aquatic
ecosystem is an example of an upright pyramid where the number of organisms becomes lesser
and lesser higher up the pyramid. A forest ecosystem is an example of a partially upright pyramid,
as fewer producers support more primary consumers, but there are less secondary and tertiary
consumers. An inverted pyramid of numbers is one where the numbers of organisms are higher
on the top of the pyramid. Parasitic food chain shows inverted pyramid of number.
Pyramid of numbers in grassland ecosystem

ii) Pyramid of energy
Pyramid of energy represents graphically the amount of energy consumed by each tropic level.
It shows the energy flow in the ecosystem. An energy pyramid is always upright.
In accordance to second law of thermodynamics, no organism obtains 100% of energy from
the plant or animal that it eats. Infact, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in the form
of heat, respiration etc. Only 10% of the energy passes on to the next higher level.
Features:
Pyramid of energy is always upright and vertical.
Energy flow in different trophic levels can be easily understood with the help of an energy pyramid.
From the energy pyramid it is clear that the total energy is minimum at the highest trophic
level and is maximum at the lowest trophic level.
A lot of energy is lost in the form of heat and respiration etc between energy levels.
Pyramid of energy
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iii) Pyramid of biomass

Biomass is renewable organic (living) material. A pyramid of biomass is a graphical representation of the amount in biomass at different trophic levels. It is measured in grams per meter2, or
calories per meter2. It shows the decrease in biomass in each tropical level from base to apex.
There are two types of biomass pyramids: upright and inverted. An upright pyramid is one
where the combined weight of the producers is larger than the combined weight of consumers.
An example is a forest ecosystem. An inverted pyramid is one where the combined weight of
producers is smaller than the combined weight of consumers. An example is an aquatic ecosystem.
Pyramid of biomass
1.5.2 Energy flow in the ecosystem

Energy is the most essential requirement for all living organisms. Sun is the primary source of
energy. Producers convert a part of solar energy into chemical energy which is stored in plant
tissues. Herbivores consume plants and a part of energy is transferred to their body. Later, secondary consumers obtain a part of this energy when they feed on primary consumers. On the
death of organism, decomposers act on the dead bodies and recycle the essential nutrients.
As energy flows through the food chain, lot of energy is lost at every trophic level. The loss of
energy takes place through respiration, loss of energy in movement, hunting and other activities.
It is estimated that nearly 90% energy is lost at every energy level. That is, the energy transferred
from one trophic level to the other is only about 10% (10% law).
The flow of energy in an ecosystem is always unidirectional. This means that it flows from
the producer level to the consumer level and never in the reverse direction. This flow of energy
is governed by two laws of Thermodynamics.
Ist law of Thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but it
can be transformed from one form to another.
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IInd law of Thermodynamics states that a part of energy is lost when it is transferred from
one level to another.
1.5.3 Nutrient cycles (Biogeochemical cycles)

Elements that are essential for survival of both plants and animals are called nutrients.
1. Macronutrients: Elements that are required in large amounts
Eg: Carbon, Oxygen, Calcium, Magnesium, Phosphorus
2. Micronutrients: Elements that are needed in small amounts
Eg: Zinc, Copper, Cobalt, Selenium
Nutrients are always circulated to and fro within the environment. This cyclic exchange of
nutrient material between the living organisms and their non-living environment is called biogeochemical cycle.
The common biogeochemical cycles are Hydrological cycle or water cycle, Carbon cycle,
Oxygen cycle, Nitrogen cycle, Phosphorus cycle.
Some are gaseous cycles like carbon (as carbon dioxide), oxygen, nitrogen, etc. A few are
sedimentary cycles like sulphur, phosphorus, etc.
Oxygen cycle
Atmospheric oxygen is the major source of oxygen (21% of air). Oxygen is taken up by plants
and animals from the air during respiration. The plants return oxygen to the atmosphere during
photosynthesis. So equilibrium is maintained. Oxygen Cycle and Carbon Cycle are related.
Oxygen removal:
Respiration by producers, consumers and decomposers remove oxygen from the atmosphere.
Oxygen gets removed from the atmosphere chemically by reacting with rocks and minerals
exposed by weathering.
Oxygen is also removed during the formation of ozone in the upper atmosphere.
3O2 2O3
Oxygen supply:
Oxygen is released into the atmosphere during photosynthesis.
Oxygen is formed in the atmosphere during the decomposition of ozone

2O3 3O2
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Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere as N2 (78% volume) which acts as the reservoir of nitrogen.
Atmospheric nitrogen cannot be used by plants and animals directly. It has to converted to salts
like nitrates or ammonium for absorption. This is known as nitrogen fixation. This happens by
the physical process of lightening or biologically by some bacteria and/or cyanobacteria (blue
green algae). Nitrogen compounds are used for the biosynthesis of amino acids, proteins, vitamins etc. and passes through the food chain. When the organism dies, the organic nitrogen in
dead tissues are decomposed by ammonifying and nitrifying bacteria which convert them into
ammonia, nitrites and nitrates, which are again used by plants. Certain bacteria convert nitrates
into molecular nitrogen.
Various steps in nitrogen cycle

Atmospheric nitrogen fixation by lightning: Due to high temperature developed due to lightning,
nitrogen to combine with oxygen in the air forming oxides of nitrogen. These dissolve in rain
water, forming nitrates reaching earth.
Biological nitrogen fixation by certain microbes: Certain micro organisms converts atmospheric
nitrogen into ammonia by using enzyme nitrogenase. This is known as biological nitrogen fixation.
Eg: Rhizobium and Nitrogen-fixing cyano bacteria
Industrial Fixation: Use of nitrogen rich fertilizers
Ammonification: Bacteria, or fungi, convert the organic nitrogen (dead remains of organisms)
into ammonium (NH4+). Eg: Bacillus
Nitrification: Biological oxidation of ammonia with oxygen into nitrite (NO2) followed by the
oxidation of these nitrites into nitrates (NO3). Eg: Nitrobactor
Denitrification: Denitrification is the reduction of nitrates back into nitrogen gas (N2) by bacteria.
Eg: Pseudomonas and clostridium.
1.5.4 Ecosystem productivity

Primary production
Primary productivity of an ecosystem is defined as the rate at which incident solar energy is
converted into food (starch) by photosynthesis. To a lesser extend primary production can happen
in the absence of sunlight by chemosynthesis.
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Secondary production
The amount of food stored by the consumers is known as secondary production. A part of this
energy stored is transmitted to the next trophic level.
1.5.5 Ecological succession

Ecological succession is defined as the orderly changes that happens in a community structure
and function over a period of time. Quite often it is observed that one type of community is
totally replaced by another over a period of time. In other words, a community evolves slowly
from a simple community to a much complex community.
The community which established first is known as pioneer community. The communities
which are transitory and undergoing changes are known as Seral stages or seres. The final and
mature community established at the end is known as climax community.
Types of ecological succession

Primary succession: It involves the gradual establishment of biotic communities on a lifeless ground.
a) Hydrach: Establishment starts in a water body like pond or lake. This type of succession
begins with the formation of colonies of phytoplankton.
b) Xerach: Establishment starts in dry area where soil is devoid of water and minerals. Usually
this begins with the formation of lichen on the surface of rocks.
Secondary succession: This involves the establishment of biotic communities in an area, where
some type of biotic community is already present.
Process of Succession
The process of succession takes place in a systematic order of steps as follows:
(i) Nudation: It is the formation of a bare area without any life form. This bare area may be
created due to landslides, volcanic eruption, overgrazing, agricultural/ industrial activities
etc.
(ii) Invasion: Nudation is followed by invasion. It is the successful establishment of one or
more species on a bare area. Seeds, spores etc are carried by wind, water, insects or birds.
These seeds germinate and small plants begin to grow. Slowly, these pioneer species increase
in number and form groups.
(iii) Competition: Competition results when the number of individuals increases. Competition
can be between different species or within the same species. Competition happens for
space, water and nutrition. Survival of the fittest takes place.
(iv) Reaction: Due to the influence of the environment, some modification in the existing species
will be created. The available resources are suitable for certain species and unsuitable for
some other species. This reaction will result in the replacement of some species by another
leading to several seral communities.
(v) Stabilization: This is also known as the climax where the final stable community is formed.
It may take several years to attain a stable community.
Importance of ecological sucession

It provides information, how smaller community develop into a climax community. Growth
rate of one or more species can be suitably checked by adjusting various environmental
parameters.
It helps in afforestation and forest management programs.
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1.6 | MAJOR ECOSYSTEM TYPES

The major types of ecosystem are
a) Terrestrial ecosystem: This is an ecosystem found only on landforms. Example: Forest,
grassland, desert ecosystem.
b) Aquatic ecosystem: It is an ecosystem in a body of water. Example: Fresh water ecosystem
(pond, lake, stream, river etc), marine ecosystem (estuartine, ocean etc)
1.6.1 Forest ecosystem

Forest ecosystem predominantly consists of trees, along with herbs, shrubs, creepers, mosses,
lichens, bacteria etc. Wide variety of animals and birds are also seen.
Depending upon the prevailing climatic conditions forests can be of various types
a) Tropical Rain Forests: They are evergreen forests found near the equator (tropics). These
forests are found in areas which are characterized by high temperature, high humidity and
high rainfall.
b) Tropical deciduous forests: These forests are found a little away from the equator and
are characterized by a warm climate the year round. Different types of deciduous trees are
found here, which lose their leaves during dry season.
c) Tropical scrub forests: They are found in areas where the dry season is even longer. Here
there are small deciduous trees and shrubs.
d) Temperate rain forests: They are found in temperate areas with adequate rainfall. These
are dominated by coniferous trees like pines, firs, redwoods etc.
e) Temperate deciduous forests: They are found in areas with moderate temperatures.
1. Abiotic components (Non-Living Components)

Abiotic components of forest eco system include basic inorganic and organic compounds of the
environment or habitat of the organism.
a) Inorganic Components: Inorganic components of an ecosystem are carbon dioxide, oxygen,
water, nitrogen, calcium etc. Most of them are involved in matter cycles (biogeochemical
cycles).
b) Organic Components: Organic components of an ecosystem are proteins, carbohydrates;
lipids, amino acids etc. All of these are synthesized by the biota (flora and fauna) of an
ecosystem and are reached back to ecosystem as their wastes, dead remains, etc.
c) Other physical factors: Climate, temperature, light, soil etc., are other abiotic components
of the eco-system.
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2. Biotic Substances (Living Components)

a) Producers
Producers include green plants like herbs, shrubs and trees. They prepare food (starch) from
water and CO2 in presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. Nature and number of plants associated
may vary according to the location.
Examples: Grass, trees etc.
b) Consumers
A)Herbivores (plant eaters): Herbivores feed directly on producers and hence also known
as primary consumers. Examples: rabbit, deer, squirrel, insects.
B)Carnivores (meat eaters): They feed on other herbivores. If they feed on herbivores they
are known as secondary consumers. Example: frog, fox. If they feed on other secondary
consumers they are known as tertiary consumers. Example: snake, lion, tiger.
c) Decomposers
Decomposers break down complex compounds present in dead tissues of producers and consumers into simple substances. These simple compounds can be easily consumed by green plants.
Example: earthworms, bacteria, fungi etc.
1.6.2 Grassland ecosystem

In Grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses. Grasslands are distributed all
over the globe. It occupies 20% of earths surface. Grasslands often occur in areas with annual
precipitation between 60cm and 150 cm and average mean annual temperatures ranges from
5 and 20C.
Tropical grassland in Africa: Savannah. Temperate grassland: US and Canada Prairies,
South America Pampas, Africa Velds, Europe and Asia Steppes.

Abiotic components of grassland ecosystem include basic inorganic and organic compounds of
the environment or habitat of the organism.
(a) Inorganic Components: Inorganic components of an ecosystem are oxygen, carbon dioxide,
water, nitrogen, calcium, phosphate etc.
(b) Organic Components: Organic components of an ecosystem are proteins, carbohydrates;
lipids and amino acids.
(c) Phyical factors: Climate, temperature, sunlight, soil etc. form other abiotic components of
the eco-system.
2. Biotic components (Living Components)

a) Producers
Primary producers are herbs and shrubs. Isolated trees are also found. They prepare food (starch)
from water and CO2 in presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
Food production is much less when compared to a forest ecosystem.
b) Consumers
A)Herbivores (plant eaters): Herbivores feed directly on producers and hence also known
as primary consumers. They include small insects, deer, rabbit, hare etc.
B)Carnivores (meat eaters): Carnivores feed on other herbivores. If they feed on herbivores
they are known as secondary consumers. These are lizards, snakes, fox, jackal etc. Tertiary
consumers like eagles, vultures are also found in grasslands.
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c) Decomposers
Decomposers break down complex organic compounds present in the dead organisms to simple
substances which are easily absorbed by green plants. Decomposers include earthworms, bacteria,
fungi etc.
A typical grassland food chain:
Grass (producer) Rabbit (herbivore) Jackal (carnivore)
1.6.3 Desert ecosystem

A desert biome is one that receives less than 25 cm of annual precipitation. Nearly a third of
the earths surface (land) are covered by deserts
Deserts are classified into two.
a) Hot and dry: Temperature exhibit daily extreme because. Days are too hot and nights are
cold. Example: Sahara.
b) Cold: Cold deserts are covered in snow or ice. Example: Antartica
1. Abiotic Substances (Non-Living Components)

Abiotic substances of desert eco system include basic inorganic and organic compounds of the
(a) Inorganic Components: The inorganic components of an ecosystem are oxygen, carbon
dioxide, water, nitrogen, calcium, phosphate etc.
(b) Organic Components: The organic components of an ecosystem are proteins, carbohydrates;
lipids and amino acids. However, organic content is much lesser when compared to any
other ecosystem.
(c) Phyical factors: Climate, temperature, light, soil etc., are other abiotic components of the
eco-system.

a) Producers
Plants seen in the desert include date palms,cacti, thorn acacia, bushes etc. Xerophytic plants
like cacti store water in stems and have extended root system to get less water available. In many
desert plants, leaves are reduced to spines to reduce loss of water by transpiration. They prepare
food (starch) from water and CO2 in presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. Desert ecosystem
has low productivity.
b) Consumers
A) Herbivores (plant eaters): They feed directly on producers and hence also known as
primary consumers. They include small mammals like kangaroo rat, ground squirrels,
certain insects and Arabian camels.
B) Carnivores (meat eaters): They feed on other herbivores. If they feed on herbivores they
are known as secondary consumers. These are lizards, snakes like rattle snake, mongoose,
tarantula and scorpions. Some animals eat both plants and animals. These are called
omnivores. Some are called scavengers as they feed on dead animals.
c) Decomposers
Decomposers break down complex organic compounds present in the dead organisms to simple
substances. which are easily absorbed by green plants. Decomposers include earthworms, bacteria,
fungi etc. Very few decomposers are found due to poor vegetation.
A typical desert food chain:
Date palm (producer) Kangaroo rats (herbivore) Sandy cat (carnivore).
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1.6.4 Pond ecosystem

Ponds are shallowwater bodies (depth~12-15 feet). Sunlight rays can penetrate to the bottom of
the pond permitting the growth of plants there. Pond ecosystem is standing (lentic, not flowing)
fresh water ecosystem where various organisms dependent on each other in water environment
for their nutrients and survival. Ponds may be seasonal in nature i.e. receiving enough water
during rainy season and devoid of water in summer.
The functional components of a pond ecosystem

Abiotic substances of pond ecosystem include basic inorganic and organic compounds of the
(a) Inorganic Components: Inorganic components of pond ecosystem are oxygen, carbon
dioxide, water, nitrogen, salts etc.
(b) Organic Components: Organic components of pond ecosystem are proteins, carbohydrates;
(c) Phyical factors: Climate, temperature, sunlight, soil etc., are other abiotic components of
pond ecosystem.
2. Biotic components (Living Components)

a) Producers
Producers are of two types
larger rooted and floating vegetations together termed macrophytes
microscopic floating algae called phytoplanktons.
Phytoplanktons are available upto the depth of water where light penetrates. Example: filamentous alga like Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Oscillatoria and minute floating plants like Microcystis.
Macrophytes include plants like lotus, hydrilla etc.
b) Consumers
Consumers of pond ecosystem are heterotrophs which depend for their nutrition on other organisms. Zooplanktons are the primary consumers which feed on phytoplankton. Insects, beetles,
small fishes form secondary consumers as they feed on zooplanktons. Snakes, big fishes form
tertiary consumers.
c) Decomposers
Most of the decomposersof pond ecosystem are saprophytes but some parasites are also found.
Bacteria, fungi are decomposers. Generally the decomposers either live in the soil layer beneath
water or in the mud. They act on dead and decayed organic matter of plants and animals and
supply nutrients to the producers.
A typical pond food chain:
Phytoplankton (producer) Zooplankton (herbivore) Small fish Big fish
Snake (carnivore).
1.6.5 Lake Ecosystem

Lake is a much larger fresh water body when compared to pond. Depending upon the depth and
distance from the shore, lake consists of four different zones.
1. Littoral zone: The littoral zone is the part of the lake closest to the shore. It is a shallow
water zone where light penetrates to the bottom and supporting rooted plants and bottomdwelling animals.
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2. Limnetic zone: This is the zone next to littoral zone where moderate light penetration
takes place. Photosynthesis mainly occur in this zone.
3. Profundal zone: This is the zone where sunlight doesnt reach. It is dark and cold.
Photosynthesis does not occur here.
4. Benthic zone: The bottom most part of the lake is benthic zone. This zone provides many
nutrients to the plants because it has large volume of sediments and it contains many
nutrients. Here light penetration is negligible.
The functional components of a lake ecosystem
1. Abiotic Substances (Non-Living Components)

Abiotic substances of lake ecosystem include basic inorganic and organic compounds of the
water, nitrogen, salts etc.
(c) Phyical factors: Climate, temperature, sunlight, soil etc., are other abiotic components of
the ecosystem.

a) Producers
Producers are of two types
larger rooted and floating vegetations together termed macrophytes
microscopic floating algae called phytoplanktons.
Phytoplanktons are available upto the depth of water where light penetrates. Eg: filamentous
alga like Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Oscillatoria and minute floating plants like Microcystis. Macrophytes include plants like lotus, hydrilla etc. Floating plants are characterized by light hollow
stem, wax coated leaves.
b) Consumers
Consumers of pond (lake) ecosystem are heterotrophs which depend for their nutrition on
other organisms. Zooplanktons form primary consumers which feed on phytoplankton.
Nectic animals like insects, beetles, small fishes form secondary consumers as they feed on
zooplanktons. Benthic animals like snakes, big fishes live on nectic animals and are termed
tertiary consumers.
c) Decomposers
Bacteria, fungi are major decomposers. Generally the decomposers either live in the soil layer
beneath water or in the mud. They act on dead and decayed organic matter of plants and animals
and supply nutrients to the producers.
A typical lake food chain:
Phytoplankton (producer) Zooplankton (herbivore) Small fish Big fish Snake (carnivore).
1.6.6 River or stream ecosystem

River or stream is an example of running water fresh water ecosystem. River is a much larger
fresh water body when compared to stream. Due to continuous flow of water, dissolved oxygen
content is more.
The functional components of a river/stream ecosystem
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1. Abiotic componets (Non-Living Components)

Abiotic components of river ecosystem include basic inorganic and organic compounds of the
(c) Phyical factors: Climate, temperature, sunlight, soil, rock etc., are other abiotic components
of the ecosystem.

a) Producers
Producers are responsible for photosynthesis. These include phytoplanktons, algae, water grass,
aquatic mosses etc.
b) Consumers
Consumers of river ecosystem are heterotrophs which depend for their nutrition on other organisms. Zooplanktons form primary consumers which feed on phytoplankton. Nectic animals like
insects, beetles, small fishes form secondary consumers as they feed on zooplanktons. Benthic
animals like snakes, big fishes live on nectic animals and are termed tertiary consumers.
c) Decomposers
Bacteria, fungi are major decomposers. Generally the decomposers either live in the soil layer
beneath water or in the mud. They act on dead and decayed organic matter of plants and animals
and supply nutrients to the producers.
A typical river food chain:
Phytoplankton (producer) Zooplankton (herbivore) Small fish Big fish Snake (carnivore).
1.6.7 Marine (ocean) ecosystem

Ocean covers nearly two third of the earths surface. Ocean environment is characterized by its
high concentration of salts and minerals. Variety of plants and animals are seen in marine ecosystem. Based on the depth it can be classified into two
1. Pelagic (Open sea): This is upper part of the sea. They include most of the phytoplanktons.
Zooplanktons, small fishes etc are also seen in this region.
2. Benthic (Deep sea): This refers to the lower most and bottom part of the sea.
The functional components of a marine ecosystem

Abiotic components of river ecosystem include basic inorganic and organic compounds of the
of the ecosystem.
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a) Producers
Producers are responsible for photosynthesis. These include phytoplanktons (diatoms), algae,
water grass, sea weeds, aquatic mosses etc.
b) Consumers
Consumers of marine ecosystem are heterotrophs which depend for their nutrition on other
organisms. Zooplanktons form primary consumers which feed on phytoplankton. Crabs, small
fishes form secondary consumers as they feed on zooplanktons. Snakes, sharks feed on fishes
and are termed tertiary consumers.
c) Decomposers
Decomposers decompose dead organic matter. Bacteria, fungi are major decomposers. Generally
the decomposers either live in the soil layer beneath water or in the mud. They act on dead and
decayed organic matter of plants and animals and supply nutrients to the producers.
A typical marine food chain:
Phytoplankton (producer) Zooplankton (herbivore) Small fish Shark (carnivore)
1.6.8 Estuarine ecosystem

An estuary is formed where freshwater from rivers and streams flows into the ocean. In an
estuary, seawater is appreciably diluted. Estuary may be considered as a transitional zone between
fresh water and marine water. Estuary is rich in biodiversity.
The functional components of an estuarine ecosystem

Abiotic components of an estuarine ecosystem include basic inorganic and organic compounds
of the environment or habitat of the organism.
of the ecosystem.

a) Producers
Producers are responsible for photosynthesis. These include phytoplanktons (diatoms), algae,
water grass, sea weeds, aquatic mosses etc.
b) Consumers
Consumers of marine ecosystem are heterotrophs which depend for their nutrition on other
organisms. Zooplanktons form primary consumers which feed on phytoplankton. Crabs, small
fishes form secondary consumers as they feed on zooplanktons.
c) Decomposers
Decomposers decompose dead organic matter. Bacteria, fungi are major decomposers. They act
on dead and decayed organic matter of plants and animals and supply nutrients to the producers.
A typical estuarine food chain:
Phytoplankton (producer) Zooplankton (herbivore) Small fish crabs (carnivore)
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1.7 |BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is the diversity among various life forms. It is a measure of the variety in flora and
fauna present in various ecosystems. Biodiversity can refer to genetic variation, ecosystem variation,
or species variation. Thus, the variety and variability of life on earth is known as biodiversity.
1.8 | LEVELS (TYPES) OF BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity is generally classified into three types. These three levels results in the complexity
of life on earth.
1. Genetic diversity
Genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes present within the species. Genes are responsible for both the similarities and differences between the organisms.
Example:
Dog: pug, bull dog, Dalmatian, Alsatian etc.
Tiger: Royal Bengal tiger, Siberian tiger, White tiger etc.
Elephant: Indian elephant and African elephant.
Mango: Malgova, Alphonso, Banganapalle
Rice: Basmathi, Jaya, IR8
2. Species diversity:
Species is a group or class of animals or plants which have some common characteristics which
distinguish it from other groups or species. Species diversity refers to the variation among species in a community.
Example:
Plant species: Apple, mango, orange, wheat, rice etc.
Animal species: Lion, cow, deer, cat etc.
There are approximately 1.8 million different species classified on Earth. Of these nearly 1
million are insects. Every year, approximately 13,000 more species are being discovered.
3. Community or Ecosystem Diversity:

Ecosystem diversity is the variation in the biological communities in an ecosystem. There is a
variation in the structure and functions among different ecosystems. Example: Forest ecosystem
and pond ecosystem are quite diverse.
1.9 | VALUES (IMPORTANCE) OF BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity has great values in terms of its commercial utility, ecological services, social and
aesthetic values.
The values of biodiversity is classified into two categories, namely
1. Direct values
2. Indirect values
1. Direct values
These are the uses that can be directly related to biodiversity. The two types of direct values are
a) Consumptive use values
b) Productive use values
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a) Consumptive use values

The products due to biodiversity is consumed directly. Example: Food, fuel, drug etc.
Food: A variety of plants are consumed by human beings as food. Example: Rice, wheat, fruits,
pulses etc
Drugs and medicine:Drug Penicillin is obtained from Penicillium fungi, Quinine, drug for
malaria is obtained from plant cinchona, Anticancer drug Vinblastine is obtained from plant
periwinkle. Ayurveda uses many medicinal plants as drugs.
Fuel: Wood is widely used as fuel in many rural areas.
High consumptive use values on resources may lead to deforestation, loss of biodiversity etc.
b) Productive use values
Productive value refers to products which are commercially harvested or used and sold in a
market. These products may be derived from plants or animals.
Animal products
Animal product
Animal/Insect
Wool
Sheep
Musk
Musk deer
Honey
Honey bee
Silk
Silk worm
Many industries directly dependent upon biodiversity products.

Plant products
Plant product
Industry
Wood
Paper and pulp industry, plywood industry etc
Cotton
Textile industry
Fruits, vegetables
Food industry
2. Indirect values
Indirect values involve the functions performed by biodiversity which are not of any direct use.
It has many types like
a) Social values
c) Aesthetic values
e) Ecosystem service values
b) Ethical values
d) Optional values
f) Genetic value
a) Social values
Social values of biodiversity refer to the manner in which the bio-resources are used by the
society. Social value tends to vary from country to country as well as among cultures. These
are values associated with the social, religion, spiritual aspects of life. Some plants and animals
are considered holy.
Holy plants: Tulsi, lotus, Peepal, Neem etc
Holy animals: Cow, snake, peacock
Holy river: Ganga, Cauveri, Pamba
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b) Ethical values
Biodiversity lies in the understanding that humans are part of nature and one among the other
species. It involves ethical issues like All life must be preserved. Other animals must be allowed
to live on earth irrespective of whether a species may or may not be useful. The very existence
of different species in nature gives pleasure.
c) Aesthetic values
The beauty of the nature has aesthetic values. Most important aesthetic value of biodiversity
is eco-tourism. Eco-tourism facilitates the enjoyment of nature. It also generate many forms of
income and employment in the tourism sector.
d) Optional values
It is quite possible that many of the values of biodiversity are still unexplored. Optional values
include the potentials of biodiversity that are presently unknown and need to be explored. These
could be useful in future. It is quite possible that we may have potential cure for many diseases
like cancer, ebola, AIDS in the depths of sea or in a tropical rain forest.
e) Ecosystem service value
Ecosystems serve all living things in variety of ways. These comes ecosystem service value. It
include,
Air Purification: Trees helps purifying air by absorbing greenhouse gases. During
photosynthesis, trees absorb CO2, releasing O2, thus purifying the air.
Protection of water: Trees regulates and stabilizes water flow. It helps to replenish water table
and helps to increase water yield and quality: Example: coastal wet lands and mangroves.
Soil formatting and protection: Trees helps in the maintenance of soil quality. It also
helps to prevent soil erosion.
Nutrient cycling: Cycling of nutrients in the ecosystem
Food production: Production of food for all life forms.
Climate control: Forest plays an important role in checking global warming and hence
regulating the climate
f) Genetic value
Some ecosystems like rain forests are abundant in variety of flora and fauna. It can act as genetic
reservoirs from which seed and other materials can be obtained. Biodiversity can be used as a
gene pool for producing disease resistant, high yielding varieties. Greater the diversity among
flora and fauna, greater is the diversity in gene pool.
1.10 | CLASSIFICATION OF SPECIES

Conservation status of a species indicates whether the species still exists and how likely the
species is to disappear in the near future. Species are classified as follows.
Extinct species: A species is said to be extinct when it is not seen in the wild for 50 years
at a stretch. Example: Dodo, passenger pigeon, dinosaur, mammoth, saber-toothed tiger.
Endangered species: A species is said to be endangered when the number has been
reduced to a critical level or whose habitats have been drastically reduced. They can become
extinct when not protected and conserved. Example: Giant panda, Indian elephant, Royal
Bengal Tiger.
Critically endangered species: These are species which face extremely high risk of
extinction in immediate future. Example: Asiatic Cheetah
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Few endangered species of India
Species
Examples
Reptiles
Green sea turtle, Tortoise, Python
Birds
Peacock, Great Indian Hornbill, Pelican, Siberian White Crane
Carnivorous mammals
Indian wolf, red fox, royal Bengal tiger, lion, red panda, leopard,
striped hyena, desert cat
Primates
Capped monkey, golden monkey, nilgiri langur, hoolock gibbon
Plants
Many species of orchids
Endemic species: Species which are restricted to a particular area is called as endemic species.
Example: Nilgiri Tahr, Lion tailed macque.
Endemic flora in India:Sapria himalayana, Uvaria lurida, Nepenthes Khasiana, Pedicularis
perroter etc
Endemic fauna: Lion-tailed macque, Nilgiri leaf monkey, Brown palm civet, Nilgiri Tahr
Keystone Species:Species or set of species whose impact on its community or ecosystem is
much larger and more influential are termed as keystone species. Extinction of keystone species
may lead to the extinction of many other forms of life. Keystone species help to support the
ecosystem (entire community of life) of which they are a part.
In the African savanna (grassland), elephants are the key stone species as they shape their
environment. They destroy trees, making room for the grass species. Without elephants, much of
the savannah would turn into woodland or forest. Beaver, starfish are other examples.
Indicator Species: Species that serve as early warnings of damage to a community or ecosystem.
They are very sensitive and quickly respond to environmental change and are considered as
biological indicators. They give early indications that a habitat is suffering. Indicator species
are first to react to external influences such as water pollution, air pollution, or climate change.
Example: Presence or absence of trout (a kind of fish) species in water indicates the quality of
water. Stoneflies indicate high dissolved oxygen in water.
Native species:Species that are normally seen in a particular ecosystem. Species, which are
native to particular area.
Exotic or alien Species: Species that migrate or accidentally introduced into an ecosystem by
human beings.
1.11 | HOT SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY

Hot spots are areas that are rich in endemic species and containing high diversity of species
which are under threat.
Key criteria for determining Hot Spots are:
Presence of large number of endemic species. The region should contain 0.5% of plant
endemic species.
Degree of threat which is measured in terms of habitat loss (70% loss)
Around the world, at least 35 areas qualify under this definition. Two are present in India,
namely the Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats.
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1.11.1 Eastern Himalayas

Eastern Himalayas is the region comprising northeastern India, Nepal and Bhutan. This region
have very high mountain ranges, which include Mount Everest and K2, two biggest mountain
peaks in the world. Plants and animals are found even in high altitudes.
Biodiversity:
Plants: Of the estimated 10,000 species of plants in the Himalaya hotspot, about 3,160 are
endemic. Many rare plant species are found even in the highest reaches of the Himalayan
mountains. Large number of rare orchids are found in this region.
Birds: Nearly 1000 birds are found in this region, but only 15 are endemic.
Mammals: Nearly a dozen mammals are found to be endemic. Endemic species include golden
langur, the Himalayan tahr and Namadapha flying squirrel.
Reptiles and amphibians: Of 175 reptiles recorded, only 50 are endemic. Among 105 amphibians
known, more than 40 of which are endemic.
1.11.2 The Western Ghats

Western Ghats is a long mountain range running through the west coast of India. It covers the states
of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Goa, Maharastra and Gujarat extending upto 1600 kms length.
Western Ghats is considered as one of the top ten global biodiversity hot-spots. Due to their proximity
to the ocean they receive high rainfall. These regions have moist deciduous forest and rain forest. The
region shows high species diversity as well as high levels of endemism. The vegetation in this hotspot
originally extended over two lakh square kms. Currently, its been reduced to just 43,000 sq. km.
Biodiversity:
Plants: Western Ghats covers about five percent of Indias land but nearly 30% of plant species
(4,000 of 15,000 species) are found here. Nearly 1,800 of these are endemic to the region. Major
part of the worlds spices such as black pepper and cardamom are found in the Western Ghats.
Birds: The Western Ghats has over 450 species of birds (35% endemic).
Mammals: The Western Ghats has over 140 species of mammals (around 20% endemic).
Reptiles: The Western Ghats has over 260 species of reptiles (over 60% endemic).
1.12 |RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES (RED DATA BOOK)

Red Data Book is a state document established for documenting rare and endangered and threatened species of animals and plants. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN) publishes list.
The main objectives are
Identification and documentation of endangered species
Create awareness about the importance of threatened biodiversity
Defining conservation priorities and guiding conservation action
Species are classified by the IUCN Red List into nine groups according to rate of decline,
population size, area of geographic distribution etc.
Extinct (EX): No known individuals remaining.
Extinct in the wild (EW): Known only to survive in captivity like zoo etc. No animals
found free in wild.
Critically endangered (CR): Extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.
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Endangered (EN): High risk of extinction in the wild.

Vulnerable (VU): High risk of endangerment in the wild.
Near threatened (NT): Likely to become endangered in the near future.
Least concern (LC): Lowest or no risk.
Data deficient (DD): Not enough data to make an assessment of its risk of extinction.
Not evaluated (NE): Has not yet been evaluated against the criteria.
1.13 | INDIA AS A MEGA DIVERSITY NATION

India is one of the 12 mega biodiversity countries in the world. India is divided into 10 biogeographic regions. Diverse physical features and climatic situations have resulted in formation of
forests, grasslands, deserts, wetlands, coastal and marine ecosystems.
It is estimated that India ranks 10th among the plant rich countries of the world, 11th in terms
of number of endemic species of higher vertebrates and 6th among the centers of diversity and
origin of agricultural crops.
Species
Mammals
Number
Rank in the world
350
1,200
453
Plants
45,000
15
Ferns
1,022
Orchids
1,082
Insects
50,000
Butterflies and moths
13,000
Birds
Reptiles
It is estimated that the number of unknown species could be several times higher. Out of a
total of 35 biodiversity hot-spots in the world, India possesses two, one in the north-east Himalaya
region and one in the western ghats.
Reasons for India as a mega-diversity nation

1. Endemism
Species which are restricted only to a particular area are known as endemic. These species are
not found anywhere else. Unique climate and geographic features of a certain region make many
species endemic. India shows a good number of endemic species. About 4,900 species of flowering plants are endemic to the country. About 62% amphibians are endemic to India. Western
ghats are the site of maximum endemism
2. Centre of origin
Many species are known to have originated in India. Nearly 500 species of flowering plants
have their origin in India. Nearly 166 species of crop plants and 320 species of wild relatives
of cultivated crops originated in India.
3. Marine diversity
7500 km long coastline of our country exhibits a rich biodiversity. Mangroves, coral reefs back
waters etc, are found along the coastline. Different types of fishes, amphibians, mollusks, crustaceans are also found.
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4. Hot spots of biodiversity

Areas which exhibit high species richness as well as high species endemism are termed as hot
spots of biodiversity. There are 35 such hot spots of biodiversity in the world out of which two
are present in India, namely the Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats
1.14 | BIOGEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA

India is seventh largest country in the world and Asias second largest country. Though India
accounts to only 2 % of the total landmass of the world, it accounts for about 7% of the total
species in the world.
Biogeography refers to the study of distribution, evolution, dispersal and environmental relationship
of plants and animals. Biogeographic classification of India is the division of India according
to biogeographic characteristics. There are ten biogeographic zones in India. Each zone has its
own characteristic climate, soil, topography and biodiversity.
The ten biogeographic zones of India are
1. TransHimalayan region: The Himalayan ranges immediately north of the Great Himalayan
range are called the Trans- Himalayas. The Trans-Himalayan region has sparse vegetation.
A variety of wild sheep and goat community is found here.
Plants: Pine, Deodar
Animals: Snow leopard, black-necked crane.
2. The Himalayan region:The Himalayas consist of the youngest and high altitude, steep
mountain chains in the world. Rich temperate flora is present. The forests are very dense with
tall trees.
Plants: Oak, chestnut, pine, deodar.
Animals: Wild sheep, mountain goats, panda and snow leopard.
3. The Indian desert: This region consists of parts of Rajasthan, Kutch, and parts of Gujarat.
The climate is very hot during summer and cold during winter. Annual rainfall is less than 70
cms. The plants are mostly xerophytes.
Plants: Date palm, cactus, Babul, wild palm.
Animals: Camels, wild asses, foxes, mice, desert cat and snakes. Indian Bustard, a highly
endangered bird is also found here.
4. The semi arid region: Semi-arid regions are found near the desert. It is a transitional zone
between the desert and the denser forests of the Western Ghats. The natural vegetation is thorn
forest. Vegetation is generally discontinuous.
Plants: Thorny scrubs, grasses, bamboos, xerophytic herbs etc.
Animals: Birds, jackals, leopards, lion, eagles, snakes, fox, buffaloes etc.
5. The Western Ghats: Western Ghats is a 1600 km long mountain range running through the
west coast of India. It covers the states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Goa, Maharastra and
Gujarat. The mountains rise to average altitudes between 900 and 1500 m above sea level.
Plants: Rubber, tea, coffee, pepper etc
Animals: Monkey, elephant, deer etc
6. The Deccan peninsula: Beyond the Western Ghats is Deccan Plateau. It is a semi-arid region
lying in the rain shadow of the Western Ghats. This is the largest unit of the Peninsular Plateau
of India. Different types of forests are found here.
Plants: Teak, Neem, Banyan etc
Animals: Monkey, tiger, elephant, deer etc
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7. The Gangetic plain:In the north is the Gangetic plain extending up to the Himalayan
foothills. This is the largest unit of the Great Plain of India named after the main river Ganga.
Plants: Teak, sal, Banyan etc.
Animals: Rhinoceros, Deer, Rabbit, Alligator
8. The coastal region: India has a coastline extending over 5,500km. Larger parts of the coastal
plains are covered by fertile soils on which different crops are grown.
Plants: Coconut trees, Banana, Bamboo etc.
Animals: Turtle, Dolphin, crabs etc
9. The north-east region: It comprises the contiguous Seven Sister States (Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura), plus the Himalayan state of
Sikkim. North-east India has one of the richest flora in the country.
Plants: Bamboo, several species of orchids etc.
Animals: Elephant, Rhinoceros etc.
10. The Indian islands:The two groups of islands, i.e., Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea and
Andaman-Nicobar islands in Bay of Bengal differ significantly in origin and physical characteristics.
Plants: Coconut, Cashew nut
Animals: Dolphin, Alligator
Biogeographical classification of India
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1.15 | THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

Due to rapid increase in human population, the demand for food, shelter, energy, raw materials
also increased. Deforestation resulted in the extinction of species. It is estimated that every year
nearly 10000 species becomes extinct. Extinction of species results in the loss of biodiversity.
Factors leading to loss of biodiversity

1. Destruction of Habitats: Destruction and loss of natural habitat is the major reason for
biodiversity loss. Due to deforestation animals are deprived of shelter and food.
2. Habitat Fragmentation: Sometimes the loss of habitat occurs slowly in instalments as it is
is divided into small and scattered patches. This is known as habitat fragmentation. Some
wild animals like bears and large cats need large territories to live and fluorish. Habitat
fragmentation affects their population as they breed only in the interiors of the forests.
3. Disturbance and pollution: Man made activities such as air/water pollution, eutrophication
etc affects biodiversity adversely. Increase in acidity of water bodies due to acid rain may
result in the death of fishes and other aquatic organisms. Forest fire can result in habitat
destruction and death of animals. Soil pollution due to the use of pesticides kills bacteria
and insects.
4. Introduction of exotic species: Exotic species are new species entering a geographical
region. They alter the habitat and natives cannot survive. Exotic species may kill or eat
native species to the point of extinction. Disease causing microorganism if introduced may
cause epidemic and eliminate the native species completely.
Example: Water hyacinth is exotic species which was introduced from South America.
Excessive growth of this resulted in clogging of rivers and lakes. It even threatens the
survival of fishes and many aquatic species in India.
5. Hunting and over exploitation: Man hunts wild animals for food, safety and pleasure
which can result in extinction of species. Example: Disappearance of dodo. Over fishing
is depleting marine and fresh water living resources. Many species of fishes, sea turtles,
sea cows and whales are facing extinction.
6. Poaching: Killing of wild animals for illegal trading of wildlife products is called poaching.
Despite international ban, products from endangered species, smuggling of wildlife items
like furs, horns, tusks and herbal products are still going on. Animal products of commercial
value include ivory, horn, teeth and bone.
7. Man wildlife Conflicts: Sometimes wild animals like elephant, lion and tiger may come
out from their natural habitat and cause damage to life and property of humans. Conflicts
between man and wild animals are called man- wildlife conflict. It is estimated that every
year in our country around 300 people die due to animal attack. These attacks are common
in places where human settlement is closer to forest areas.
Reasons for man-wild life conflict
Habitat loss: Loss of habitat forces the animal to move out of forests
Human encroachment: Humans occupy animal habitat, leaving animals want of space.
Disease: Ill, weak and sick animals attack humans for self protection.
Shortage of food and water during summer: Severe summer may result in shortage of
water and food. So animals enter human settlements in search of food and water.
Electric fencing: Very often farmers put electric fencing around farm lands. Elephants
and other animals may get injured, suffer in pain and turn violent.
Protection: Females of many animals attack to secure their babies.
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Remedial measures to curb man-animal conflict

Ensure that adequate food and water is available for wild animals within the forest zones.
Developmental and constructional work in and around forest region must be stopped.
More space should be provided for protected area (National parks, bio reserves etc).
1.16 | CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity has so many uses (genetic, commercial, cultural, medical and esthetic) associated
with it, hence it is worth protecting. Conservation of biodiversity refers to the protection, preservation, management, or restoration of plants and animals.
Conservation of biodiversity can be achieved in two ways
In situ conservation
Ex situ conservation
1.16.1 In situ Conservation

In situ conservation refers to the conservation of plants and animals in their own natural habitat
where they survive. Example: Biosphere reserve, National parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries etc.
The aim of in situ conservation is to maintain biodiversity within the natural habitat where it
is found. Plants are allowed to grow and develop as a part of their natural habitat.
National Parks
A national park is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with its environment.
It is also meant for enjoyment of tourism without harming environment. Activities such as cultivation, grazing, cutting etc are not allowed. Private ownership right and manipulation of habitat
not allowed. Each national park aims to conserve one or more special species along with others.
There are more than 150 national parks in India. Indias first national park was established in
1936, now known as Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand.
Some Important National Parks in India
National park
Animal preserved
Bandipur National Park, Karnataka
Tiger
Gir Forest National Park, Gujarat
Lion
Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand
Bengal Tiger
Mudumalai National park Tamilnadu
Elephant, Bengal Tiger
Kaziranga National Park, Assam
One horned Rhino
Periyar National park
Elephant, Bengal Tiger
Wild life Sanctuaries

Wildlife sanctuaries are also protected areas where killing, hunting, shooting or capturing of
wildlife is prohibited. However, private ownership rights are permissible. Here, forestry operations
are also permitted to a limited extent as long as it doesnt affect the wildlife adversely. India
has 515 Wildlife sanctuaries.
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Some Important Wild life Sanctuaries in India
Wild life Sanctuaries
Animal preserved
Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary, TamilNadu
Water birds
Pulicat Lake Bird Sanctuary, Tamilnadu
Water birds
Indian wild ass Sanctuary, Gujarat
Indian wild ass
Cauvery Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka
Elephant, Spotted deer etc
Ranganthittu Bird Sanctuary, Karnataka
Water birds
Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary and Tiger Reserve,

Tamilnadu
Elephant, Tiger
Biosphere reserves
A special category of protected areas where in people are an integrated part of the environment
for long-term conservation. Area is much larger when compared to national park and wild life
sanctuary. Protection is granted for flora, fauna and to the human communities who inhabit these
regions and their ways of life. Within biosphere we can have one or more national parks. There
are 18 biosphere reserves in India.
Some Important biosphere reserves in India
Name
States
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve
Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka
Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve
Tamil Nadu
Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve
West Bengal
Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve
Uttarakhand
Nicobar Islands
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Roles of biosphere reserves

Each biosphere reserve has three basic functions.
Conservation of Biodiversity by conservation of ecosystems, species and genetic variation.
Promoting Sustainable Development by assisting economic and human development
which is socio-culturally and ecologically sustainable.
Support for Logistics by supporting research, monitoring, education and information
exchange.
Advantages of in situ conservation
It is cheap and convenient method.
Species gets adjusted to the natural habitat and can lead a free unmonitored life.
Disadvantages of in situ conservation
Large area is required.
Maintenance of habitat is not proper due to shortage of staff and pollution.
1.16.2 Ex situ Conservation

Ex situ conservation include conservation of plant and animal species outside the habitat. The
species are provided their habitat artificially. Threatened animals and plants are taken out from
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their natural habitat and kept in a place where they can be protected and given special care.
Example: Gene banks, Botanical Gardens, Zoos, Genetic resource centers,
Methods of Ex-Situ Conservation

Long Term Captive breeding
Zoos and botanical Gardens are vital in preserving critically endangered species. Animals are
bred in captivity. Special care and attention is given to their offsprings produced.
Short Term propagation and release
Rare species are bred in captivity and released into their natural habitat later. This will help to
increase the number of animals in the wild. Example: Eggs of turtles are protected and helped
to hatch. Young turtles are set into the sea.
Cryo-preservation
Seeds, pollen, gametes and embryos of endangered species are stored in liquid nitrogen at temperature as low as 196C.
Tissue culture
Tissue culture is the growth of tissues or cells outside the organism. Cells or tissues are collected
from a donor and transferred into a semi-solid, or solid growth medium, such as broth or agar.
Tissues multiply to give large number of tissues. Tissue culture can be employed for the culture
of both plant and animal cells.
By artificial insemination
Breeding of the captive species can be done by artifical insemination. In this method healthy
semen is collected from a male animal and is then injected to a female for breeding.
Cloning
Cloning is the process used to create an exact genetic replica of another cell, tissue or organism.
The copied material, which has the same genetic characteristics as the original, is referred to as
a clone. The most famous clone was a Scottish sheep named Dolly.
There are three different types of cloning:
Gene cloning, which creates copies of genes or segments of DNA
Reproductive cloning, which creates copies of whole animals
Therapeutic cloning, which creates embryonic stem cells. Scientists use these cells to
grow healthy tissue to replace injured or diseased tissues.
Seed banks and Gene banks
Seeds and genetic resources of different strains of commercially important plants can be stored
for long periods in seed banks
Important Gene/Seed banks in India
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi: Agricultural and horticultural
crops are preserved by cryo- preservation
National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR), Haryana: Preserves the semen of
domesticated bovine animals:
National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR), New Delhi: Conservation
of varieties of crop/plants/trees by tissue.
Advantages of ex situ conservation
Survival of endangered species is increasing due to special care and attention. Some
endangered species do not have any chance of survival if left free in nature.
In captive breeding, animals are assured of food, water, shelter and security. Hence longer
life span for animals.
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Disadvantages of ex situ conservation

It is an expensive method.
Freedom of widelife is lost.
Many captive animals struggle to survive when left free in natural environment.
It can be adopted for only few species.
ANNA UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS

1. Define ecosystem. Give an account of structure and function of an ecosystem.

(Anna Univ, Dec 2013)
2. With a neat sketch discuss nitrogen cycle
3. Explain the structure and functions of a grassland ecosystem.
4. Explain the structure and functions of a pond ecosystem.
5. Briefly explain the energy flow in the ecosystem.
6. Write a note on various hazards present in the environment.
7. With a neat sketch discuss oxygen cycle.
8. What is biodiversity? Discuss the values and significance of biodiversity.

9. What do you mean by hotspots of biodiversity that extend in India? (Anna Univ, Dec 2014)
10. What do you mean by conservation of biodiversity? State and explain basic approaches to
wildlife conservation
11. What are the threats to biodiversity?
12. India is a mega biodiversity nation. Justify the statement.
13. Write a note on endangered and endemic species in India.
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Unit
POLLUTION
SYLLABUS
Definition causes, effects and control measures of: (a) Air pollution (Atmospheric
chemistry- Chemical composition of the atmosphere; Chemical and photochemical
reactions in the atmosphere - formation of smog, PAN, acid rain, oxygen and ozone
chemistry;- Mitigation procedures- Control of particulate and gaseous emission, Control
of SO2, NOX, CO and HC) (b) Water pollution: Physical and chemical properties
of terrestrial and marine water and their environmental significance; Water quality
parameters physical, chemical and biological; absorption of heavy metals - Water
treatment processes. (c) Soil pollution - soil waste management: causes, effects and
control measures of municipal solid wastes (d) Marine pollution (e) Noise pollution
(f) Thermal pollution (g) Nuclear hazardsrole of an individual in prevention of pollution
pollution case studies
Field study of local polluted site Urban / Rural / Industrial / Agricultural.
2.1 |INTRODUCTION
Environmental pollution can be defined as any undesirable change in the physical, chemical
or biological characteristics of any component of the environment (air, water, soil), which can
cause harmful effects on various forms of life or property. The material that causes pollution is
called pollutant.
One has to distinguish between pollutant and a contaminant in this context. Contaminant is a
substance that is normally not present; but it need not cause harm to living beings. All pollutants
are contaminants but all contaminants need not be pollutants. For example CO2 is often classified
as a contaminant rather pollutant as it does not cause any adverse health effects. On the other
hand CO is termed as a pollutant as it can cause lot health complications.
From an ecological perspective pollutants can be classified as follows:
Biodegradable or non-persistent pollutants: These pollutants are biodegradable and can be easily
broken down by natural biological processes. Example: domestic sewage, discarded vegetables, etc
Non-degradable pollutants: These are the pollutants, which decompose very slowly by the natural
processes. Example: inorganic salts, metallic oxides, aluminium cans, DDT.
On the basis of the form in which they persist in the environment, pollutants can be categorized under two types:
Primary pollutants: These are substances which are emitted directly from some identifiable
sources and remain in that form. Examples are
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Sulphur compounds: SO2 produced by the oxidation of fuel.

Carbon compounds: Oxides of carbon (CO+CO2) and hydrocarbons.
Nitrogen compounds: NO2 and NH3
Halogen compounds: Hydrogen fluoride (HF) and hydrochloric acid (HCl).
Particulate matter: Soot
Secondary pollutants: The secondary pollutants are produced from primary pollutants. Primary
pollutants undergo chemical reaction in the environment to become secondary pollutant. Example:
Smoke, a primary pollutant combines with fog to form hazardous smog. SO3 is formed by the
oxidation of SO2.
2.2 |ATMOSPHERE
Atmosphere is a gaseous envelope surrounding the planet which is held together by Earths
gravity. Earths atmosphere is over 100 kilometers thick, but major part of it is within 16 km
from the surface. Pressure exerted by atmosphere is known as atmospheric pressure. At sea level,
atmospheric pressure is about 1 kilogram per square centimeter.
Functions of atmosphere
Blocking harmful rays: Harmful ultra violet radiation from the sun is blocked by ozone
layer, which is a part of our atmosphere.
Source of Oxygen and Carbondioxide: Atmosphere acts a source for both oxygen and
carbondioxide which is essential for respiration and photosynthesis.
Maintenance of earths temperature: Atmosphere cause heat retention and keep earth
surface warm. In the absence of atmosphere the temperature of earth would be sub zero
in the night.
Saving earth from meteors: Most meteoroids that enter the Earths atmosphere vaporize
completely due to high temperature and friction and never reach the planets surface.
Climate and weather: Earth gets heated non-uniformly by the sun resulting in different
weather patterns. Air sets in motion resulting in winds causing cyclones, monsoon, rainfall etc.
Average composition of the atmosphere up to an altitude of 25 km.
Gas Name
Chemical Formula
Percent Volume
Nitrogen
N2
78.08%
Oxygen
O2
20.95%
Argon
Ar
0.93%
Carbon Dioxide
CO2
0.0360% (can vary)
Neon
Ne
0.0018%
Helium
He
0.0005%
2.2.1 Atmosphere layers

Atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner as we go higher. There is no distinct boundary between
the atmosphere and space. An imaginary line called Karman line, represents the boundary
between the Earths atmosphere and outer space. It lies approximately 100 kilometers from
earths surface.
Earths atmosphere is divided into five main layers according to their temperature characterisctics:
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Pollution 37
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
Exosphere
1. Troposphere
Troposphere is the bottom layer of the atmosphere which is closest to Earths surface. It extends
to an average height of 12 km (over the poles, 8 km; above the equator, 16 km). Temperature
decreases with height in this layer. The rate of decrease of temperature with height is called,
lapse rate. Average lapse rate in troposphere is 6.5 C/km. Troposphere ends at tropopause.
On reaching tropopause, temperature stops decreasing with height.
2. Stratosphere
Stratosphere is the second layer. It starts above the troposphere and extends to about 50 km
above ground. Ozone layer is found in stratosphere and it absorbs harmful radiation from the
sun. In this layer, temperature increases with height; just opposite to that in troposphere. The air
is about a thousand times thinner here than it is at sea level. Thin air, absence of vertical winds
and clouds helps smooth travel of jet planes. Stratospehere end at stratopause, where temperature
neither decreases nor increases with height up to some level.
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3. Mesosphere
Mesosphere starts at 50 km and extends to 85 km. In this layer, temperature decreases with
height as in troposphere. This layer plays crucial role in radio communication. Sunlight passing
through this layer causes molecules to ionize. These ionized particles reflects radio waves sent
from earth. The top of the mesosphere, called the mesopause. At mesopause, the average temperature is about minus 90C.
4. Thermosphere
Thermosphere extends from about 90 km to 1,000 km. Temperatures can get up to 1,500C at
this altitude. The density of air is very low.
5. Exosphere
Exosphere is the outermost layer of the atmosphere. It is extremely thin and merges into outer
space. It is composed of very widely dispersed particles of hydrogen and helium. Satellites orbits
the earth in exosphere.
2.2.2 Chemical and photochemical reactions in the atmosphere

Atmosphere is a dynamic system with wide fluctuations of the parameters (composition, temperature, humidity and intensity of sunlight). So, different processes will be observed under different
atmospheric conditions. Many chemical and physical processes take place in the atmosphere.
Some of them occur naturally while others occur due to human interventions.
The study of chemical reactions in the atmosphere is difficult due to a) very low concentrations
involved b) low pressure c) high temperature d) high altitude. These reactions cannot be easily
simulated in the laboratory and the detection and analysis of the reaction products extremely
difficult.
Chemical reactions in the atmosphere can occur
as collisions between molecules in gas phase
on the surfaces of solid particles (particulate matter) or in aqueous solution (in water droplets).
In gas phase reactions, the molecules are far apart. Therefore, some reactive species can exist
for significantly longer time before reacting. The reactions that take place in water droplets are
mostly acid-base reactions. Reactions on particle surfaces are of less importance because of the
short residence time particles spend in the atmosphere.
2.3 | OXYGEN AND OZONE CHEMISTRY

Ozone layer is a layer in earths atmosphere containing relatively high concentration of ozone
(O3). Ozone layer is found in the lower part of the stratosphere from approximately 20 to 30
kilometres above earth. The ozone layer is often referred to as the umbrella of life because
it protects life on Earth from harmful UV rays.
The Dobson Unit is the most common unit for measuring ozone concentration. One Dobson
Unit is the number of molecules of ozone that would be required to create a layer of pure ozone
0.01 mm thick at a temperature of 0 C and a pressure of 1 atmosphere. Over the Earths surface,
the ozone layers average thickness is about 300 Dobson Units or a layer that is 3 millimeters thick.
Ozone formation
Ozone in the stratosphere is produced by photochemical reactions involving O2. When molecular
oxygen in the stratosphere absorbs ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths less than 240 nm, it
breaks apart into two oxygen atoms.
O2 + hn 2 O (light of l <240 nm)
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Pollution 39
These oxygen atoms formed combine with O2 molecules to form ozone in the presence of
a third body M.
O + O2 + M (N2 or O2) O3 + M
The third body M absorbs the excess energy liberated by the above reaction and there by
stabilizes the O3 molecule.
Decomposition of ozone
Ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation with longer wavelengths (~290 nm and above). It causes the
ozone to decompose into O2 molecules and oxygen atoms.
O3 + hn O2 + O (light of l >290 nm)
There is a dynamic equilibrium between ozone formation and destruction. Ozone strongly
absorbs uv light in the region of 220-290 nm and protects the life on earth from severe radiation
damage. Only a strong fraction of uv light reaches the lower atmosphere and earth.
Process of ozone production and destruction, initiated by ultraviolet radiation, are often referred
to as Chapman Reactions. There is equilibrium between the formation and destruction of ozone.
This equilibrium is disturbed by reactive atoms of chlorine, bromine etc. which destroy ozone
molecules and result is thinning of ozone layer generally called ozone hole.
Causes for ozone hole formation

Choloroflurocarbons: Major reason for the depletion of ozone layer is halogen atoms (F, Cl, Br)
which are formed by the photochemical decomposition of CFCs. CFC is an organic compound
that contains only carbon, chlorine, hydrogen and fluorine. CFCs are widely used as coolants
in refrigeration systems and air conditioners, propellants for aerosols due to low boiling point.
These slowly rise up and reach stratosphere and cause depletion of ozone. The chemical reaction
can be represented as
CF2Cl2 + hn CF2Cl +Cl
Cl + O3 ClO + O2
ClO + O Cl + O2
In the third step, Cl is generated again which can cause the reaction to continue like a chain
reaction. One chlorine atom can thereby destroy thousands of ozone molecules. Similarly other
atoms present in CFC like Fluorine and Bromine can also cause similar effect.
Effects of Ozone Depletion

Ozone depletion in the stratosphere will result in more UV radiation reaching the earth especially
UV-B (290-320 nm).
In humans:
The UV-B radiations affect DNA. Any change in DNA can result in mutation.
Can cause skin cancer.
Absorption of UV rays by the lens and cornea of may result in cataract.
Melanin producing cells of the epidermis will be destroyed by UV-rays resulting in
immuno-suppression.
In plants and animals:
Phytoplanktons are sensitive to UV radiation. Decrease in phytoplankton population
inturnaffects the population of zooplankton, fish, marine animals, infact the whole aquatic
food chain.
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Yield of certain crops like rice, wheat, soybean, cotton, bean, pea etc will decrease.
UV radiation result in increasing the rate of evaporation through leaf stomata and decreases
the moisture content of the soil. This can result in decreased crop production.
Other implications:
UV radiation can cause degradation of paints, plastics and other polymer materials.
It contributes to the Global Warming. If ozone depletion continues, the temperature around
the world may rise even up to 5 degrees.
Control of ozone layer depletion
Reduce/replace the usage of CFCs: One molecule of CFC destroys more than few thousands
of ozone molecules via chain reaction. So usage of CFCs has to be discouraged and kept
minimum. Use of other alternative coolants which are less damaging has to be promoted.
Reduce the use of methyl bromide: Methyl bromide is an insecticide used for fumigation.
It is a source for bromine atoms which can destroy ozone. Its use has to be controlled.
Control of deforestation: Check in deforestation will ensure slightly higher percentage
of oxygen in the atmosphere.
Proper maintenance: Air conditioning and refrigerating units should regularly be checked
for leaks and corrected if any.
2.4 | AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause
harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or cause damage to the environment.
These substances include gases, particulate matter, radioactive substances etc.
2.4.1 Sources of air pollution

1. Natural sources: Forest fire and volcanic eruption can lead to air pollution. Hydrocarbons
emitted by decomposition of organic matter can lead to air pollution. Pollen grains are also
a pollutant.
2. Anthropogenic sources (human activity): Main reason for air pollution is human activities.
a. Burning of fossil fuels: Burning of fossil fuels such as petrol, diesel, coal etc leads to serious
air pollution. Thermal power plants used for generating electricity emit fly ash and SO2.
b. Emissions from automobiles: Vehicles are mainly responsible for more than 80% of total
air pollution. The major pollutants found in automobile exhaust are CO, NOx, SOx etc.
c. Industrial emissions: Factories, petroleum refineries, fertilizer plants, and steel industries,
thermal power plants are the main sources of air pollution. They add various harmful
gases like CO, SO3, NO, Hydrocarbons etc., to the atmosphere.
d. Agricultural Activities: Spraying of insecticides and pesticides also cause air pollution.
2.4.2 Common air pollutants

(i) Carbon dioxide: Low concentrations of CO2 are not harmful. A high concentration of CO2
can displace oxygen in the lungs. Less oxygen availability can result in rapid breathing,
rapid heart rate, emotional upsets and fatigue. Lack of oxygen can result in permanent
damage to organs including the brain and heart. CO2 is the major gas that cause green
house effect.
(ii) Carbon monoxide: CO is a very poisonous gas and is produced by incomplete combustion
of fuel. CO, being a very strong ligand, binds strongly with Fe present in the hemoglobin.
CO has affinity for haemoglobin 210 times more than oxygen. Thus it interferes with the
oxygen carrying capacity of blood
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Pollution 41
HbO2 + CO
HbCO + O2
Oxyhemoglobin carboxyhemoglobin
In presence of CO, hemoglobin is unable to transport oxygen to various parts of the

body. This causes the reduction in oxygen levels in the tissues. Prolonged exposure leads
to dizziness, reduced vision and even death. People who survive severe CO poisoning may
suffer long-term health problems.
(iii) Oxides of Nitrogen: These include NO and NO2 (usually denoted by NOx), which are released
by automobiles and chemical industries as waste gases and also by burning of materials. These
are harmful and lower the oxygen carrying capacity of blood. Oxides of nitrogen especially
NO2 can irritate the lungs and cause conditions like chronic bronchitis and emphysema.
Oxides of nitrogen dissolve in water forming nitric acid resulting in acid rain.
(iv) Oxides of Sulphur: High concentration of SO2 causes chlorosis (yellowing of leaves),
damage to mucous membrane etc. SO2 and SO3 react with water to form Sulphuric and
sulphurous acids resulting in acid rain.
(v) Hydrocarbons: These are unburnt discharges from incomplete combustion of fuel in automobiles.
(vi) Particulate Matter: Industries and automobiles release fine solid and liquid particles into
the air. These are injurious to respiratory tract.
2.4.3 Effects of Air Pollution

Effect on Plants:
SO2 causes chlorosis and also results in the death of cells and tissues.
Fluorides and PAN damage leafy vegetables such as lettuce and spinach.
Oxides of nitrogen and fluorides result in decrease in crop productivity.
Smog bleaches and blaze foliage of important leafy plants.
Hydrocarbons cause premature yellowing, fall of leave and flower buds, discoloration and
curling of sepals and petals.
Smoke and dust cover the leaf surface and reduce photosynthetic capacity of plants.
Ozone damages cereals, fruits, and cotton crop.
Effect on Man:
Effect of pollutants on animals and man are as follows
Ozone: Breathing ozone can result in a variety of health problems including chest pain,
coughing, throat irritation etc. It can worsen bronchitis and asthma. Ground level ozone
also can reduce lung function and can cause inflammation of the linings of the lungs.
SO2: SO2 causes drying of mouth, scratchy throat, irritates the nose and eyes and disorders
of respiratory tract. It also cause coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, or a tight feeling
around the chest.
NOx: Short or long term exposure to oxides of nitrogen can cause severe respiratory illness,
aggravate asthma and cause lung malfunction.
CO: CO diffuses into blood stream and reduces oxygen transport. CO damages cardiovascular
system. Prolonged exposure leads to dizziness, reduced vision and even death.
Hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbons can act as carcinogens and lead to different cancers.
Suspended particles (Particulate matter): These can aggravate bronchitis and asthma.
Prolonged exposure can lead to reduced lung function.
Effects on aquatic life:
Air pollutants like oxides of nitrogen and sulphur, dissolve in rain water resulting in acid rain.
High acidity (lower pH) in fresh water lakes affects aquatic organisms. Some of the freshwater
lakes have experienced total fish death.
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Effects on materials:
Air pollutants can cause damage to exposed surfaces. Presence of SO2 and moisture can accelerate
corrosion of metallic surfaces. SO2 can affect fabric, leather, paint, paper, marble and limestone.
Ozone in the atmosphere can cause cracking of rubber tyres. Oxides of nitrogen can also cause
fading of cotton and rayon fibres.
2.4.4 Control of Air Pollution

Air pollution can be minimized by the following methods:
Afforestation and controlling deforestation: Trees should be planted on the roadside,
riverbanks, parks and open places as they can act as pollution moderators.
Law enforcement: Pollution control laws should be enforced strictly. Constant monitoring
of industrial/automobile exhaust must be carried out.
Use of low sulfur coal: Using low sulphur coal in industries or removing sulphur from
coal can considerably reduce air pollution.
Using non-conventional sources of energy: Use of eco-friendly energy sources like solar
energy, wind energy can reduce air pollution.
Increasing the height of chimneys: The height of chimneys can be increased to the highest
possible level so that pollutants are emitted to higher levels.
Removal of particulate matter: Particles larger than 50 mm are separated in gravity
settling tanks. Using cyclone collectors or electrostatic precipitators separates fine particles.
Checking vehicular pollution: Pollution by vehicles can be minimized by regular tuneup of engines; replacement of more polluting old vehicles; installing catalytic converters.
2.5 |SMOG
Smog is a kind of air pollution. The word Smog is derived from smoke and fog. When smoke
is combined with the fog present in the atmosphere the smog is formed.
Smog = Smoke + Fog
Types of Smog
i) London smog: London smog usually occurs during early morning hours. Coal containing
large amounts of sulfur, produce SO2 on burning which can result in smog. The main
constituent of London-type smog is soot, fly ash, sulfur dioxide, sodium chloride and calcium
sulfate particles. If concentrations are high enough, sulfur dioxide produces sulfuric acid.
Due to the presence of reducing impurities it is known as reducing smog.
Health problems: SO2 can severely affect respiratory system. Higher amounts of SO2 can
even lead to death. Great smog of London in 1952 caused death of more than 4000 people.
Smog -related deaths were primarily attributed to pneumonia, bronchitis, tuberculosis, and
heart failure.
ii) Los Angeles smog (Photochemical smog): Los Angeles smog usually happens in noon, as
the reactions forming smog are triggered by sunlight. It was first reported in the city of Los
Angeles and hence the name. It is mainly composed of ozone, volatile hydrocarbons (VOC),
Peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN), nitrogen dioxide etc. Since it contains oxidizing impurities it
is also known as oxidizing fog.
NO2 + Sunlight NO +O.
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O2 +O. O3
O3 +NO O2 + NO2
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) can also react with oxygen, hydrocarbons (unburnt petrol) or radicals
produced from volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight to form toxic products
such as peroxyacetyl nitrates (PAN) (CH3CO-OO-NO2):
It is also formed by the reaction of aldehydes and hydroxyl radicals.
PAN is relatively stable molecule and have long lifetimes in cooler air. Because of this, it
may travel long distances. In warmer climates, it may break down and release toxic NO2, which
produces additional ozone and hydroxyl radicals. In this way, PAN can be considered as a reservoir of NOx species.
Problems associated with PAN:
PAN is a highly potent oxidant that is both toxic and irritating. It causes eye irritations
at very low concentrations (even in ppb levels). It also irritates the respiratory system.
PAN can cause impaired breathing or lung lesions following inhalation exposure in animals.
PAN inhibits efficiency of photosynthesis in plants. PAN is more toxic to plants than ozone.
It causes discoloration of leaves.
PAN also reduces the plants ability to store food, grow and reproduce. These plants are
more vulnerable to attacks by pests and diseases.
Health problems caused by photochemical smog: Ozone has the ability to oxidize and destroy
lung tissue.Short term exposures to elevated levels of ozone (above 75 ppm) can lead to coughing,
wheezing, difficulty in breathing etc. Prolonged exposure to smog can cause a permanent reduction
in lung function, elevate the risk of developing asthma.
A comparison of London smog and photochemical smog
Name
London smog
(New York smog, grey smog)
Photochemical smog
(L.A. smog, Denver smog, brown smog)
Weather
It occurs early mornings.
It occurs during mid day (noon)
Content
Particulates, Sulfur oxides
NOx, ozone, PAN, hydrocarbons.
Sources
Burning coal.
Gasoline, combustion. (primarily from

automobile exhaust)
Nature
Reducing in nature
Oxidizing in nature
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2.6 | ACID RAIN

Acid rain is rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic (pH below 5.6). Acid
rain literally means the presence of excessive acids in rain waters. Acid rain can be wet or dry.
Natural rain water has a pH of 5.6 at 20C due to dissolution of CO2 in water(carbonic acid).
Any precipitation less than pH 5.6 can be considered acidic. Typical acid rain has a pH value of
4 or lower. Acid precipitation is a mixture of strong mineral acids sulphuric acid (H2SO4), nitric
acid (HNO3) and in some locations, hydrochloric acid (HCl).
Causes:
i) Oxides of Nitrogen: Oxides of nitrogen, represented by NOx is mainly responsible for
acid rain. Automobile exhaust, factory emission contains large amounts of NO2. It is also
emitted by natural processes like lightning, volcanic eruptions, forest fires, and action of
bacteria in the soil.
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) reacts with water to form nitrous acid (HNO2) and nitric acid
(HNO3)
2NO2 + H2O HNO2 + HNO3
ii) Oxides of sulphur: Oxides of Sulphur (SO2 and SO3 represented as SOx) are produced
when fossil fuels containing sulphur are burnt. Small amounts are found in automobile
exhaust. Large amounts of these gases are produced while processing of crude oil, in utility
factories, and iron and steel factories. SO2 is also produced naturally by volcanic activity.
Sulfur dioxide reacts with water to form sulfurous acid (H2SO3)
SO2 + H2O H2SO3
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) can be oxidised gradually to sulfur trioxide (SO3)
2SO2 + O2 2SO3
Sulfur trioxide (SO3) reacts with water to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
SO3 + H2O H2SO4
2.6.1 Effects of acid rain

On plant life:
Loss of waxy coating on leaves: Frequent acid rain dissolves the waxy protective coating
of the leaves and plants become more susceptible to disease. When leaves are damaged,
the efficiency of photosynthesis is reduced drastically.
Root damage: Roots of plants are damaged by acid rain, causing the growth of the plant
to be stunted, or even in its death.
Death of micro organisms: Useful microorganisms which release nutrients from decaying
organic matter, into the soil are destroyed. This can result in the availability of less nutrients
for the plants.
Loss of beneficial nutrients from the soil: Acid rain washes away the beneficial minerals
and nutrients in soil before the plants have a chance of using them for their growth.
On animal life:
Heavy metal leaching: Acid rain can cause leaching of harmful mercury and aluminium
salts from the soil and rocks. It is then carried into the lakes causing damage to aquatic
ecosystem.
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Death of aquatic organisms: When the pH reaches 5.5, plankton, certain insects and
crustaceans begin to die. At a pH of around 5.0, the fish population begins to die. Below
pH 5.0, entire fish population may die.
Loss of fertility: It results in the fishs ability to maintain their calcium levels. This impairs
reproduction the ability of the fish, because the eggs become too weak or brittle. This can
result in killing of fish.
In humans
Respiratory problems: Acid rain can cause nose and eye irritation, headache, asthma and
dry coughs. Acid rain can aggravate asthma.
Buildings and monuments
Deterioration of buildings: It causes deterioration of buildings especially made of marble
Acid rain caused tarnishing of Taj Mahal. Dry acid deposition containing SO2 is primarily
from the exhaust of Mathura refineries. Oil refineries in Mathura emit nearly 25 tonnes of
SO2 per day despite using low sulphur content coal.
Deterioration of objects: Acid rain corrodes ceramic, textiles, paints, and metals. Rubber
and leather deteriorate if exposed to acid rain. It damages metals and car finishes.
2.6.2 Control of acid rain

Use of low sulphur content coal: Coal with lower sulphur content is desirable to use in
thermal plants.
Replacement of coal by natural gas: Replacement of coal by natural gas would also
reduce the problem substantially.
Reduction of NOx and SOx emission: Emission of SO2 and NO2 from industries and
power plants should be reduced by using pollution control equipments.
Strict law enforcement: Strict laws must be brought for air pollution reduction (especially
emission of CO2, NO2 and SO2). Heavy fine must be imposed if accepted emission levels
are crossed.
Use of renewable sources of energy: Use of alternate eco friendly sources of energy can
minimize pollutants and hence acid rain.
Use of eco-friendly vehicles: Pollutants can be minimized by using pollution control
devices like catalytic converters in vehicles. Another method is the usage of natural gas
as fuel in automobiles.
2.7 | PARTICULATE POLLUTION

Particulate refers to small, light weight solid particles which are suspended in air. They differ
widely in terms of particle density and particle size. Its size varies from 0.1mm to 100 mm.
Small particles have large total surface area and so it carries high pollutant load. Examples of
particulate pollutants include aerosols, dust, smoke, fumes, mist, fly ash, soot etc.
Causes:
Main cause for particulate pollution are forest fires, volcanic eruptions, debris and fly ash formed
by burning fuels, automobile exhaust etc.
Consequences:
Particulate matter may lead to severe health problems which include
Premature death in people with heart or lung disease
Nonfatal heart attacks
Irregular heartbeat
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Aggravated asthma
Decreased lung function and
Increased respiratory symptoms such as irritation of the airways, coughing or difficulty breathing.
2.8 | AIR POLLUTION CONTROL DEVICES

There are five main categories of particulate control devices which are widely used.
i) Gravity settling chamber

As the name implies, gravity settling chambers are employed for the removal particles from the
gas stream by simply settling under the influence of gravity. This method is used only for very
large particles (approximately 75 micrometers and larger). Particles having heavier density obeys
Stokes law and settle at the bottom of the chamber from where it is removed.
ii) Cyclone collector

Cyclone collector is a mechanical separator where centrifugal force (instead of gravitational force)
is used to remove the particulate matter. Centrifugal force which is several times greater than
gravitational force can be generated by a spinning gas stream. This causes particulate containing
gas to change direction often and particulate matter is thrown along the tangent and finally settles.
It is used after the settling chamber to collect the smaller particulate matter that could not be
collected in the settling chamber. Major disadvantage is that it is very expensive.
iii) Particulate wet scrubbers

In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into contact with the scrubbing liquid. The
scrubbing liquid is usually sprayed so as to remove the pollutants. It is very useful in removing
SO2 and other small particulate matter.
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Advantages of wet scrubbers

Wet scrubbers have the ability to handle high temperatures and moisture.
Wet scrubbers can remove both gases and particulate matter.
Wet scrubbers can neutralize corrosive gases.
iv) Electrostatic precipitators

An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) uses non-uniform, high-voltage fields to apply large electrical
charges to polluted gas particles moving through the field. The charged particles move toward
an oppositely charged collection surface, where they get collected.
v) Fabric filters
Fabric filters consists of fabrics that allow the passage of gas but retain and collect particulate
matter on the surfaces of filter bags. The bags can be made of cotton, synthetic, or glass-fiber
material in either a tube or envelope shape. Gas containing dust enter the bag house and pass
through fabric bags that act as filters.
Periodically, the fabric composing the filter is shaken to remove the particulate matter. They
are most efficient and cost effective types of dust collectors available. More than 99% for very
fine particulates can be collected and removed from the gas stream.
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2.9 | EMISSION CONTROL OF NOx, CO, HC

Use of catalytic convertors:
Catalytic convertors are used in automobiles to reduce emissions of certain harmful compounds
like NOx, CO and hydrocarbons. Catalyst used in a catalytic converter is a combination of
platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd), and rhodium (Rh). These metals coat a ceramic honeycomb (or
ceramic beads) contained within a metal casing that is attached to the exhaust pipe. Honeycomb
structure of the catalytic converters provides maximum surface area. Due to greater surface area
only less amount of catalyst has to be used.
Three-Way Catalytic Converter

A three-way catalytic converter has three simultaneous tasks:
Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and oxygen
Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide
Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) to carbon dioxide and water.
In the first step, the catalytic converter uses a reduction catalyst composed of Rh to reduce
the NOx. As the nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2) pass through the device, the catalyst converts
these to form oxygen gas (O2) and nitrogen gas (N2).
2NO N2 + O2
2NO2 N2 + 2O2
In the second step, an oxidative catalyst of Pt and Pd decreases emissions of carbon monoxide
(CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (HC) by converting into CO2 and water.
2CO + O2 2CO2
C2H4 + 3O2 2CO2 + 2H2O
Reducing Pollution
Catalytic convertors are widely used in modern gasoline engines. They are reliable and efficient
in reducing pollution. Nearly 90% of the hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides
produced are converted into less harmful compounds. Catalytic converters are not so efficient in
diesel engines which runs at lower temperature than gasoline engines. Catalytic converters work
best at higher temperatures.
2.10 | Indoor Air Pollution

The most important indoor air pollutant is radon gas. Radon gas can cause lung cancer. Radon is
emitted from building materials like bricks, concrete, tiles etc. Radon is also present in groundwater and natural gas and is emitted indoors while using them.
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Many houses in the developing countries use fuels like coal, dung-cakes, wood and kerosene
as domestic fuel. Incomplete combustion produces the toxic gas carbon monoxide. Coal contains
varying amounts of sulphur which on burning produces sulphur dioxide
2.11 | AIR POLLUTION- CASE STUDY

Air pollution is a serious problem addressed by modern society. There have been many instances
where pollution affected thousands of people.
2.11.1 Bhopal gas tragedy

Bhopal gas tragedy is considered to be the worlds worst industrial disaster.
Place: Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh.
Date: Night of 2nd and morning of 3rd December, 1984
Company: Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL)
Gas responsible: Methyl isocyanate (MIC). MIC was an intermediate used for the production
of pesticide, Sevin.
Toxic effects of MIC: MIC is a volatile fluid with a boiling point of about 40C. MIC cause
irritation of mucous membrane. At higher concentrations, it cause difficulties in breathing, with
pressure over the chest and pain when inhaling. MIC also has an irritating effect on moist skin
and may cause injury to the cornea of the eye.
Reason for the tragedy: It is widely believed that water entered the tank where about 40 ton MIC
was stored. A combination of the human error and an improper plant safety system resulted in disaster.
Tragedy: During the night of 23 December 1984, water entered tank containing 40 tons of MIC.
This started the chemical reaction which was accelerated by contaminants, high temperatures and
was catalyzed by iron (stainless steel pipelines). The resulting exothermic reaction increased the
temperature inside the tank to over 200C and raised the pressure forcing about 30 tons of MIC
to escape. The gases were blown in southeastern direction over Bhopal. The huge cloud of deadly
gas quickly spread out from the factory and enveloped an area of over 20 square kilometers.
Early morning, people living around the Union Carbide chemical factory in Bhopal woke up
coughing, their eyes burning. Thousands died immediately. People were in Panic and the police
instructed people to run away from the gas. This only resulted in inhaling even more gas. By
morning streets of Bhopal was covered by corpses of humans and animals.
Death: Four months after the tragedy, the Indian government reported to its parliament that
1,430 people had died. However, it is estimated that the death toll could be much higher. Many
lost vision permanently.
After effects: Union Carbide Chairman, CEO Warren Anderson was arrested and released on
bail by the Madhya Pradesh Police in Bhopal on 7 December 1984. Legal battle is still going
on between Union Carbide (now Dow Chemicals) and Indian authorities. Most of the victims
and their families are yet to receive the compensation.
2.12 | WATER POLLUTION

2.12.1 Introduction
Earth is the only planet containing water. Hence it is known as blue planet. About 71% of
the earths surface is covered by water, out of which only 0.014% can be used for domestic,
agriculture and industrial purposes and rest is locked in oceans, polar ice caps, giant glaciers and
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rock crevices. Water is so essential part of plant and animal life that without which life cannot
survive. So it is important to save, preserve and reuse water.
2.12.2 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of terrestrial and

marine Environment
Physical and chemical properties of water:
1. Colour
Pure water is colourless. Sometimes underground water is coloured due to humus, iron, manganese salts.
2. Taste
The taste of water is due to the presence of dissolved minerals and salts. The brackish taste of
water is due to the presence of excess amounts of salts like NaCl and KCl.
3. Odor
Pure water is odorless. Unpleasant odor may be due to the presence of organic matter, decaying
vegetation, bacteria, gases like H2S and NH3.
4. Turbidity
It is due to the presence of finely divided colloidal, insoluble impurities like inorganic matter,
clay, silica, silt etc.
5. Specific heat
Water has a high specific heat. So, it can absorb large amounts of heat energy before it begins
to get hot.
Environmental significance
High specific heat means that water releases heat energy slowly when it cools. Waters high
specific heat allows for the stabilization of the Earths climate and helps organisms regulate
their body temperature more effectively.
6. pH
Water in pure state has a neutral pH. As a result, pure water is neither acidic nor basic. pH of
water changes when salts or gases are dissolved in it. Rain has a naturally acidic pH of about
5.6 because it contains dissolved CO2 and SO2.
7. Surface tension
Water has a high surface tension. This makes water drops spherical. It also causes water to stick
to the sides of vessels.
Waters high surface tension allows for the formation of water droplets and waves, allows
plants to move water (and dissolved nutrients) from their roots to their leaves. Small insects
walk on the surface of water due to this high surface tension.
8. Thermal properties
Water has interesting thermal properties. Water contracts when heated from 0C, its melting point,
to 4C. Water has maximum density at 4C. It expands greatly as it freezes; as a result, ice is
less dense than water and floats on it.
In cold countries, only the top layer of the lake or river freezes. Underneath the frozen upper
layer, the water remains in its liquid form and does not freeze. This thick layer of ice acts as
an insulator and prevents freezing of the water below. Due to the presence of water beneath,
fish and other aquatic animals are able to survive in the frozen lakes and ponds.
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2.12.3 Water quality parameters

Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological characteristics of water.
Physical tests: Colour, temperature, turbidity, suspended solids, odour and taste.
Chemical tests: pH, BOD, COD
Biological tests: Coliform count
Parameters
Reason for analysis
Temperature
Many aquatic organisms are cold-blooded. Each species has its own
optimum (best) water temperature. If the water temperature shifts too far
from the optimum, the organism suffers.
Temperature of water is influenced by:
a) Color of the water.
b) Depth of water
c) Time of the year
d) Volume of water
e) Temperature of effluents dumped into water.
pH
pH is an indicator for healthy aquatic life. Any drastic change in pH can

result in the death of the species. Most fish can tolerate pH values of
about 5.0 to 9.0. Certain organisms like mussels, clams, oysters are sensitive to acidic pH as it may cause the destruction of the CaCO3 shell.
Turbidity
Turbidity refers to how cloudy is water?. Turbidity results in scattering

of light. Turbidity may be due to organic and/or inorganic constituents.
Water could be turbid due to the presence of algae. Turbidity may cause
the growth of microorganisms and hence may increase the possibility for
waterborne disease.
Dissolved Oxygen
(DO)
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is oxygen that is dissolved in water. DO level in

good fishing waters is about 8 ppm. When DO levels drop below about
3.0 parts per million, most of the fishes die. A high DO level in drinking
is good because it gives water a better taste. However, high DO levels
speed up corrosion in water pipes.
Conductivity
The ability of water to conduct electricity is termed conductivity. Presence

of dissolved salts increases the conductivity of water. Rain water has very
low conductivity (~50 S/cm) while sea water has very high conductivity
(~50,000 S/cm). As conductivity measures the dissolved ions in water it
is also commonly used as a measure of total dissolved solids.
Biochemical
Oxygen Demand,
BOD
BOD denotes the amount of oxygen needed by micro-organisms for

oxidation of decomposable organic matter under aerobic conditions. High
B.O.D. means that there is less of oxygen to support life and indicates
organic pollution. High BOD is an indication of poor water quality.
For details see section on BOD
Chemical Oxygen
Demand, COD
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COD is a measure of the capacity of water to consume oxygen during the

decomposition of organic matter and the oxidation of inorganic chemicals
such as ammonia and nitrite.
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For details see section on COD

Microbiological
Total Coliform
Count Faecal
Coliform Count
Microbiological test is conducted to detect the Level of pollutions caused

by living things especially humans. These tests are based on coliform
bacteria as the indicator organism. The presence of these bacteria
confirms that the water has been polluted with faeces of humans or other
warm-blooded animals.
2.12.4 Water pollution

Water pollution is the any alteration in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of water
making it unsuitable for domestic and industrial purposes often causing health hazard.
Sources of water pollution
i) Point source: When a source of pollution can be readily identified, it is said to come from
a point source. Example: Factory outlet, Power plant outlet.
ii) Non point source: It is difficult to trace the origin of these water pollutants. Example: acid
rain, percolation of fertilizer or pesticides into ground water.
2.12.5 Causes of water pollution

i) Domestic sewage: This includes households wastes like food wastes, synthetic detergents
used for washing clothes and cleaning bathrooms and latrines.
ii) Industrial effluents: Industrial wastes (often untreated) are discharged into the nearby
rivers and other water sources. Textiles, sugar and fertilizers factories, oil refineries, drugs
manufacture, rubber, and rayon fibers, the paper industries etc cause significant water
pollution.
iii) Agricultural sources: Extensive use of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides result in severe
water pollution. From soil these reach water causing eutrophication, biomagnification etc.
iv) Thermal pollution: In power plants and nuclear power stations, water is used as coolant.
Hot water produced when enters lakes or rivers raises temperature of water body, which
kills fishes and other aquatic life.
v) Pathogenic organisms: Sewage and domestic waste from houses contains pathogenic
organisms viz., protozoa, worms-eggs and bacteria etc. This water if consumed causes
jaundice, typhoid, dysentery, cholera, etc
vi) Waste heat: Discharge of waste heat from industries increases the temperature of water
bodies and affects aquatic organisms.
2.12.6 Consequences of water pollution

Effects on ecosystem:
i) Ecosystem destruction: Water pollution can kill many species, disrupting the entire ecosystem.
ii) Eutrophication: Excess of phosphates and nitrate may result in algal bloom called
eutrophication. This may eventually lead to the death of the water body.
iii) Loss of species: Many organisms find hard to survive in polluted environment which may
lead to migration or extinction of species. Example: Acid rain severely affects mussels,
oysters etc (shell made of CaCO3)
vi) Biomagnification: Pesticide residues, heavy metals etc concentrate when passed through
food chain or food web. While passing through the organisms, the concentration of pollutants
gets increased, called biomagnification.
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Effects on Human Health

i) Heavy metals: Compounds of mercury damages brain. Cadmium salts damages kidneys
and liver. Lead compounds are known to affect the proper functioning of brain.
ii) Water born diseases: Water pollution makes water unfit for drinking purposes. Polluted
water can cause certain waterborne diseases like diarrhea, typhoid, cholera, and jaundice.
iii) Other complications/diseases: Presence of excess nitrates and fluorides can cause blue
baby syndrome and defects in teeth and bones called fluorosis respectively. Nitrates get
reduced to nitrites in stomach which can result in stomach cancer.
Effects on animal health

i) Shortage of drinking water: Water pollution may lead to severe scarcity in drinking water
for animals. This may lead to large scale death of aquatic and terrestrial animals
ii) Imbalance in the ecosystem: Water pollution can lead to reduced reproduction rate,
diseases, imbalances secondary food chains etc.
2.12.7 Control of water pollution

i) Water treatment: Domestic sewage and industrial wastes should be treated before discharging
them into water bodies.
ii) Minimal use of pesticides and fertilizers: Use of pesticides, insecticides and fertilizers
should be done judiciously. Rapid biodegradable substitutes for pesticides should be employed.
iii) Afforestation and control of deforestation: Planting trees would reduce pollution by
sediments, silt and mud in the river banks.
iv) Cooling towers/ponds: These can be used to cool the hot water from industries before
discharging into the rivers. This can control thermal pollution.
v) Domestic methods: Separate ponds and tanks to be used for bathing cattle and animals.
In villages, septic tanks should be made in every house. Rivers and lakes should not be
used for bathing or washing as it contaminates water.
Some terminologies related with water pollution

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
BOD is the measure of the quantity of oxygen used by microorganisms (e.g., aerobic bacteria)
in the oxidation of organic matter. The result is that the oxygen content of the water will be
decreased.
Generally, it takes 5 days to perform the BOD test. The BOD5 of natural water is calculated
from the dissolved oxygen concentration, which is measured at zero time and after 5 days of
incubation at 20 C. The BOD5 can be calculated as BOD5 = D0 - D1, in which the BOD5 is
in mg/L and D0 and D1 are the dissolved oxygen concentration in mg/L at time 0 and 5 days,
respectively. The difference is the dissolved oxygen used by the microorganisms in the biochemical oxidation of organic matter.
Typical concentration of BOD5 for streams and rivers throughout the world are 2 to 15 mg/ L
and the observed range is 2 to 65 mg/L.
Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measure of the capacity of water to consume oxygen
during the decomposition of organic matter and the oxidation of inorganic chemicals such as
Ammoniaand nitrite. COD is typically determined by digesting the sample in a strong oxidizing
agent under acidic conditions. This is a chemical method usually completed within few hours.
KMnO4 is the oxidizing chemical and used as the oxygen source with concentrated sulfuric
acid added to yield a strong acid medium. Silver sulfate is added as a catalyst and to minimize
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the interference of chloride. Mercuric sulfate is also added to inhibit interferences of metals
on the oxidation of organic compounds. The COD observed in natural streams and rivers is
2 mg/L to 100 mg/L.
The advantages of the COD test as compared to the BOD test are:
COD results are available much faster.
The COD test oxidizes a wider range of chemical compounds.
It can be standardized more easily.
COD and BOD do not necessarily measure the same types of oxygen consumption. BOD is
only a measure of oxygen consumed by aquatic microorganisms to decompose or oxidize organic
matter. COD refers the requirement of dissolved oxygen for the oxidation of both organic and
inorganic constituents. Hence COD must be greater than BOD.
2.13 | Waste Water Treatment

Sewage is the liquid wastes from toilets, kitchens, baths etc that are disposed off through
sewer. Sewage contains aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, pathogen, microorganism, chemicals etc.
Domestic sewage and industrial wastes should be properly treated before these are drained in
the mainstream water.
The main functions of sewage treatment are the following.
Kill the pathogens
Eliminate the harmful chemicals
Remove the color and bad odor.
Three steps are involved in sewage treatment.
Primary treatment
Secondary treatment
Tertiary treatment
I. Primary treatment:
It is used to remove suspended and floating wastes from waste water by physical and chemical
methods. It involves the following steps.
i. Screening: Using bar screens and mesh screens floating, suspended and coarse particles
are removed by passing sewage water through it.
ii. Silt and grit removal: Sand, powdered glass etc called grit are removed by slowly passing
sewage water through grit chambers. Heavier sand and broken glass settles down by gravity.
iii. Removal of oil and grease: Sewage water is kept in a skimming tank and compressed air
is blown. Oil and grease form froath and float on the surface. It is skimmed off.
iv. Sedimentation process: In this process, the fine suspended particles which do not settle
down by gravity are coagulated by the addition of coagulating agents like alum, FeSO4
etc. Sedimented particles are filtered off.
Primary treatment can reduce the BOD of the incoming wastewater by 2030% and the total
suspended solids by some 5060%.
II. Secondary treatment (Biological treatment):

Secondary (biological) treatment removes the dissolved organic matter that escapes primary
treatment. This is achieved by microbes consuming the organic matter as food, and converting
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Pollution 55
it to carbon dioxide, water, and energy for their own growth and reproduction. Most commonly
employed secondary treatment methods are activated sludge method and tricking filter method.
a) Activated sludge method:
Activated sludge is biologically active and has a large population of aerobic bacteria which
rapidly oxidize the organic matter. Activated sludge is obtained by the aeration of the sewage in
the earlier step of the treatment process. Wastewater after sedimentation is mixed with required
quantity of activated sludge (containing micro organisms like algae and aerobic bacteria) in an
aeration tank as shown in the figure.
The mixture is aerated by passing air through it for hours. Because of the aerobic conditions
the organic matter in the sewage gets fully oxidized.
After aeration, the sewage is finally passed through settling tanks to remove suspended impurities. Purified water plus sludge is sent to the tank where sludge settles down. A part of this
sludge is used for the purification of fresh batch of sewage while the rest is pumped into sludge
disposal tank. Purified water is pumped out and collected separately.
b) Tricking filter method
Trickling filter normally consists of a rock bed 1 to 3 meters in depth. The surfaces of these
rocks are covered with microbial slime consisting of bacteria, protozoa, molds, algae, insect
larvae etc. Sewage is sprinkled on it by means of slow rotating arms. As sewage trickles over,
microorganisms present in the sewage grow on the surface of filtering media using the organic
material of the sewage as food. On the completion of aerobic oxidation, the treated sewage is
taken to the settling tank and sludge is removed. The advantages of this method is the ease of
operation and low cost.
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III. Tertiary treatment:

Both primary and secondary treatments remove most of the organic matter present in the sewage
and it lowers the BOD. But this waste water still contain oxygen demanding wastes, nitrates,
phosphates and toxic metal salts. These are removed by tertiary treatment.
Removal of phosphate: It is done by adding lime. Phosphates are precipitated as calcium
phosphate.
3Ca(OH)2 + 2PO43 Ca3(PO4)2 + 6OH
Coagulation and sedimentation: Addition of alum or FeSO4 neutralizes the charge on
colloidal particles and precipitates them.
Filtration: Water is then passed through bed filled with gravel, coarse sand and fine sand
to remove suspended matter.
Disinfection: Harmful bacteria are killed by passing Cl2 gas, uv or ozone.
Primary
Secondary
Primary
clarification
Aeration
Tertiary
Clarification
Sand and grit

removal
Disinfection
.. ..
Cl
.. Cl
..
Liquid
Effluent
..
..
..
Wastewater
Solids
sludge
Liquid
Sludge
Activated sludge
Coarse debris
screen
Chlorine-{cl }
or Ultraviolet
light-{uv}
Nutrient
removal
Sludge digesters
Solids disposal
2.14 | WATER POLLUTION CASE STUDIES

2.14.1 Minimatha diaster
Minamata disease was discovered for the first time at Minamata City, Japan, in 1956.
Place: Minamatha Bay, Japan
Date: In 1950s
Company: Chisso Corporations chemical factory
Chemical responsible: Mercury compounds. Inorganic mercury salts are used as catalyst for the
preparation of acetaldehyde. These compounds were drained into the bay without any treatment
for many years. Gradually inorganic merucury were converted into highly toxic organic mercury
species- methyl mercury, dimethyl mercury by microorganisms. This was consumed by weeds,
small fishes and finally reached man. This was a classic example of biomagnification.
Health issues: Symptoms of Minamata disease include numbness in the limbs, difficulty in moving
the hands and legs, a narrow vision, difficulty in hearing, hand and leg tremors, and movement
disorders of the eyeballs, etc. In severe cases, people could become mad or unconscious, leading
to death. Animals were also severely affected. Cats became mad and committed suicide.
Birds fell down from sky dead.
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2.14.2 Itai-itai disease

Itai-itai disease (ouch-ouch sickness), was a case of mass cadmium poisoning in Toyama Prefecture, Japan, starting around 1912. Cadmium poisoning caused softening of the bones and kidney
failure. This disease made bone fragile and weak, when touched caused severe pain causing the
victim to say Ouch-Ouch and hence the name. The disease is named for the severe pains caused
in the joints and spine. The mining companies were sued for the damage.
2.15 | SOIL POLLUTION

Soil is a thin covering over the land formed by weathering of rocks. It consists of a mixture of
minerals, organic material, living organisms, air and water that together support the growth of
plant life. Soil pollution is the presence of toxic chemicals (pollutants or contaminants) in soil
which can cause health problems to living organisms or ecosystem.
Sources of Soil Pollution

The major sources of soil pollution are
i) Industrial Wastes: Many factories like sugar, cement, fertilizer, leather
etc produces
large amount of toxic solid wastes which causes severe soil
pollution. Thermal power
plants generate a large quantity of Fly ash. Industrial sludge may contain various salts,
toxic metals like mercury, lead, etc.
ii) Urban Wastes: Wastes likes plastics, glasses, garbage and rubbish materials, rubber etc
from houses can pollute soil. Many of these are non-biodegradable and quite toxic.
iii) Agricultural practices: Fertilizers, Insecticides, fungicides, pesticides etc can accumulate
in the soil. This can kill the useful microorganisms in the soil and finally enter the near
by water bodies.
iv) Radioactive pollutants: Radioactive fallout from nuclear dust, laboratories may contain
highly radioactive materials. Isotopes of radium, uranium, thorium, strontium, iodine, caesium
etc reach the soil and persist there for a long time and keep on emitting radiations.
v) Biological wastes: Human and animal wastes (excreta) can contaminate soil. The sewage
sludge contains many pathogenic organisms, bacteria, viruses and intestinal worms which
cause soil pollution.
Effects of soil pollution

i) Decrease in agricultural productivity: Many waste materials like plastics, glass etc are
non-biodegradable. Dumping them on land can change the pH of the soil, severely affect
the fertility and hence productivity. Many of these substances are toxic for the useful micro
organisms present in soil.
ii) Ground water pollution: Percolation of toxic wastes causes ground water pollution. Chemicals,
pesticides, fertilizers from soil may percolate and contaminate ground-water resources.
iii) Spread of diseases: Pathogens present in the wastes and excreta contaminate the soil.
Housefly, mosquito etc can act as a carrier for these diseases.
iv) Radiation sickness: Radioactive fallout on vegetation can cause radioisotopes toenter the
food chain in the grazing animals. Some of these radioisotopes replace essential elements
in the body and cause abnormalities. Example: Strontium-90 (instead of calcium) gets
deposited in the bones and tissues. The bones become brittle and are prone to fracture.
v) Salination of soil: Increase in the concentration of soluble salts in soil is called salination.
This adversely affects the quality and productivity of soil. Excessive irrigation cause soil
salinity and vegetation loss.
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Control of soil pollution

i) Recycling of soild wastes: Materials like paper, glass and plastics can be recycled and
reused. Metals should be recovered from scrap and disposed materials.
ii) Use of eco-friendly agricultural methods: Use of chemical fertilizers should be reduced.
Biofertilizers and manures should be used. Use of pesticides can be reduced by adopting
biological control of pests.
ii) Proper disposal of solid wastes: Solid wastes should be properly collected and disposed
off by appropriate method.
iii) Production of bio-manure/bio-gas from soild wastes: Biodegradable organic waste should
be used for generation of biogas. Cattle dung can be used for methane generation. Waste
can be used for making compost manure.
2.16 | SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid waste management refers to the collecting, treating, recycling and disposal of solid waste
materials. Solid waste can be classified as municipal, industrial, agricultural, medical, mining
waste and sewage sludge.
Sources of wastes:
Waste from homes (Domestic waste): These contains discarded materials like polyethylene bags,
metal cans, plastic bottles, waste paper, food waste etc.
Waste from shops: This consists mainly of waste paper, packaging material, cans, bottles, plastic
bags etc.
Biomedical waste: This include anatomical wastes, pathological wastes, infectious wastes etc.
Construction/demolition waste: This include rubbles, wood, concrete etc.
Industrial waste: This include packaging material, organic wastes, acids, alkalis and metals,
radioactive wastes, fly ash, scrap metal, rubber, plastic, paper, glass, wood, oils, paints, tars,
dyes, batteries etc.
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Classification:
Biodegradable wastes: These are solid waste materials that can be degraded by micro-organisms.
Example: vegetable wastes, stale food, tea leaves, egg shells etc.
Non-biodegradable wastes: These are wastes that cannot be degraded by micro-organisms.
Example: polyethylene bags, scrap metal, glass bottles etc.
Different steps in solid waste management are
a) Collection b) Transportation c) Storage d) Segregation e) Processing f) Disposal

a) Collection: Waste from our homes is generally collected by our local authorities through
regular waste collection for recycling.
b) Transportation: Wastes are carried from homes to storage centre. Vehicles used for
transportation of wastes shall be covered. Waste should not be left open and scattering
should be prevented.
c) Storage: Collected waste materials are stored properly. It should not create unhygienic and
insanitary conditions around it. Wastes stored are not exposed to open atmosphere. Bins
for storage of bio-degradable wastes shall be painted green, those for storage of recyclable
wastes shall be printed white and those for storage of other wastes shall be printed black.
d) Segregation: Collected solid wastes are separated. Some wastes are recycled. Recycling
is the reprocessing of discarded materials into new useful products. Recycling occurs in
three phases: a) sorting of wastes and collecting recyclables, b) creation of raw materials
from recyclables, c) production of new products from raw materals. The process recycling
saves money, energy and also reduces pollution. Recycling of paper will reduce cutting of
trees for making fresh paper.
e) Processing: Treatment methods are selected based on the composition, quantity, and form
of the waste material. Treatment and disposal options are chosen according to the nature
of waste.
Incineration: Incineration is the most common thermal treatment process. This method is often
used when waste contain hazardous material and organic content. It is the combustion of waste
in the presence of oxygen. After incineration, the wastes are converted to carbon dioxide, water
vapour and ash. Incineration significantly reduces the volume of the waste, rendering it harmless
and reducing transportation costs. During incineration high levels of toxic dioxins, furans, lead
and cadmium may be emitted.
Advantages:
It requires minimum land
It can be operated in any weather
The volume of wastes are reduced to about 25%
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Disadvantages:
It is expensive to build and operate
High energy requirement.
Cause significant air pollution due to burning of wastes. Foul smell is also produced.
Pyrolysis and Gasification: Pyrolysis and gasification are similar processes which decompose
organic waste by heating it to high temperatures. Gasification uses a low oxygen environment
while pyrolysis allows no oxygen.
Composting: Composting is the controlled aerobic decomposition of organic matter by the action
of micro organisms and small invertebrates. Separated compostable wastes are dumped into earthen
trenches and then covered with earth. Organic matter such as dead and dry leaves and twigs are
decomposed by worms and insects, and is finally broken down by bacteria and fungi, to form
a dark rich soil-like material called compost. This soil can be used as a manure for farms and
gardens. Most widely used composting is vermicomposting-using earthworms.
Sanitary landfill: Sanitary Landfills are designed to greatly reduce or eliminate the risks that waste
disposal may pose to the public health and environmental quality. In a sanitary landfill, garbage is
spread out in thin layers. It is then covered with mud or clayor plastic and then compacted. Next
layer of wastes is spread on top of this, followed by another layer of soil. Suitable precautions
are taken so that underground water is not contaminated. When landfill is full it is covered with
clay, sand, gravel and top soil to prevent seepage of water.
Landfill Advantages
Segregation not required.
Simple and economical.
When a landfill is complete, it can be reclaimed, built on or used as parks or farming land.
Landfill Disadvantages
Landfill can pollute the water, the air, and also the soil.
Landfill can result in decrease in soil fertility.
Improperly constructed landfill can pollute underground water.
Landfill can attract animals and insects like rats, mosquitoes, cockroaches etc.
Landfill can also cause sicknesses in communities.
Anaerobic decomposition produces methane, a dangerous greenhouse gas.
2.17 | MARINE POLLUTION

Marine pollution is defined as the discharge of hazardous waste substances (solid or liquid) into
sea water causing harm to marine organisms.
Causes of marine pollution

i) Oil spillage: Most important marine pollutant is oil. Tankers transporting oil cause oil
pollution. On the successful delivery of oil through sea-route, empty tankers are filled with
water called ballast-water to maintain balance. The ballast-water containing residual oil is
released into the sea on completion of return journey. Leakage in oil tankers, oil pipe lines
also causes oil spillage. Oil spillage is also caused by refinery operations.
ii) Heavy metals: Heavy metals like lead, cadmium, mercury etc can reach sea through various
rivers, sediments etc.
iii) Pesticides and Insecticides: Indiscriminate use of fertilizers and pesticides can lead to
marine pollution. Finally these chemicals make their way into the ocean.
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iv) Other man made pollutants: Plastics and other synthetic materials are light weight and
non biodegradable. Hence cause a serious threat to marine life.
Effects of marine pollution

i) Oil: Oil, being lighter than water, forms a layer and floats on the surface of water. This
affects the exchange of O2 and CO2 between atmosphere and sea water. The equilibrium
is affected. This in turn affects phytoplankton, zooplankton, algal species, various species
of invertebrates, coral reefs, fish, birds, mammals etc. Fishes die because the fish gills get
laden with oil. Oil also affects water birds. Oil disrupts the insulating capacity of feathers.
Death occurs due to loss of buoyancy and birds drown.
ii) Heavy metals: Heavy metals like mercury, cadmium, lead etc cause severe health hazards
for aquatic flora and fauna. These metals can magnify over food chain (biomagnification)
iii) Pesticides and other chemicals: Many of the chemicals are non-bio degradable and stay
in water for long time. Many pesticides like DDT can cause biomagnifications.
v) Plastics: Many animals like fishes, turtles consume plastic causing gastro-intestinal health
problems.
Control measures of marine pollution
Industrial wastes should not be discharged in coastal waters.

Dumping of toxic, hazardous wastes and sewage sludge should be banned.
Developmental activities on coastal areas should be minimized.
Oil and grease from service stations should be processed for reuse.
Oil ballast should not be dumped into sea.
Ecologically sensitive coastal areas should be protected by not allowing drilling.
2.18 | NOISE POLLUTION

Noise pollution is excessive, displeasing, unwanted and undesirable sound that disrupts the
activity or balance of human or animal life.
Noise is undesirable and unwanted sound. Not all sound is noise. What may be considered as
music to one person may be noise to another. Unlike other pollutants noise does not accumulate
in the environment.
Sound is measured in a unit called the Decibel. Ordinary conversation has a noise value
of 60 decibels. If loudness exceeds 80 decibels, it can cause noise pollution. Noise becomes
troublesome above 140 decibels.
Sources of Noise Pollution

i) Transport/Traffic: One of the main sources of noise is various modes of transportation
(like air, road, rail-transportation). For example, noise caused by taking off and landing of
airplanes exceed 110 db.
ii) Industrial activity: Use of sirens, heavy machines, engines, turbines, cutting, grinding etc
causes significant noise pollution.
iii) Domestic activity: Use of grinders, food blenders, television, music system can produce
unpleasant loud sound disturbing the neighborhood.
iv) Celebrations: People celebrate festivals by exploding crackers. Diwali, New year, marriages
etc involve extensive use of firecrackers.
Effects of Noise pollution

Noise pollution can cause the following effects.
Hearing damage: Noise can cause temporary or permanent hearing loss. It depends on
intensity and duration of sound level.
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Physical and mental balance: Constant noise affects a man physically and mentally.
Physical effects include blood vessels to contract, skin to become pale, muscles to
constrict and rise in blood pressure leading to tension, insomnia (sleeplessness) and
nervousness. Lack of concentration anxiety, stress and mental fatigue are significant
health effects of noise.
Interferes with mans communication: In a noisy area communication is severely affected.
This may increase the rate of accidents especially in industries.
Affects efficiency and productivity: Noise pollution result in decreased work efficiency
and productivity. Sometimes, accidents can also happen.
Health effects: Loud and sudden noise affects the brain. Loud noise can affect health of
pregnant mothers and small infants.
Control of Noise Pollution

Following methods can be used to control noise pollution:
Reduce noise at the source: Sources of noise pollution like heavy vehicles and old vehicles
may not be allowed to ply in the populated areas.
Proper maintenance: Proper oiling will reduce the noise from the machinery and other
moving parts.
Use of sound absorbing substances/silencers: Use of substances that absorb sound or
silencer in motor vehicles can reduce the intensity of noise pollution. Proper acoustics of
buildings will reduce noise pollution.
Planting trees: Trees should be planted all around the hospitals, libraries and schools and
colleges. These trees can absorb noise.
Personal precaution: Industrial workers should be provided with ear plugs or cotton plugs.
Rooms in hospitals can be made sound proof. People should not cause nuisance to public
by playing music, television very loud
Law enforcement: Strict legislation can minimize noise pollution during various festivals
and social functions. Use of loud horns should banned.
2.19 | THERMAL POLLUTION

Thermal pollution is a form of water pollution that refers to degradation of water quality by any
process that changes ambient water temperature. It can be defined as presence of waste heat in
the water which can cause undesirable changes in the natural environment.
Industries take water from rivers and lakes, use it for cooling purposes and then returns the
heated water back to its source. Thermal power plants, nuclear power plants uses water as a
coolant. Here, water is heated to produce steam, which is used to drive the turbines that generate
electricity. Steam is condensed into water after it leaves the turbines. For this condensation, water
is taken from a water body. This heated water, which is at least 15C higher than the normal is
discharged back into the water body.
Causes
i) Industries: Heat producing industries like thermal power plants, nuclear power plants, oil
refineries, steel mills etc uses water for various purposes. Waste water, often above ambient
temperature is discharged to nearby water body causing thermal pollution.
ii) Nuclear power plants: Nuclear power plants use water as coolant. After heat exchange
water having higher temperature is discharged to water body.
iii) Domestic homes: Hot water discharged from homes (geyser) and kitchen can also cause
thermal pollution.
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Effects of Thermal pollution

i) Reduction in amount of dissolved oxygen: Thermal pollution can lead to decrease in
dissolved oxygen content of water. Solubility of oxygen in water is decreased at high
temperature. This can severely affect aquatic plants and animals as they depend on dissolved
oxygen for photosynthesis.
ii) Death of aquatic organism: Most of the marine animals are unable to withstand a temperature
increase of 4 to 5C. Sponges, mollusks and crustaceans are killed when temperature reaches
above 37C. This can result in significant changes in the aquatic ecosystem.
iii) Increased toxicity of chemicals at higher temperature: Toxicity of pesticides, detergents
and chemicals in the effluents increases with increase in temperature.
iv) Migration of fishes: Some of the less tolerant fishes migrate to cooler areas due to thermal
pollution.
v) Change in the ecosystem: The composition of flora and fauna of the ecosystem will
change. The species sensitive to increased temperature are destroyed and are replaced by
temperature tolerant species.
vi) Reduced fertility rate in fishes: The eggs of fish may hatch early or fail to hatch at all
causing decrease in population.
vii) Change in metabolic activities: At higher temperatures, aquatic organisms require more
oxygen for metabolic activities.
Control of Thermal pollution

The following methods can be employed for control of thermal pollution:
(i) Cooling ponds, (ii) Spray Ponds and (iii) Cooling towers
i) Cooling Ponds:
Cooling ponds constitute simplest method of controlling thermal pollution. The cooling pond
receives hot water from the thermal plants condensers and it is stored in ponds. Energy is dissipated mainly through evaporation (natural evaporation cools the water). Once the water has
cooled in the pond, it is reused by the plant or discharged in nearby water body. New water is
added to the system to replace the water lost through evaporation.
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ii) Spray Ponds: Hot water from condensers is received in spray ponds. Received water is
sprayed through nozzles where fine droplets are formed. Excess heat from these fine droplets is
dissipated to the atmosphere. Water gets cooled as it comes down. Cooled water is collected and
returned to the water body.
iii) Cooling Towers:

(a) Wet cooling tower: Hot water is sprayed over baffles. Cool air is made to enter from the
sides. This takes away the heat and cools the water. Cooled water can be discharged to the
water body. One major disadvantage of this method is that large amount of water is lost
through evaporation.
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(b) Dry cooling tower: In dry cooling tower, hot water is made to flow through a series of
coiled pipes. Cool air is passed over these hot pipes mechanically with the help of fans.
Unlike the previous method, there is no significant water loss. However, installation and
operation cost makes dry cooling tower much expensive than wet cooling tower.
2.20 | NUCLEAR HAZARDS

Nuclear energy can be both beneficial and harmful depending on the way in which it is used.
For example, X-rays are used to examine bones for fractures, cancer is treated with the help of
radioactive isotopes. Nuclear power plants are used for production of electricity. However, nuclear
energy can be used for the manufacture of nuclear weapons. The radioactive wastes generated
from nuclear power plants can cause serious environmental damage.
Nuclear hazards is defined as the physical pollution of air, water or land by radioactive substances emitting harmful radiations which can cause health hazards to living beings.
Causes
i) Natural causes: Natural sources of radiation include cosmic rays coming from space,
Radioactive Radon-222 present in rocks, Uranium, Thorium and other species present in
rocks and minerals.
ii) Anthropogenic causes: These are some man made radiation sources.
a) Nuclear power plants: Every nuclear power plant produces few kilogram of highly
radioactive wastes. Many of these wastes have long half life period and will continue
to emit radiations for many years if not disposed properly.
b) Nuclear accidents: Accidents happening in a nuclear reactor may lead to the leakage
of radioactive materials which can cause serious health concerns. Example: Chernobyl
reactor meltdown in 1986, Fukushima Daiichi leakage in 2011.
c) Weapons of mass destruction: Many developed countries have the technology to prepare
nuclear weapons. Use of these weapons can pollute environment and can have devastating
effects. Eg: Atomic Bomb dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
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d) Laboratories: X-rays are widely used in hospitals. Radioactive materials are used in
cancer therapy and treatment. Leakage of these can cause various problems.
Biological Effects of Radiations

Death: Very high radiation doses are found to be harmful and may kill the organisms
which are exposed within minutes.
Mutation: Radiations can result in genetic damage, which induce mutations in the DNA.
Mutations alter the genetic makeup of the organism and may be transmitted to several
generations.
Cancer: Radioactive iodine (I131) accumulates in thyroid gland and causes thyroid cancer.
Radioactive Strontium-90 can replace calcium in the bones and causes leukemia or cancer
of bone marrow. Ionizing radiations can also induce various types of cancer.
Somatic domages: Somatic damage includes burns, miscarriages, eye cataract etc can
happen if a person is exposed to radiation beyond permissible limit. Low level exposure
can result in temporary decrease in Red blood cell count, Mild radiation sickness etc.
Control of Radiation pollution

i) Nuclear power plants:
Nuclear power plants should be located in a place where density of population is very less.
Proper disposal of wastes, from both laboratories and nuclear power plants, should be done.
Better operator training and better instrumentation is required to avoid nuclear accidents.
Leakage of radioactive elements or radiations from nuclear reactors, laboratories should
be checked regularly.
Regular inspection of areas of nuclear activities for radiation level must be done.
Workers in nuclear plants should be given training about nuclear safety. They should be
provided with safety measures to safe guard them against accidents.

ii) General awareness: Public should be made aware about various hazards of nuclear
radiation and should be educated about the precautionary measures to be taken, in case of
a radioactive fall out.
Methods used for disposal of nuclear wastes

Deep ocean disposal: In this method, nuclear wastes are filled in containers made of
borosilicate glass. Borosilicate glass prevents leakage of any nuclear radiation. This
container is enclosed in another water-tight metal container and dumped into the ocean.
These containers will rest in the ocean floor.
Deep geological burial: In this method, radioactive wastes are buried in containers deep
underground. These materials will decay naturally over thousands of years.
Nuclear waste recycling: In this method, radioactive wastes are recycled or reused. Wastes
containing uranium, plutonium and other fission products are separated using various
chemical processes. However, this method is very expensive and can be used only for
some nuclear wastes.
2.21 | NUCLEAR HAZARDS-CASE STUDIES

As of January 2015, thirty countries worldwide are operating 437 nuclear reactors for electricity
generation and 71 new nuclear plants are under construction in 15 countries. Nuclear power plants
provided 12.3 percent of the worlds electricity production in 2012. Most of the nuclear hazards
known are related to nuclear reactors. Due to human or machine error, nuclear chain reaction
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goes uncontrolled resulting in core melt down. Radioactive debris is spread all over resulting in
massive destruction to life and property.
2.21.1 Hiroshima and Nagasaki incident

Place: Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Date: August 6,1945 at 8:15 a.m and August 9,1945 at 11:02 am
Name of the bomb: Little boy and Fat man. Little Boy was simple uranium 235-based bomb and
was untested till Hiroshima. Fat Man, the Nagasaki bomb, was a more complex plutonium bomb.
Reason: Attack of Japan on Pearl harbour.
Hiroshima Bombing: Atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6,1945 at 8:15 am.
The energy released was equivalent of 20,000 tons of TNT. Within few seconds half of the
city vaporized. According to estimates, 80,000 people were instantly vaporized. Over 1.5 lakhs
were injured by radiation. Most of buildings collapsed making people homeless. The city was
unbelievably devastated. After the explosion, it rained heavily in northwest of the city. This black
rain contained dirt, dust, soot and highly radioactive particles. It caused more contamination
even in areas that were remote from the explosion.
Nagasaki Bombing: At 11:02 a.m., the atomic bomb, Fat Man, was dropped over Nagasaki.
It was a plutonium based atomic bomb. Half of the population were killed and many sustained
severe injuries. City was completely devastated by the bombing. People were clueless about the
situation, they ran for help.
The tragedy was not limited to present population. Future generations also suffered from
various diseases. Even the babies in the mothers womb were affected. Blindness, deafness, skin
diseases and cancers, distortion of bones and other parts became common for many years. For
many years high amounts of cancer, birth defects, and tumors made life of the victims miserable.
2.21.2 Chernobyl disaster

Place: Chernobyl nuclear power plant, Ukraine
Date: 26 April, 1986
Reason: Faulty operations of shutting down the plant
Incident: On 26 April, 1986 the accident occurred at the reactor of the Chernobyl power plant
which was designed to produce 1000 MW electrical energy. The reactor working continuously
for 2 years was to be shut down for intermediate repairs. Top executives were busy in the
preparations for national holiday, The May Day. Due to improper shutting down operations, an
explosion occurred in the reactor at 01.23 hrs on April 26, 1986. It was soon followed by another
explosion three seconds later. Graphite rods caught fire. The reactor temperature rose to more
than 2000C. Fuel and radioactive debris shot as a cloud. The debris and gases drifted over most
of the Europe. Belarus, Poland, Denmark, Sweden and Norway were affected.
Hundreds of people died and many were hospitalized. Radioactive cloud was rich in Iodine-131,
Cesium-134 and Cesium-137. It was estimated that nearly 6 lakh were exposed to the radiations.
People were warned not to consume milk, water and other products. There was huge increase
in cancer cases especially, thyroid cancer and leukaemia. Number of cases reported for thyroid
cancer in children shot up as they consumed contaminated milk and milk products. Fields could
not be cultivated for many years. Trees were destroyed. Now, Chernobyl is free from radiation
and is a popular tourist destination.
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2.21.3 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster

Place: Fukushima, Japan
Date: Started on 11 March, 2011
Reason: Tsunami on 11 March 2011
Incident: Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster was a result of series of equipment failures and
nuclear meltdowns. Large amount of radioactive materials were released from the Fukushima
Nuclear Power Plant, following an earthquake and tsunami on 11 March 2011. It is the largest
nuclear disaster since the Chernobyl disaster of 1986.
The plant had six separate boiling water reactors. Tsunami caused flooding of the rooms
containing the emergency generators. These generators stopped working. This resulted in
stoppage of water (coolant) circulation in the reactor. Reactors were overheated and reactors
1, 2 and 3 experienced full meltdown in few days. Several chemical explosions occurred.
People were evacuated within few mile radii. Large amounts of radioactive materials might
have been released into ocean waters. People were advised not to use tap water and certain
food materials. On 16 December 2011, Japanese authorities declared the plant to be stable.
2.22 |ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN PREVENTION OF

POLLUTION
The role of an individual in maintaining a pollution free, pure and congenial environment and in
preserving its resources is actually the need of the hour. Every human being has the responsibility
to protect the mother earth. A small effort made by each individual at his own place can have
pronounced effect at the global level. It is aptly said, Think globally act locally.
Individuals can play an important role in abatement of air, water, soil or noise pollution. Some
roles are given below.
Air pollution reduction

Maintenance of vehicles should be proper as to avoid introduction of harmful gases and
other pollutants in to the atmosphere.
Cut down the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as they destroy the ozone layer.
Use CFC free refrigerators.
Use of less polluting fuels like hydrogen, natural gas instead of coal, petrol etc.
Use mass transport system. For short-visits use bicycle or go on foot. Decrease the use
of automobiles.
Plant more trees. Trees can act as scvangers for many toxic gases.
Concentrate more in pollution prevention than pollution control.
Water pollution reduction

Use pesticides only when absolutely necessary. Overdose of pesticides should be avoided.
Use alternate pest control methods (biological control).
Use phosphate-free detergents. This can minimize eutrophication of water bodies.
Commercial inorganic fertilizers can be replaced by organic manure.
Hazardous wastes from industries must be treated before dumping to water bodies.
Dont wash laundry, vehicles or clean vessels in open water bodies.
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Soil pollution reduction

Biodegradable materials can be converted into compost or maure or for the production
of bio-gas.
Plastics bags, glass bottles etc can be reused.
Use of rechargeable batteries will reduce soil metal pollution.
Promote reuse and recycling wherever possible and reduce the production of solid wastes.
Noise pollution reduction
Music lovers can use head phones to listen to music systems.

Minimize the use of loud speakers and other devices which produce noise.
Proper maintenance of vehicles to prevent making loud noise.
Planting trees can help in reduction of noise pollution.
Limit the use of crackers during festival season. See to it that crackers dont produce
unbearable noise.
The use of horn while driving should be minimized.

1. Describe the various chemical and photochemical reactions in the atmosphere.

2. Write a detailed account of ozone layer depletion.
3. What is acid rain? How is it formed? Explain the impact of acid rain on the environment.
4. How is smog fog formed? What are health impacts of smog?
5. Describe in detail the methods for the control of particulate pollution and gaseous emission.
6. Describe the significance of any six parameters of drinking water quality standards.

7. Write informative notes on water treatment process.
8. Write a detailed note on solid waste management.
9. Explain the various sources, effects and control measures of marine pollution.
10. Explain the various sources, effects and control measures of noise pollution.

11. What is thermal pollution? How can it be minimized?
12. Describe the role of an individual in the prevention of pollution. (Anna Univ, Dec 2014)
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Unit
NATURAL RESOURCES
SYLLABUS
Forest resources: Use and over-exploitation, deforestation, case studies- timber
extraction, mining, dams and their effects on forests and tribal people Water resources:
Use and overutilization of surface and ground water, dams-benefits and problems
Mineral resources: Use and exploitation, environmental effects of extracting and using
mineral resources, case studies Food resources: World food problems, changes
caused by agriculture and overgrazing, effects of modern agriculture, fertilizer-pesticide
problems, water logging, salinity, case studies Energy resources: Growing energy
needs, renewable and non renewable energy sources, use of alternate energy sources.
Energy Conversion processes Biogas production and uses, anaerobic digestion;
case studies Land resources: Land as a resource, land degradation, man induced
landslides, soil erosion and desertification role of an individual in conservation of
natural resources Equitable use of resources for sustainable lifestyles. Introduction
to Environmental Biochemistry: Proteins Biochemical degradation of pollutants,
Bioconversion of pollutants. Field study of local area to document environmental
assets river / forest / grassland / hill / mountain.
3.1 |INTRODUCTION
A natural resource may be defined as any material obtained from nature which can be used
as such or transformed to something more valuable and useful. They include the air to breathe,
water to drink, land to live on, walk on and grow the food on etc.
The natural resources are of two kinds.
Renewable resources are resources that are naturally regenerated within a given span of time.
Most of them are continuous. However, some renewable resources may become non renewable
if over-exploited or not given enough time for regeneration. Example: Solar energy, forests,
wildlife, wind energy, biomass energy, tidal energy, hydro power etc.
Non-renewable resources are resources that have limited supply. They exhaust after certain time
period. Once we exhaust these reserves, the same cannot be replenished. Example: Fossil fuels
like coal, petroleum, minerals etc.
The important natural resources are
1. Forest resources
2. Water resources
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3. Mineral resources
4. Food resources
5. Energy resources
6. Land resources
3.2 | FOREST RESOURCES

Forests are one of the most important natural resources on this earth. A forest is a natural ecosystem having diversified species of herbs, shrubs, small trees, large trees in different stages of
lifespan. A variety of microorganisms, insects, reptiles, mammals, are seen in forests.
3.2.1 Uses or Functions of forests

Ecological functions
1. Production of oxygen: During photosynthesis trees release oxygen which is so vital for
all life forms. They are called earths lungs.
2. Reducing global warming: CO2 (a major greenhouse gas) is absorbed by the forests during
photosynthesis. Thus forests helps to keep earth cooler by absorbing green houses..
3. Regulation of hydrological cycle: Forests help to regulate water cycle by condensing water
vapor in clouds resulting rains.
4. Prevention of soil erosion: Roots of the trees hold together the top soil and prevent from
directly washing soil away. It also prevents land slides and flash floods.
5. Improving soil fertility: Leave litter helps in maintaining soil fertility. It helps to maintain
soil nutrients and structure.
6. Pollution moderators: Forests can absorb many toxic gases, purifying air. They also absorb
noise, thus reducing noise pollution.
7. Regulation of heat: Forests play a crucial role in controlling heat by the absorption of
solar heat during evapotranspiration.
8. Wild life habitat: Millions of wild animals live in forests. Forests are home to millions
of plant species too. It is estimated that about 7 million species are found in the tropical
forests alone.
9. Reducing the rate of surface run-off of water: Trees retain the water with the help of
roots and reduces surface run off.
Productive functions
1. Supply of Raw Material: Forest is a source of raw material for various industries. Wood
is a major raw material which is widely used as fuel, raw material for pulp, paper, furniture
etc.
2. Commercial uses: Forests yields a large number of commercial goods like timber, firewood,
food items, gum, resins, fibers, lac, fodder, medicine, drugs etc.
Recreational, Developmental and Educational Functions

1. Eco tourism: Forests and dams can promote eco tourism.
2. Employment functions: Forest directly and indirectly act as a source for employment to
a number of people.
3. Revenue: Forest contributes to the economic development of the country because they
provide goods and services to the people and industry.
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3.2.2 Deforestation:
Removal of earths forest is known as deforestation. It is the cutting of trees, transforming a f orest
into cleared land. This can result in serious environmental problems. The worlds rain forests
could completely vanish in a hundred years at the current rate of deforestation.
Causes
1. Agriculture: Conversion of forests to agricultural land to feed growing numbers of people.
Forests are cut down to plant cash crops like pepper, rubber etc.
2. Fuel requirements: Growing population result in increased fuel demands. In rural areas,
wood is still the major fuel. Tress are cut down for the demand of firewood.
3. Developmental projects: Constructing roads, railway tracks etc require clearing of forests
on a large scale.
4. Dams and reservoirs: Dams and Hydroelectric projects in forest area cause massive
deforestation. Over 60,000 hectares of forest area was cleared for the construction of
Narmada Dam. Several hectares of forest were submerged under water.
5. Raw materials for industrial use: Wood is an important raw material for many purposes.
For making furniture, boxes, plywood, pulp for paper trees are cut down.
6. Mining: Surface and sub-surface mining for the extraction of mineral resources cause
extensive deforestation. Digging a coal, diamond or gold mine requires the removal of all
forest cover. Forests are further cleared for the transport of trucks and other equipment.
7. Forest fires and volcanic eruption: Forest fires and volcanic eruption can cause deforestation.
Forest fire is common in tropical regions during summer.
8. Overgrazing: Overgrazing by cattles cause deforestation. They not only destroy the
vegetation but also pull out the roots of plants.
Consequences
1. Global warming: Increasing CO2 levels lead to rise in temperature of earth. Forests are
known as earths lungs as they play a great role in regulating the amount of greenhouse
gases like CO2.
2. Soil erosion: Roots of trees helps to hold soil together preventing soil erosion. Removal
of trees will lead to easy removal of top soil by water, wind etc.
3. Loss of habitat: Due to deforestation, forest animals and plants will lose their natural
habitat. This may cause migration of animals or man-animal conflicts.
4. Loss of soil fertility: Leaf litter is rich in organic matter which is converted into nutrients
by micro organisms present in the soil. Absence of leaf litter can reduce soil fertility.
5. Change in rainfall pattern: Forests play an important role in regulation of hydrological
cycle. Deforestation can cause decrease in rainfall or erratic rainfall pattern.
6. Lowering of water table: Deforestation results in less rainfall which may result in lowering
of water table.
7. Shifting of tribal people: Large scale deforestation may result in shifting of tribal population
to urban areas.
8. Loss of biodiversity, Genetic and species diversity: Deforestation will lead to the loss of
biodiversity. Deforestation will lead to loss of many varieties of flora and fauna. Endangered
plants and animals may become extinct.
9. Loss of forest products: Many forest products like honey, medicinal plants etc will become
costly.
10. Desertification: Large scale deforestation may lead to forest becoming arid, semi-arid or
desert.
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Steps to prevent deforestation or the role of individual in preserving forest resources

1. Starting afforestation (tree planting) programs.
2. Educating people about the ill effects of deforestation through movies, documentaries, play,
newsletters etc.
3. Strict implementation of Forest Conservation Act
4. Implementing peoples participatory programmes. Example: Joint Forestry Management
(JFM).
5. Avoids diversion of forest lands for other activities through acts like Forest Conservation
Act and Wild life (protection) Act
6. Control forest diseases and forest fire
7. Recycling or replacing forest products may result in less dependence of forest.
3.2 | WATER RESOURCES

Earth is the only known planet to contain water, hence known as blue planet. All life of earth
depends on water. About 97% of the earths surface is covered by water and most of the animals
and plants have 60-65% water in their body. About 97% of the earths water supply is found in
oceans. This is unfit for domestic purposes. 2% is locked in the polar ice-caps which again is
unusable. Thus only 1% is available as fresh water in rivers, lakes, streams, reservoirs and ground
water which is suitable for human consumption.
3.2.1 Hydrological cycle

The movement of water on the earths surface and through the atmosphere is known as the
hydrologic cycle or water cycle. Water vapor reaches the atmosphere from earths surface form
through evaporation, condenses and form clouds. Water then returns to the surface of the earth
in liquid (rain) or solid (snow, sleet, etc.) form.
Step 1: Evaporation and transpiration

Water bodies like oceans, lakes and the river bodies absorbs heat energy from the sun and turns
into water vapor. Through evaporation, water moves from hydrosphere to atmosphere. Transpiration is a process similar to evaporation where liquid water is turned into water vapor by the
plants. It is the evaporation of water from leaves through stomata (very tiny openings on leaves)
as water vapor.
Step 2: Condensation
Water vapour formed by evaporation, rises up in the atmosphere. At high altitudes, where the
temperature is low, the water vapor changes into very tiny particles of ice /water droplets. This
process is called condensation. These water particles come close together and form clouds and
fogs in the sky.
Step 3: Precipitation
Due to wind or change in temperature, the water droplets in clouds combine to make bigger droplets and precipitates as rain. If the temperature is less than zero, the water droplets fall as snow.
Step 4: Runoff and infiltration

Water that pours down as rain leads to runoff. Runoff is the process where water runs over the
surface of earth. During run off water carries top soil and minerals along with the stream. This
runoff combines to form small channels and then rivers and ends up into lakes, seas and oceans.
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A part of rainwater does not runoff into the rivers, but moves deep into the soil through
different layers. This is called infiltration. This water which seeps down increases the level of
ground water table.
Types of freshwater resources

Freshwater may be present either as surface water or as underground water
Surface water:
Surface water refer to water present on the surface of earth, either stagnant type or flowing type.
Stagnant water bodies are called lentic and flowing water bodies are called lotic water.
Examples: Lentic water: Lakes, ponds etc
Lotic water: Rivers, streams etc.
Underground water:
Underground refers to the water present under the earths surface. A layer of sediment or rock
that is highly permeable and contains water is called an aquifer. Aquifers are of two types:
Unconfined aquifers receive water seeping down from above. It is constantly recharged. Upper
boundary of an unconfined aquifier is water table.
Confined aquifers are sandwitched between two impermeable layers of rock or sediments. It
is recharged only in those areas where the aquifer intersects the land surface.
3.2.2 Over exploitation of ground water

Due to rapid population growth and industrial growth, the demand for water has increased rapidly. Indiscriminate and unscientific use of water resources has resulted in water scarcity and
water pollution.
Causes
1. Agriculture: The main reason for the over exploitation of ground water is agriculture.
Extensive irrigation including for livestock requires lot of water.
2. Increase in population: Domestic and industrial needs of the growing population requires
water.
3. Inadequate rainfall/Drought: To meet severe weather conditions ground water is over
exploited.
Consequences
1. Lowering of water table: Large number of tube wells built can result in lowering of water
table.
2. Ground subsidence: When groundwater withdrawal is more than its recharge rate, the clay
layers in the aquifer get compacted and settle. This result in the sinking of land called
ground subsidence. This can result in damage of buildings, fracture in pipelines etc.
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3. Water logging and salinity: Rapid removal of ground water can cause the intrusion of sea
water which results in increase in salinity. When excessive irrigation is done with brackish
water it raises the water table gradually leading to water-logging and salinity problems.
4. Water pollution/Chemical contamination: Removal of large volumes of ground water
can result in water pollution. Chemicals contamination can occur. Due to pollution, water
will become unfit or drinking and domestic uses.
5. Decline in agricultural production: Lowering of water table can bring about water scarcity
which can cause decrease in agricultural crop production. This can lead to drought or
famine. Salt water intrusion can also lead to destruction of crops.
6. Drying up of lakes, rivers and water bodies: Indiscriminate use of ground water at a
rapid rate can cause drying up of many surface water bodies.
7. Desertification: Loss of underground water may convert semi-arid places into desert.
8. Waste of energy: Lowering of water table result in wastage of energy due to pumping. It
increases the cost of pumping ground water.
3.2.3 Dams
Dam is a solid barrier constructed at a suitable location across a river valley to store water.
Dams have been referred to as Temples of modern India by the countrys first Prime Minister,
Jawaharlal Nehru.
Benefits
1. Generation of electricity: Water stored in dams can be used for the generation of electricity
in hydro-electric power stations.
2. Floods and famine control: Dams help to control or mitigate floods. It can act as a
reservoir of water during famine.
3. Water for irrigation: Dams provide water for irrigation. This is particularly useful during
summer.
4. Source of drinking water: Dams can also act as reservoir of fresh water for domestic
uses.
5. Promoting navigation and fishery: Big dams also promote navigation and fishery.
6. Promote tourism: Dams also promote tourism. Constructing a dam presents a beautiful
view of a lake. Recreational activities like boating, swimming, fishing etc can promote eco
tourism.
7. Economic growth: Dams directly or indirectly provide employment to many and raising
the standard and quality of life.
Problems
Impacts at the upstream level
1. Displacement of tribal people: Constructing large dams causes large scale displacement
of tribal people. Settlement and rehabilitation of these people is a major concern.
2. Loss of forest, flora and fauna: Construction of dams include massive deforestation and
submergence of land under water. This can result in the loss of flora and fauna. Sometimes,
plants and animals may become endangered or even extinct.
3. Changes in aquatic habitat: Construction of dams result in the variation of natural flow
of the river which may result in changes in aquatic ecosystem.
4. Siltation and sedimentation of reservoirs: Dams block the sediment load normally found
in a river flow. This result in siltation and sedimentation.
5. Loss of non-forest land: Non forest land may be submerged under water during the
construction of large dams.
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6. Stagnation and water logging: Stagnation and water logging can happen near the reservoir.
7. Breeding of vectors and spread of vector-borne diseases: Dams, reservoirs in tropical
areas are breeding grounds for mosquitoes, snails, and flies, the vectors that carry malaria
and other diseases.
8. Reservoir induced seismicity (RIS): Large dams carry enormous volume of water and it
can cause significant impact on the strength of soil and rock strata beneath the surface. It
can result in generating seismic waves which result in earthquake.
9. Growth of aquatic weeds: Dams may result in the rapid growth of aquatic weeds.
10. Microclimatic change: Large dams may result in the climatic change around the reservoir.
Impacts at the downstream
1. Water logging and salinity: Over irrigation in the downstream region may result in water
logging and increased soil salinity.
2. Micro-climatic changes: Large dams may result in the climatic change around the reservoir.
3. Silt deposition: Soil erosion may lead to silt deposition on river mouths.
4. Flash floods: Opening of reservoir shutter may result in flash floods.
5. Salt water intrusion: Salt water intrusion can happen at the river mouths.
6. Breeding of vectors and spread of vector-borne diseases: Dam reservoirs in tropical
areas are breeding grounds for mosquitoes, snails, and flies, the vectors that carry malaria
and other diseases.
3.2.4 Case study: Sardar Sarovar Dam

Sardar Sarovar dam is situated on river Narmada and is spread over three states of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. Although the project is aimed at providing irrigation water, drinking
water and electricity to the three states, the environmental impacts have been quite severe. A total
of 1.5 million hectares of land will be submerged by the dam, out of which 60,000 hectares is
forest land. A total of 573 villages were submerged by the Narmada Dam. Over 75,000 people
had to be evicted and resettled.
3.2.5 Effects of dams on tribal people

Large dams have a great impact on the lifestyle and identity of tribal people. Tribals are socially,
economically and politically the weakest community in India. Most of them are illiterate. In
India, these tribals live in rural areas as communities in close proximity to forests, rivers and
mountains. They depend heavily on natural resources for their livelihood.
Due to developmental work (dams, road, railway tracks) they are evicted from their ancestral
homes. Tribals are either forced to migrate to urban slums in search of employment or become
landless laborers in rural areas. However, these tribal people do not share the benefits of developmental projects which resulted in their displacement. Most of them are deprived of the basic
amenities like roads, electricity, transport, communication, healthcare, drinking water or sanitation. Most of the natives are illiterate and are exploited. They are forced to work at low wages.
Tribal people also find it increasingly difficult to adjust with urban life. After displacement, often
conflicts happen with other communities. They not only lost their habitat and it is quite possible
that they may lose their cultural and traditional values which they inherited over generations.
3.2.6 Floods
A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land which is usually dry. This happens when
river carries water much beyond its normal capacity.
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Floods have been regular features of some parts of India, China and Bangladesh causing
huge economic loss as well as loss of life. Bhrahmaputra and its tributaries cause heavy floods
every year.
Causes
1. Excessive rainfall: High rainfall/heavy monsoon may result in floods. During north west
monsoon many of the Indian rivers are flooded which results in large scale destruction of
life and property.
2. Global warming: Increase in temperature may result in melting of snow which may result
in floods. Many rivers which originate from the Himalayas are flooded during summer.
3. Dams: When carrying capacity of dams exceeds, water is released by opening shutters of
the dam. This can result in flash floods.
4. Change in direction of river: Any change (natural or man made) in the direction of river
can lead to floods.
5. Deforestation: Removal of trees result in rapid stream flow which result in floods.
Consequences
1. Destruction of life and property: Floods can cause severe damage to life and property.
2. Decline in agricultural production: Floods can lead to submergence of fields under water.
This can result in decreased harvest.
3. Water logging: Flooding can result in stagnation of water or water logging over a long
period. This can result in the spread of water borne diseases.
4. Scarcity of drinking water: Flood results in water pollution and may lead to scarcity of
drinking water.
5. Outbreak of epidemic: Contaminated water and low quality food can result in the outbreak
of various epidemics.
6. Rehabilitation: People affected by floods have to be given temporary accommodation, food
etc.
7. Increased soil fertility (Good): Downstream soil quality will be better due deposition of
top soil.
8. Increased fish output (Good): Can result in increased fish production
Control measures for the prevention of flood

1. Building dams: Building dams across the river can help to regulate the water flow.
2. Networking of rivers: Interconnecting various rivers can result in the steady water flow.
This can help to control flood and drought across the country.
3. Watershed management: Proper and scientific watershed management practices can control
floods.
4. Control of deforestation: Effective check on deforestation can cause steady river flow.
5. Floodwalls: Floodwalls built on the banks of flood prone rivers can reduce the impact
of heavy floods.
3.2.7 Droughts
Scarcity of water which occurs due to inadequate rains, late arrivals of rains and excessive withdrawal of ground water is called drought. Any lack of water for normal needs of agriculture,
livestock, industry or human population may termed as drought.
Droughts occur in all of the worlds continents. It can produce serious hydrological
imbalance.
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Causes
1. Less rainfall/ Failure of monsoon: Less rainfall/ monsoon failure may result in severe
water scarcity cause drought.
2. Deforestation: Unscientific cutting down of trees can result in change in hydrological cycle
which can lead to drought.
3. Overgrazing: Cattles may eat away the vegetation converting the land into dry, arid or
semi-desert lands which may cause drought.
4. Unscientific agricultural practices: Erroneous, intensive agricultural methods, unscientific
practices may lead to water scarcity leading to drought.
5. Mining: Mining practices can cause severe irrecoverable damage (pollution, acid drainage)
to many ecosystem. This may result in desertification and drought.
Consequences
1. Malnutrition: Lack or shortage of food can result in malnutrition.
2. Decline in agricultural production: Droughts results in heavy decline in agricultural
production.
3. Famine/ Stravation / Death: Severe drought can result in famine and death.
4. Increased food prices: Food commodities can become expensive due to high demand and
severe shortage in supply.
5. Outbreak of epidemic: Contaminated water and low quality food can result in the outbreak
of various epidemics.
6. Migration: People and animals may migrate to another place for want of better resources.
7. Severe damage to ecosystem: Prolonged drought can result in changes in biotic components
of the eco-system.
Control measures for the prevention of drought

1. Building dams: Dams can store water which can be released at the time of drought.
2. Networking of rivers: Networking of various rivers can result in the steady water flow
even during water shortage.
3. Rainwater harvesting: Rainwater harvesting methods can enable to store water during
rains, to be used later.
4. Watershed management: Proper and scientific watershed management practices reduce
the intensity of droughts.
5. Control of deforestation: Effective check on deforestation can cause steady river flow.
6. Scientific agricultural practices: Dry farming techniques, drip irrigation, mixed cropping
etc can reduce the wastage of water and thus frequency of drought.
Sustainable water management: This refers to the use of water resources in a judicious and
sustainable manner. The following measures can be adopted
Building several small reservoirs instead of few mega projects.

Preventing leakages from dams and canals.
Effective rain water harvesting in urban environments.
Water conservation measures in agriculture such as using drip irrigation.
3.2.8 Water conflicts

Water conflict is a term describing a conflict between countries, states, or groups over an access
to water resources.
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National conflict
Cauvery Water dispute
River: Cauvery
Origin: Talakaveri, Karnataka
Length: 765 KM
States Involved: Karnataka, Tamilnadu (Major)
Kerala, Pondicherry (Minor)
Upstream: Karnataka
Downstream: Tamilnadu
Dam: Mettur dam, Krishna Raja Sagara Dam
History: The history of this conflict is due to signing of two controversial agreements (1892 and
1924) between the erstwhile Madras Presidency and Princely State of Mysore.
Karnatakas claim: Karnataka claims that agreements were written heavily in favor of the Madras
Presidency, and demanded new agreement based on equal sharing of water.
Tamilnadus cliam: Tamilnadu claims that it has already developed almost three million acres
of land for cultivation. According to Tamilnadu, any change (decrease) in amount of water will
adversely affect the livelihood of millions of farmers in the state.
The crisis of 19951996
In 1995, the monsoons failed badly and Karnataka had to give water to Tamilnadu. Farmers of
Karnataka protested against this and formed human barricade infront of the dam to stop release
of water. Tamilnadu protested against this and the condition was taken up by various political
parties and became a burning issue.
Result and verdict
A tribunal was set up by The Government of India in 1990 to solve the crisis. After hearing
arguments of all the parties involved, the tribunal delivered its final verdict on 5 February 2007.
In its verdict, the tribunal allocated 419 billion ft (12 km) of water annually to Tamil Nadu and
270 billion ft (7.6 km) to Karnataka; 30 billion ft (0.8 km) of Cauvery river water to Kerala
and 7 billion ft (0.2 km) to Pondicherry.
Mullaperiyar dam issue

River: Periyar
Period of construction: 1887-1895
States involved: Kerala and Tamilnadu
Details of the dam: Mullaperiyar Dam is a gravity dam made with concrete prepared from
limestone and surkhi (burnt brick powder), and faced with rubble. The main dam has a maximum
height of 53.6m and length of 365m.
Lease: Although Mullaperiyar dam is located in Kerala, it is operated by the government of
Tamil Nadu. A 999-year lease agreement was signed between Madras Presidency and British
government. This dam was built to irrigate farmland on Tamilnadu side.
Nature of conflict: For Tamilnadu, Mullaperiyar dam and the diverted Periyar water act as a lifeline
for Theni, Madurai, Sivaganga and Ramnad Districts. This water is used water for irrigation, drinking
and power generation. Kerala is concerned about the safety posed by the 116 year old dam. Tamil
Nadu insists that dam is safe and that water levels can be raised to 142 feet. In May 2014, Supreme
Court of India ruled that Water level in the dam can be increased from 136feet to 142feet.
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International conflicts
River: Nile (Worlds longest river)
Origin: White Nile
Length: 6,650 Km
Countries involved: Nine countries
Sudan, Burundi, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda
and Egypt.
Control and conflict: Of the four major tributaries to the Nile, three originate from Ethiopia - the
Blue Nile, Sobat and Atbara (85% of water in Nile). Ethiopia is planning to control more water.
Sudan is also planning to divert more water. This could badly affect Egypt. The population of
Egypt is expected to double in next 20 years and will require more water. Almost all countries
want more water from nile.
Nile Basin Initiative (NBI)
The Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) was formed by Nile conflict countries to develop the river in a
cooperative manner, share socioeconomic benefits, and promote regional peace and security. It
was formally launched in February 1999 by the water ministers of 9 countries that share the river.
3.2.9 Role of an individual in conserving water resources
Do not waste water. Dont keep water tap open while brushing, shaving, washing etc.
Check and repair leaking taps and pipes.
Collect rain water. Build rain water harvesting system in your house.
Recycled water can be used for watering garden plants.
Install water-saving toilets that use not more than 6 liters per flush.
Water the plants early morning or evening when evaporation losses are minimum.
Use drip irrigation and sprinkling irrigation to improve irrigation efficiency and reduce
evaporation.
3.3 | MINERAL RESOURCES

Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solids having a definite chemical composition and characteristic physical properties.
The economic development of a country depends, to a great extent on the availability of
minerals. Minerals like mica, copper, lead and zinc are of vast economic importance. Thorium
and uranium are atomic energy minerals.
Based on their properties, minerals are basically of two types:
Non metallic minerals: Graphite, diamond, quartz, feldspar.
Metallic minerals: Bauxite, laterite, haematite etc.
Uses of minerals
The main uses of minerals are as follows:
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Development of industrial plants and machinery.

Generation of energy: coal, lignite, uranium.
Construction, housing, settlements.
Defence equipments: weapons, armaments.
Communication: telephone wires, cables, electronic devices.
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Preparation of alloys for various purposes

Agriculture: as fertilizers, seed dressings and fungicides.
Jewellery: Gold, silver, platinum, diamond.
Mineral wealth of India

India is rich in minerals like coal, bauxite, mica etc. Deccan plateau is rich in many minerals.
Some of the minerals present in our country are
Bauxite: Important deposits occur in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Goa, Gujrat, Jammu and
Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh.
Coal and Lignite: Coal is Indias largest mineral resource and presently India is fifth largest
of coal producer in the world. Large deposits are found in West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar,
Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. Bulk of the lignite reserves occur in
and around Neyyeli in Tamil Nadu.
Mica: India is worlds leading producer of sheet mica and accounts for about 60 per cent
of global mica trade.
Iron Ore: Haematite mainly occurs in Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Goa, and
Karnataka. Large reserves of magnetite ore occur along West Coast, primarily in Karnataka.
Diamond: Main diamond bearing area in India is Panna belt in Madhaya Pradesh.
Gold: There are two important gold fields in the country, namely, Kolar Gold Field in
Kolar District and Hutti Gold Field in Raichur District (both in Karnataka). Mining in
Kolar Gold Fields have been stopped in 2001 due to low gold production.
3.3.1 Mining
Minerals and their ores have to be extracted from the earths interior. This process of extraction
is known as mining. Mining operations follow four phases.
Prospecting: Searching for minerals.
Exploration: Assessing the size, shape, location, and economic value of the deposit.
Development: Work of preparing access to the deposit so that the minerals can be extracted
from it.
Exploitation: Extracting the minerals from the mines.
Two types of procedures are used for mining- Open pit mining and Deep mining. Depending
on the location, safety, environmental impact, maximum yield at low cost an appropriate mining
method is chosen.
Impacts of mining
Impacts of mining can be due to the mine itself, disposal of mine wastes, transport of the material
and processing of the ore.
1. Deforestation: Large area of forest is usually cleared for various mining (surface and
subsurface) activities. This can result in
Loss of biodiversity
Loss of genetic and species diversity
Loss of habitat for plants and animals
Species may become extinct
2. Land subsidence: Underground mining may cause land subsidence. This may cause cracking
of roads, bending of railway tracks etc.
3. Groundwater and surface water contamination: Mining activities can result in acid mine
drainage, heavy metal contamination etc.
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4. Air pollution: Mining process and processing (smelting, roasting etc) can introduce lot of
pollutants and particulate matter into air. Suspended particulate matter (SPM), SOx, soot,
arsenic particles, cadmium, lead etc. released into the atmosphere can cause several health
problems.
5. Soil erosion: Mining leads to erosion of the fertile top soil. This may be carried as sediment
into streams, rivers and lakes.
6. Occupational health hazards: Many miners suffer from various respiratory and skin
diseases due to constant exposure to chemicals and toxic substances. Diseases like asbestosis,
silicosis, black lung disease etc are quite common among miners.
3.4 | FOOD RESOURCES

Food is defined as anything that is able to satisfy the appetite or hunger. It should be able to
meet the physiological needs of growth, to supply essential energy required for activity. Food is
an essential requirement for human survival. Man eat variety of food as no single food provide
us with all the nutrients that we need. Main components of food are carbohydrates, protein, fat,
vitamins and minerals.
Though there are more than a million plant species we eat only less than hundred. 90% of
our food is provided by just 15 plants and 10 animals.
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of United Nations recommends minimum caloric
intake of 2,500 calories/day. People receiving less than 90% of recommended calorie intake are
called undernourished and if it is less than 80% they are said to be seriously undernourished.
3.4.1 World food problems

Shortage of food is a serious problem faced by many countries. In developing countries, food
production is unable to meet the demands of the growing population. It is estimated that more
than 25% grown food are destroyed by pests and nearly 25% of food is wasted.
Another serious problem faced by the world is malnutrition. A rough estimate shows that every
year 40 million people (half of which are infants below 5 years) die of undernourishment and
malnutrition. WHO aims for food security for all in near future. Food security is achieved only
when everyone have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food all the time.
3.4.2 Environmental impacts related to food resources

1. Overgrazing
2. Impacts of traditional agriculture
a) Deforestationb)Soil erosionc)Depletion of nutrients
3. Impacts of modern agriculture
a) Fertilizer related problems b) Pesticide related problems
4. Water logging
5. Salinity problems
1. Overgrazing
The rapid consumption of grass and other small plants by cattle stock (cows, goat, buffalo, sheep)
without giving enough time to regenerate is known as overgrazing.
Impacts of overgrazing
Land degradation and desertification: Overgrazing may result in the removal of vegetation
which leads to land degradation and desertification. In many cases even the roots are eaten
away by the cattle.
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Soil erosion: Removal of vegetation by cattle stock exposes the topsoil which can removed
by water, air etc. The grass roots strongly bind top soil. On the removal of grass, the soil
becomes loose and can be easily removed by wind and water.
Loss of useful species: Overgrazing can result in change in the composition of plant
population and its regeneration capacity. Useful plants may be slowly replaced by thorny
bushes, weeds etc.
2. Impacts of traditional agriculture

Traditional agriculture is the most practised form of agriculture around the world. It involves
the use of animals for ploughing fields, organic manures etc. Use of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides are quite limited. Production is moderate
Deforestation: Forests are cleared for creating more land for cultivation. This can lead to
land degradation, loss of fertility of soil and desertification.
Soil erosion: Conventional tilling methods make top soil loose which can be easily removed
by water, wind etc.
Depletion of nutrients: Repeated monoculture can lead to depletion of soil nutrients and
loss in fertility.
3. Impacts of modern agriculture

Fertilizer related problems
A fertilizer is any material which is applied to soil to supply one or more plant nutrients
which are essential for plant growth. Fertilizer is essential for increasing soil fertility and hence
crop productivity. It has been estimated that about 70 per cent of growth in agriculture can be
attributed to increased fertilizers application. However, indiscriminate use of fertilizers can cause
the following problems.
a) Micronutrient imbalance
Plants require nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) in large quantities called macronutrients.
Other elements like zinc, iron, selenium etc are required in small quantities called micronutrients.
Farmers use macronutrients in large quantities for boosting plant growth. This can result in the
deficiency of micronutrients affecting soil productivity and fertility.
b) Nitrate pollution
Nitrogen based fertilizers, especially ammonium nitrate is widely used for increasing crop productivity. It finally reaches water bodies. It also leaches into groundwater. Presence of nitrates
in water can cause harmful biological effects. High concentrations can cause a condition called
methaemoglobinemia.
In presence of nitrate, haemoglobin is oxidized into Methemoglobin. Latter has a decreased
affinity for oxygen and can cause reduced oxygen intake to muscles and tissues. Infants may
develop a condition called Blue baby Syndrome or Infantile methaemoglobinemia where
the skin of the infant turns blue due to lack of oxygen. This usually happens when concentration
of nitrates exceed 25 mg/L.
A high concentration of Nitrate (50 mg/L or more) may cause gastric cancer in adults. It can
also adversely affect the proper functioning of central nervous system (CNS).
c) Eutrophication
Eutrophication is the process by which a water body becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients (as
phosphates). Presence of these excess nutrients result in excessive aquatic plant growth which
result in the depletion of dissolved oxygen. Eu means more and trophic means nutrition.
Due to eutrophication algae can grow faster using up nutrients.
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Consquences of eutrophication
Increased biomass of phytoplankton
Increased water turbidity
Decrease in Dissolved oxygen content
Loss of fish and other aquatic organisms
Decreases in aesthetic value of the water body
Difficulty in transport
d) Alteration of soil properties

Addition of fertilizers changes the pH of the soil. This can kill useful micro organisms present
in the soil.
Pesticide related problems

Pesticide is a chemical used to kill or retard the growth of pests that damage crops. The ideal
pesticide should a) kill only target pest, b) should not cause genetic resistance in the target
organism c) biodegradable d) be cost-effective.
Indiscriminate use of pesticides has lead to following problems.
a) Creation of super pests: Continuous use of pesticides may give rise to pests which are
immune to pesticides known as super pests. Species which survive after pesticide spray
give rise to highly resistant generations. About 20 species of pests are now known to be
super pests. Example: In 1950s housefly resistant to DDT evolved. Now many fruit flies
have become resistant to pesticide Malathion.
b) Death of non target organism: Many pesticides applied not only kill the target pests but
also several non-target species that are useful to us. Example: Many pesticides are toxic
to earthworms, honey bee etc.
c) Biological magnification: Many pesticides like DDT are non-biodegradable and water
insoluble. However, they are fat soluble and accumulate in the fatty tissues of organisms.
This process is called bioaccumulation. The tendency of these chemicals to concentrate
in the body of higher organisms of the food chain is called biomagnification.
d) Can induce cancer: Many of the pesticides are known to be carcinogens. Pesticides like
endosulfan cause severe genetic and health disorders.
Pest control methods
Use of biological predators
Provide homes for the pest enemies
Integrated crop management
Bring in natural enemies
Use pheromones to lure pests into traps
Use hormones to disrupt life cycles
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4. Water logging
Waterlogging is saturation of the soil by groundwater sufficient to prevent or hinder agriculture.
Flooding and over-irrigation brings under groundwater to the surface.
Causes
Over irrigation: Over irrigation of croplands by farmers can result in water logging.
Excessive rainfall and floods: Excessive rainfall and floods may result in water logging
if there is no proper drainage system.
Lack of proper drainage: Lack of proper drainage facility can result in water logging.
In poorly drained soils, water cant penetrate deeply, so it is left stagnant on the surface.
Raised water table: Raised water table results in the soils becoming waterlogged.
Incorrect method of cultivation: If the agricultural land is not levelled properly before
cultivation, it can result in waterlogging.
Nature of the soil: Some soil like black cotton soil have low permeability and does not
allow water to percolate through it. Over irrigation or flooding in such soil may result in
water logging.
Consequences
Increase in soil salinity: Water logging increases the soil salinity. When water evaporates,
the salts are deposited there. This can result in the reduction of crop yield.
Destruction of crops: When soils are water logged, air spaces in the soil are filled with
water and cause decay of roots and plant destruction.
Damage of soil structure: Water logging may result in damage of soil structure.
Destruction of micro organisms in soil: Water logging may result in death of useful
micro organisms in soil.
Reduce nitrogen fixation: Waterlogging reduces nitrogen fixation by the nodules of legume
plants. Nitrogen is lost from waterlogged soils by denitrification.
Fall of soil temperature: Due to water logging the soil temperature is lowered. At lower
temperature, the activity of soil bacteria becomes slow.
Growth of weeds and aquatic plants: Continuous water logging may convert agricultural
land to marshy land. Weeds and aquatic plants may grow plenty.
Control measures
Preventing excessive irrigation: Adequate irrigation and not over irrigation can check
water logging.
Improving drainage facilities: Water logging can be reduced considerably by improving
drainage facilities.
Choice of crops: Some species of cropare more tolerant to water logging than others. Crops
having high rate of evapotranspiration should be recommended for the areas susceptible
to water logging.
Biodrainage trees: Planting biodrainage trees like eucalyptus can reduce water logging.
5. Salinity
Soil salinity is the salt content present in the soil. The process of increasing the salt content is
known as salinization. Salts occur naturally within soils and water. Salt content of soil increases
mainly by weathering of rocks. Very salty soils may have a white layer of dry salt on the soil
surface. Most crops do not grow well on highly saline soils. Where the concentration of sodium
salts is high relative to other types of salt, the soil is called sodic soil.
Causes
Over irrigation: Over irrigation of croplands by farmers can result in salinity. During day
time water evaporates leaving behind salts in the top soil.
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Saltwater intrusion: Intrusion of sea water to farmlands can also result in the increase
in salt content of the soil.
Consequences
Low productivity: Most crops do not grow well on salty soil. Highly saline soil is harmful
for the plants as the water uptake is reduced.
Varying pH of soil: Salts present in soil will vary the pH of the soil. Soil is made acidic
or alkaline depending on the major salts present. Sodic soils are basic in nature.
Death of useful micro organisms: Increase in soil salt content varies the pH of the soil.
Variation in pH may result in the death of useful bacteria present in the soil.
Control measures
Flushing with fresh water: Excess salt can be washed away by flushing with water.
Plants tolerant to salinity: Certain plants are more tolerant to a high salt concentration than
others. Example: Barley, Sugar beet, cotton etc. Cultivating such plants can reduce salinity.
Integrated crop management
Integrated crop management is a system of crop production which uses sustainable methods
conserving the natural resources and with very low environmental impact.
3.4.3 Role of an individual in conserving food resources
Do not waste food. Take as much as you can eat.

Dont cook food more than required.
Reduce the use of chemical pesticides.
Use organic fertilizers for your crops.
Use drip irrigation to water the crops.
Have a vegetable garden at your own home so that you can get fresh vegetables.
Eat local and seasonal vegetables.
3.5 | LAND RESOURCES

Land refers to the part of earths surface which is not covered by water. Land forms one fifths
of earths surface. Surface layer of land is soil. Soil is a dynamic natural body, one the surface
of earth in which plants grows and is composed of organic, inorganic materials and organisms.
It is formed by the weathering of rocks.
Soil has four major components- a) mineral matter b) organic matter c) soil water and d) soil
air. Top layer of the soil (top soil) is very fertile containing all the essential nutrients required by
plants. It takes approximately 500 to 1000 years for an inch of the top soil to form.
3.5.1 Soil erosion

Removal of top soil from one place to another by various agents like water, wind etc is known
as soil erosion. Soil erosion results in the loss of fertility of the soil because of the loss of top
soil layer which is fertile. Various agents that bring about soil erosion are water, wind, land slides
etc. Every year in India alone water erosion causes loss of 6,000 tonnes of top soil.
Causes
Deforestation: Removal of trees make top soil loose and hence can be easily removed by
agents of erosion.
Floods and heavy winds: Floods and heavy winds may wash(carry) the top soil causing
soil erosion.
Agricultural practices: Traditional agricultural practices like tilling and ploughing expose
top soil, which is prone to erosion.
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Control measures
1. Adopt farming practices that conserve soil fertility
a. No till farming: No-tillage or zero tillage causes minimum disturbance to the top soil.
Here, the seeds are directly inserted into untilled soil. Special tillers are used to break up
and loosen the subsurface soil without turning over the topsoil. Small slits are made by
tilling machines in the unploughed soil. Seeds, fertilizers, herbicides and water are placed
in the slit, so that the seed germinates.
b. Contour farming: In contour farming slope is tilled along the lines of consistent elevation.
Each row planted horizontally along the slope of the land acts as a small dam to help hold
soil and thus preventing soil erosion. This technique also permits increased infiltration of
water into the soil.
c. Terracing: This method is used to farm on a hilly or mountainous terrain. Small step like
terraces are built on the hilly terrain. This decreases erosion and surface water run off.
Rice is cultivated by terracing in many asian countries.
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d. Strip Cropping: In strip cropping, different crops are grown on alternates strips close by.
For example, wheat, or other small grains are grown along with strips of crops, such as
corn, soybeans, cotton etc. Strip cropping is very efficient in checking erosion.
e. Alley Cropping: In alley cropping, crops are cultivated between the rows of trees or shrubs.
This is also called Agro forestry. Even when the crop is harvested, no soil erosion happens
as trees and shrubs still hold on to the top soil. Trees like walnut, oak etc are used.
f. Shelter Belt/ Wind breakers: Wind breakers are used in the areas where wind is the
major agent of erosion. One or more rows of trees or shrubs planted in such a way that it
blocks the wind. The wind speed is thus substantially reduced which helps in preventing
wind erosion of soil.
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2. Other methods to prevent soil erosion

Control deforestation.
Afforestation
Construction of series of check dams
In deserts build wind breakers perpendicular to wind movement
Along coasts, growing mangrove forests are effective
3.5.2 Land degradation and desertification

Land degradation refers to the temporary or permanent reduction of the productive capacity of
land. Land degradation is a serious environmental issue and it is estimated that up to 40% of
the worlds agricultural land is seriously degraded.
Causes:
Overgrazing, deforestation, soil erosion, water-logging, salinization improper agricultural practices
and contamination of the soil with heavy metals, fly-ash etc causes degradation of land.
Consequences:
Decline in agricultural output

Land may convert into semi-desert or desert.
Migration of animals to another place
Desertification is a type of land degradation in which a relatively dry land region is converted
into a desert. Over a period land becomes drier, losing water bodies, vegetation and wildlife.
Due to drought and desertification each year 12 million hectares are lost (23 hectares/minute!).
Causes:
Both natural and anthropogenic (man-made) may lead to desertification.
Deforestation: Cutting down of trees result in soil erosion, loss of fertility and loss of water.
These all may lead to desertification gradually.
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Overgrazing: Overgrazing of cattle lead to the loss of herbs, shrubs in grasslands. Land may
become barren and prone to erosion.
Over utilization of ground water: Over utilization of ground water may result in lowering of
water table which can lead to desertification.
Mining and quarrying: Mining and quarrying lead to the loss of vegetation. Denudation of
extensive land areas leads to desertification.
Consequences:
Loss of productive capacity of land
Lowering of water table.
Control measures to prevent desertification
Preventing deforestation and promoting afforestation.

Planting of grasses can check soil erosion, floods and water logging.
Crop rotation and mixed cropping improve the fertility of the soil.
Scientific methods in farming like adopting drip irrigation, no-till farming etc.
Employing rain water harvesting methods to preserve and store water
3.5.3 Man induced land slides

Landslides refers to the sudden movement of large amounts of earth, rock, sand or mud or any
combination of these. During construction of roads and mining activities near hilly terrain, trees
are cut down. This may destabilize soil structure and fragile mountain slopes eventually leading
to land slides.
Causes of landslide:
Deforestation: Removal of vegetation, trees can destabilize soil structure. It can lead to soil
erosion and land slides.
Underground mining: Underground mining causes land subsidence.
Heavy Rainfall: When sloped areas become completely saturated by heavy rainfall many times
landslides can occur.
Ground water level: Over exploitation of ground water can lead to landslides.
Earthquakes: Seismic waves (small or big) can trigger landslides.
Consequences of landslide:
Loss of life and property: Landslides cause large scale destruction of life and property. Severe
economic loss may result from landslides.
Loss of transportation and communication: Destruction of roads and railway tracks cuts may
leave people stranded. Destruction of telephone lines can affect communication.
Increase in turbidity in lakes: Due to falling of land masses in the near by lakes, turbidity
can increase.
Avalanche: Landslides in snow clad mountain ranges can lead to avalanche.
3.5.4 Role of an individual in conserving land/soil resources

Plant more trees. Trees help to hold top soil firmly.
Adopt no-till farming, terracing, countour farming etc to minimize soil erosion.
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Do not irrigate the plants using a strong flow of water, as it would wash off the soil. Use
sprinkling irrigation.
Grow grass in the open areas which will bind the soil and prevent its erosion.
Do not over irrigate agricultural fields. It may result in soil erosion, water logging and
salinisation.
3.6 | ENERGY RESOURCES

Energy is the capacity to do work. Developmental activities of a nation depend upon the consumption of energy. Lighting, industry, heating and cooling in buildings, household, transportation,
all need energy. Energy may in the form of mechanical, chemical, nuclear, thermal, solar etc.
Energy in one form can be transformed to another.
3.6.1 Energy conservation process

Energy conversion is the process of converting one form of energy to another. An energy conversion device converts one form of energy into another. Schematic representation of an energy
conversion device is given below.
Tasks performed by common energy conversion devices

Energy Conversion Device
Energy Input
Useful Energy Output
Battery
Chemical energy
Electricity
Electric motor
Electricity
Mechanical energy
Fluorescent lamp
Electricity
Light
Silicon solar cell
Solar energy
Electricity
Electric heater
Electricity
Thermal energy
Fuel cell
Chemical energy
Electricity
Conversion efficiency of engines are governed by laws of thermodynamics.
3.6.2 Non-renewable energy resources

These are resources which cannot be renewed. It might become exhausted if not used judiciously.
Most of the fuels come under this category.
Fuel is any combustible substance which when burnt in oxygen or air, produces significant
amount of heat which can be economically used for domestic and industrial purposes for generating
power. In the process of combustion, the chemical energy of fuel is converted into heat energy.
Fuel + Air Products + Energy
Solids: Coal, Coke etc
Liquid: Petroleum and its derivatives
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Gas: Natural gas

Coal: Coal is a fossil fuel which was formed due to the decomposition of plant matter due to
heat and pressure over millions of years. There are mainly three types of coal, namely anthracite,
bituminous coal and lignite. Anthracite coal has maximum carbon (90%) and hence greater
calorific value.
When coal is heated strongly in the absence of air, it loses volatile matter and gets converted
into lustrous, strong, dense, porous and coherent mass known as coke.
Petroleum: Petroleum (also known as crude oil) is found in nature at varying depths below
the earths surface. The term petroleum comes from latin terms petra means rock and oleum
means oil. Petroleum was formed by the anaeorbic decay of marine animals over millions of
years. Under the action of high pressure and temperature, biological matter decomposed to give
viscous dark greenish brown liquid known as crude oil. Crude oil obtained from earth cannot
be used directly as a fuel but various fractions obtained from its distillation are used as a fuel.
The process of removing impurities and seperating the crude oil into various fractions having
different boiling points is called refining of petroleum.
Refining of petroleum yields different fragments (according to boiling points) such as gas, petroleum ether, petrol, diesel, paraffin wax, asphalt etc. These fragments are used for variety of uses.
Nuclear energy: During a nuclear reaction, the nuclei of the atoms changes, i.e. it involves the
change in number of protons and neutrons producing atoms of the new element. The energy
released during nuclear reaction is very much greater than ordinary chemical reactions.
The splitting up of a heavier nucleus using projectile, into two or more lighter nuclei with
the liberation of large amounts of energy is known as nuclear fission. The process of fission is
always accompanied by the ejection of two or more neutrons.
235
92U
+ 0n1
94
36Kr
139
56Ba
+ 30n1 + Energy
A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear fission reaction is carried out in a controlled
rate so that the liberated energy can be utilized for constructive purposes like generation of
electricity, heat and mechanical power etc. There are many nuclear reactors in India located at
Tarapur (Maharashtra), Rana Pratap Sagar near Kota (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam, Koodankulam
(Tamil Nadu) and Narora (U.P.).
Advantages of nuclear power generation:
Nuclear power generation does emit relatively low amounts of CO2 and other greenhouse
gases.
It is possible to generate a high amount of electrical energy in one single plant.
Disadvantages of nuclear power generation:
The wastes from nuclear reactors are extremely dangerous (highly radicactive) and their
disposal is a huge concern.
Despite very high security, accidents can still happen. The consequences of an accident
would be absolutely devastating.
Nuclear power plants could be preferred targets for terrorist attacks.
The energy source for nuclear energy is Uranium. Uranium is a scarce resource, its supply
is estimated to last only for the next 30 to 60 years.
Due to rapidly growing population, the demand for energy is also increasing. Conventional
energy sources like firewood, coal, petroleum are unable to meet the growing energy requirements. Hence, in the past few decades there is a constant search for new non-conventional energy
resources. Nuclear energy, solar energy, wind energy etc are some examples of non-conventional
energy resources.
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3.6.3 Renewable energy resources

Renewable energy is defined as energy that comes from resources which are continually replenished (renewed). Example: solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy, tidal energy etc.
3.6.4 Solar energy

Sun is the ultimate source of energy. All other organisms depend on sun directly or indirectly.
The nuclear fusion happens in sun, converting hydrogen to helium. Enormous quantities of energy
is released in the form of heat and light. Solar energy is harvested by i) thermal conversion ii)
photovoltaic conversion.
(i) Thermal conversion

If heat (thermal) energy associated with the sunlight is used directly for energy conversion, it is
called thermal conversion. Some examples are solar water heater, solar cooker etc.
Solar water heater
Solar water heating system is a device which supplies hot water at 60C to 80C using only
solar thermal energy. It is usually installed at the terrace or roof top where sunlight is readily
available. Water is heated during day time which is stored in an insulated storage tank for use
when required.
It has three main components, namely,
1. Solar Collector (sensor)
2. Insulated hot water storage tank and
3. Cold water tank with required insulated hot water pipelines and accessories.
Working:
Solar collectors collect solar energy.
A dark insulated pipe warms up under the sunlight.
Within the pipe is a heat transfer liquid called the primary liquid.
The pipe flows into a cold water tank, the water is warmed up by this pipe and heated
water is stored in the tank.
Hot water having lower density moves upwards and cold water with higher density moves
down from the tank due to gravity head.
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Solar cooker
In solar cooker, solar energy is used to cook, boil water etc.
Construction and working
A box type solar cooker consisted of an insulated box with a glass cover and a top lid, which
has a mirror on its inner side. Mirror reflects sunlight into the box when the lid is kept open.
The inner part of the box is painted black. Cooking vessels are placed inside the box. The glass
top allows infrared radiations emitted by the sun into the box but reflected radiations of longer
wavelength are trapped inside the cooker. Thus temperature inside the box slowly increases. The
cooking time is about 1 to 3 hrs depending upon the items being cooked and the intensity of
solar radiation.
Advantages of solar cooker

Solar cooker has a number of advantages over the traditional cooking devices. These are:
It preserves the nutrition value of the food (because the cooking is done at low temperature).
It does not require constant attention.
It is safe, simple and pollution free.
It saves money and fuel.
Disadvantages of solar cooker
Cooking is difficult on winter, rainy or overcast days as availability of sunlight is limited.
Cooking time is longer than conventional cooking.
Factors like wind, rain, mist, snow etc can seriously affect the proper functioning of cooker.
Solar energy can be converted as
(ii) Photovoltaic conversion

Photovoltaic cells are semiconductor devices that convert sunlight into electricity. Photovoltaic
cells or solar cells are semi conductors made of silicon, cadmium sulphide, gallium arsenide
etc which absorbs photons from sunlight and creates electron hole pairs (+ve and ve charges).
A typical photovoltaic cell is composed of a thin wafer consisting of an ultra thin layer of
phosphorus doped (n type) silicon on top of a thicker layer of boron doped (p- type) silicon.
Hence a p-n junction is formed between the two.
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When sunlight strikes the surface of a photovoltaic cell, electron-hole pair is produced. Electrons are drifted and collected at the n-type end and the holes are drifted to and collected at the
p-type end. When these two ends are electrically connected through a conductor, there is a flow
of current between the two ends through the external circuit.
A typical silicon PV cell produces about 0.5-0.6 V dc under open circuit, no load conditions.
The current (and power) output of a photovoltaic cell depends on its efficiency and size (surface
area), and is proportional to the intensity of sunlight striking the surface of the cell. The electron
flow provides the current.
Applications
Solar cells are used to provide power supply for space satellites.
Solar cells are used in calculators, watches etc.
Solar cells can provide electricity for street lighting in remote areas, and to run water
pumps, radio, TV etc.
Solar cell provide electric power to light houses
Advantages of solar energy harvesting devices
Renewable and continuous: Doesnt exhaust in another million years.
No green house gases: solar energy devices create no pollution.
Long life time for photovoltaic cells: Photovoltaic cells last for more than 10 years
Quick installation: Solar powered panels and products are easy to install.
Low environmental impact: The environmental impact made is positive
Can be moved easily: Solar energy based devices are very convenient to handle.
Low maintenance: The maintenance expenditure is very less.
Government incentive: Tax incentives, various credits and rebates encourage people to
go green.
Can be used for many purposes: Solar devices include solar panel, solar water heater,
solar cooker, solar powered vehicles.
Disadvantages
Expensive: The Solar Cells/ Solar Panels tend to be very expensive when you first purchase
them.
Cannot be used all the time: Solar power cannot be harnessed during a storm, on a
cloudy day or at night.
Large area: A solar energy installation requires a large area for the system to be efficient
in providing a source of electricity.
Affected by pollution: Pollution can degrade the efficiency of photovoltaic cells
Low efficiency: Solar cells have less efficiency (~ 25%).
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3.6.5 Wind energy

Wind is air in motion. Moderate to high speed wind has lot of energy in them. Wind energy can
be harnessed by making use of wind mill. In a wind mill, kinetic energy present in the wind is
converted into more useful form of mechanical energy or electrical energy.
The wind power potential of our country is estimated to be about 45,000 MW. Largest wind
farm established near Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu generates 380 MW of electricity. India ranks
fifth in harnessing wind energy for the production of electricity. The minimum wind speed required
for satisfactory working of a wind generator is 15 km/hr.
Wind turbines are used to produce electricity. The blades of wind turbines will keep on rotating
continuously due to the force of the striking wind. The rotation of the blade spins a shaft which
is connected to a generator that produces electricity.
Merits
Wind energy is renewable and readily available.
It does not create any kind of pollution.
Relatively easy installation.
Area beneath the farm can be used for cultivation, grazing etc.
Limitations
Minimum speed of the wind should be 15 km/hr.
Direction of wind is not predictable.
Seasonal variation occurs in the velocity of wind.
Wind farms can disturb radio and TV signals.
Wind farms cause noise pollution.
3.6.6 Biogas energy

Biogas is produced by the decomposition of biological matter by bacterial action(anaerobic action)
in the absence of oxygen. The common biological matters used for decomposition are wood, crop
residues, cattle dung, manure, sewage, agricultural wastes etc.
Cheapest and easily obtainable biogas is gobar gas produced by the anaerobic fermentation
of cattle dung.
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The essentials of a gobar gas plant are

a digester, a well constructed masonry work, dug and built usually below the ground level.
a steel gas holder which cover digestor.
a pipeline for transport.
The raw material for the biogas is mainly cow dung, which subjected to anaerobic fermentation.
Anaerobic fermentation refers to fermentation in the absence of free air, caused by anaerobic
bacteria. The process is carried out in a closed steel or concrete tank. A slurry is made by mixing
equal parts of fresh cattle dung and water, is poured into the tank. Anaerobic bacteria which are
present in the dung, digest this slurry forming mainly methane and CO2. The gas produced is
transported by the pipeline. The optimum temperature for this fermentation is 34 - 38 C. The
gas generated is collected in a steel gas holder, placed on the top of digestion tank. The average
composition of gobar gas is CH4 = 55%; H2 = 7%; CO2= 35% N2 = 3%
Advantages
Biogas is a renewable source of energy.
Biogas produces much lesser pollution.
Biogas energy is relatively cheaper and reliable.
Biogas can be generated from everyday human and animal wastes.
Heat energy that one gets from biogas is about three times the heat from burning wood.
Disadvantages
Initial investment for construction of the plant is high.
Continuous supply of biomass is required to generate biomass energy. A continuous supply
is not easy.
Crops which are used to produce biomass energy are seasonal and are not available over whole year.
Continuous generation of biomass is not easy unless one have cattle farm.
Some people dont like to cook food on biogas produced from sewage waste.
Biogas plant requires space and produces dirty smell.
It is difficult to store biogas in cylinders.
Transportation of biogas through pipe over long distances is difficult; hence the gas stove
or burner must be quit close to the plant.
3.6.7 Geothermal energy

Geothermal energy is the energy obtained from the inside of the earth. High temperature exists
below the earths surface in many places. Temperature increases by 3 degree Celsius, for every 100
meter depth. Cold water is injected into the wells drilled into this rock. Some of this water will
absorb intense heat and become steam. This steam is used to spin turbines and produce electricity.
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Advantages
Geothermal energy generally involves low running costs.
Geothermal energy reduce the reliance on fossil fuels.
Geothermal energy does not create any pollution and help in creating clean environment.
Since ancient times, people having been using geothermal energy for taking bath, heating
homes, preparing food etc. Today this is also used for direct heating of homes and offices.
Disadvantages
Geothermal energy can harnessed only at some selected location.
3.6.8 Ocean thermal energy

In oceans, there is a temperature difference between cooler deep and warmer shallow or surface
ocean waters. Ocean thermal energy conversion makes use of this temperature difference to run
a heat engine and produce useful work, usually in the form of electricity.
A difference of 20C or more is required between surface water and deeper water to harvest
Ocean Thermal Energy effectively. With this heat difference, low boiling liquid like ammonia
is boiled, the vapors formed are used to turn the turbine of a generator and produce electricity.
OTE conversion can also supply quantities of cold water as a by-product.
Advantages
Renewable process
No pollution, no greenhouse gas emission.
Works day and night.
Once installed, it is cheap. Less maintenance costs.
Disadvantages
Needs a large difference in temperatures (surface and deep) for best results.
Extremely low efficiency.
Seawater is corrosive, storms can do great damage
3.6.9 Role of an individual in conserving energy resources
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Turn off lights, fans and other appliances when not in use.
Use pressure cooker for cooking. This makes cooking faster and saves fuel.
Use fluorescent lamps and LEDs instead of incandescent lamps. This save a lot of power.
Always cook in closed containers so that energy wastage is minimum.
Check your vehicle for oil leakages and maintain it in a good condition.
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Swtich off electrical equipment completely when not in use. For example switching off
the television just with the remote still consume power.
Dry the clothes in sun instead of drier.
Use solar cooker for cooking your food and solar water heater will cut down on your
energy expenses.
Use solar lanterns.
Grow trees near the houses and get a cool breeze and shade. This will cut off your electricity
charges on A/C and coolers.
Drive less and use mass public transportations whenever possible. Use bicycles to commute.
Join a car-pool to office and return. Use metro rail service for easy hassle free travel.
3.7 | Equitable use of resources for sustainable lifestyles

Natural resources are limited. Scarcity of resources is a big problem addressed by human community. Many parts of the world are using natural resources at a rate faster than the nature can
replenish it. If unchecked, natural resources will be over exploited.
It is essential to use natural resources wisely. We should conserve natural resources so that it
may yield benefit to the present generation while maintaining its potential to meet the needs of
the future generation. Sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
The following methods may be suggested for the equitable use of resources
Proper management of water resources.

Proper watershed management and adopting rain water harvesting techniques.
Checking deforestation and promoting afforestation.
Practicing scientific and eco friendly agricultural practices.
Use of renewable energy resources.
3.8 | Environmental biochemistry

Environmental biochemistry refers to the treatment of polluted air, waste water and solid waste
using metabolic activities of micro-organisms.
A xenobiotic is a foreign chemical substance found within an organism that is not normally
naturally produced by or expected to be present within that organism (Greek, xenos foreign;
bios life). Environmental xenobiotic are xenobiotic substances with a biological activity that
are found as pollutants in the natural environment.
3.8.1 Degradation of proteins

Proteins are macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues.
Proteins catalyze metabolic reactions, replicating DNA, responding to stimuli, and transporting
molecules from one location to another. Proteins contain numerous peptide bonds, hence known
as a polypeptide. Peptide bonds are formed by the reaction between a carboxylic acid and amine.
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Protein can be easily hydrolyzed by acids and bases. Proteins on hydrolysis give individual
amino acids from which it is formed. Aminoacids are futher decomposed to ammonia. Some
bacteria like Nitrosomonas species convert ammonia (NH3) to nitrite (NO2). While species like
nitrobacter converts nitrites (NO2) to nitrates(NO3-) which are readily absorbed by plants.
Amino acid Ammonia Nitrites Nitrates
3.8.2 Biochemical degradation and Bioconversion of pollutants

Microbes have the ability to transform and/or degrade man made chemicals. Biotransformation
of organic contaminants in the natural environment has been widely studied. According to the
definition by the IUPAC, the term biodegradation is Breakdown of a substance catalyzed by
enzymes in vitro or in vivo.
Biodegradation can be alteration of chemical structure resulting in the loss of harmful property
or it can be converted to non hazardous compound. In some cases, complete breakdown of the
pollutant happens. It is either fully oxidized or reduced to simple molecules (such as CO2/CH4,
NO3/NH4+ and H2O).
The most common biodegradation is that of organic compounds in the presence of air called
aerobic process. In the absence of air, anaerobic biodegradation also happens.
Detoxification refers to the biological conversion of a toxic substance to a less toxic species. An
example for detoxification is the enzymatic conversion of paraoxon (a highly toxic organophosphate
insecticide) to p-nitrophenol, which has only about 1/200 th toxicity of the parent compound.
The complete bioconversion of a substance into inorganic species such as CO2, H2O, NH3,
phosphate etc is called mineralization.
Certain bacteria convert phenol, toluene into CO2 and water.
Biodegradable plastics are plastics that are capable of being decomposed by bacteria or other
living organisms.
Examples of biodegradable plastics

While aromatic polyesters are almost totally resistant to microbial attack, most aliphatic
polyesters are biodegradable due to their potentially hydrolysable ester bonds.
Polyanhydrides, Polyvinyl alcohol
Most of the cellulose and starch derivatives
Biodegradation of pesticides
Many pesticide residues (organochlorines, organophosphates and carbamates) are degraded by
micorganisms like fungi, bacteria, viruses, protozoa etc. Extend of pesticide degradation depends
on the physico-chemical properties of the pesticide, characteristics of the soil, environmental
conditions and management practices.
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Pesticide Structure
Pesticides having polar groups such as OH, COOH and NH2 are relatively easily attacked by
micro organisms. Halogen or alkyl substituents are more resistant to biodegradation.
Pesticide concentration
Generally, the rate of degradation decreases with increase in the residual pesticide concentration.
Pesticide Solubility
Pesticides with low water solubility tend to be more resistant to microbial degradation than
compounds of higher water solubility.
Biodegradation of DDT
Many soil bacteria which belong to genera Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Arthrobacter and Micrococcus
are involved in organochlorine degradation.

1. Describe the causes and effects of deforestation
2. Discuss the effects of over utilization of surface and groundwater.
3. Explain any two conflicts pertaining to our nation.
4. What are the benefits and problems associated with dams?
5. Discuss the effect of dams on tribal people.
6. Explain the environmental impact of mining.
7. Explain in detail about the problems of chemical fertilizers and pesticides on modern
agriculture.
(Anna Univ, Dec2014)
8. What is land degradation? Discuss the factors responsible for land degradation?

9. What are the changes caused by agriculture and overgrazing?
10. What is soil erosion? How can it be prevented?
11. Write a short note on renewable energy resources.
12. Write a note on biochemical degradation of pollutants.
13. Discuss the production of biogas. Mention its uses.
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Unit
SOCIAL ISSUES AND

THE ENVIRONMENT
SYLLABUS
From unsustainable to sustainable development urban problems related to energy
water conservation, rain water harvesting, watershed management resettlement
and rehabilitation of people; its problems and concerns, case studies role of
non-governmental organization- environmental ethics: Issues and possible solutions
12 Principles of green chemistry- nuclear accidents and holocaust, case studies.
wasteland reclamation consumerism and waste products environment production
act Air act Water act Wildlife protection act Forest conservation act The
Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules; 1998 and amendments- scheme
of labeling of environmentally friendly products (Ecomark). enforcement machinery
involved in environmental legislation- central and state pollution control boards- disaster
management: floods, earthquake, cyclone and landslides. Public awareness.
4.1 | SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Rapid increase in human population and urbanization has led man to overexploit natural resources.
Now, our natural resources are depleting on an alarming rate. If this over exploitation goes
unchecked, it can cause various environmental problems.
Sustainable development can be defined as meeting the needs of the present generation without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable development
means improving the life of the people. It suggest that well being of humans and other living
beings should be extended over many generations than just few years.
Achieving sustainable growth and development

Adopting green technology: Using green technology (environment and eco-friendly,
pollution free) can help in making the development sustainable.
Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle approach: The 4-R approach (Refuse, Reduce, Reuse,
and Recycle) suggests refusal of non-renewable resource unless it is absolutely essential,
minimization of resource use, using and reusing rather than passing it on to the waste
stream and recycling the materials can help in achieving the goals of sustainability. These
steps help to reduce pressure on our resources and minimize waste generation and pollution.
Environmental education and awareness: Teaching people about environment, the need
for preserving environment help to create an environmental awareness. Environmental
education right from childhood can help to develop an aptitude for environmental protection
and preservation.
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Prudent use of renewable resources: Natural resources must be used such that the
consumption should not exceed regeneration capacity. This means that enough time should
be given for the resource to replenish naturally. That is, over exploitation should be avoided.
Conservation of non renewable resources: Non renewable resources should be conserved
by recycling and reusing.
Population control: Population explosion is the root cause of many the environmental
problems. By controlling or slowing down population growth, sustainability can be achieved.
Government Policies: Strict policies and laws must be enforced regarding the use of natural
resources. Coordinated efforts are required across all government and non-government sectors.
4.2 | URBAN PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY

Energy is essential for humans irrespective of where he lives (rural or urban). Though over 75%
of Indian population lives in rural areas, only less than 25% of energy is consumed by them. This
essentially means that major chunk of energy are being consumed by urban society. This is because
urban people have a higher standard of life and their life style demands more energy. Energy is
used primarily for (i) residential and commercial purposes, (ii) industry and (iii) transportation.
Some of the major urban problems related to energy are as under:
Electricity: Electricity is an absolute necessity for urban society. Housing gadgets like
television, computer, fan, refrigerator, music systems, geysers, lights, air conditioners,
microwaves, etc. all work using electricity. A major part of electricity is lost in transmission
and some part is stolen. Remaining part is simply not enough to meet the urban energy
requirements. So, many cities face power regulation for 1-3 hours daily.
Fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas and coal): Man depends greatly on fossil fuels for
transportation and energy.
i) Petrol and Diesel: Petrol and diesel are obtained from crude oil. Internal combustion
engines use petrol and diesel as fuels. Every day thousands of new vehicles hit the road
which causes demand for fuel and lead to price hike. Fuel prices are also increased. Any
increase in fuel price will lead to inflation and rise in commodity prices.
ii) Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG): Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) is widely used as domestic
fuel. With the expanding population, there is a greater demand for LPG cylinders. Earlier,
LPG was used only for cooking. Now many vehicles are powered by LPG.
iii) Coal: Coal is a non-renewable resource. Entire coal reserves may last for another 150
years. Many thermal power plants are powered by coal. Railway also uses coal widely.
iv) Fuel wood: Many rural people still depend on firewood as their primary fuel. Use of wood
as fuel is mainly responsible for deforestation.
4.3 | WATER CONSERVATION

Clean water is becoming increasingly scarce globally. Since less people have access to fresh
water, it has to be conserved. One of the most widely used method for conservation of water is
rainwater harvesting.
4.3.1 Rainwater harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is a technique of collecting and storing rainwater and increasing the
recharge of ground water by collected water.
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Social Issues and the Environment 105
Objectives:
Rainwater harvesting has the following objectives:
to
to
to
to
to
meet the growing water requirements

raise the water table by recharging ground water
reduce run off loss
avoid flooding of roads
reduce groundwater contamination
There are two main techniques of rain water harvestings a) Storage of rainwater on surface
for future use b)Recharge to ground water.
a) Storage of rainwater on surface for future use
In this method rain water collected from the roof of the building and then sent to a storage tank.
Storage tank is designed according to the water requirements and amount of rainfall. Drainpipe have
a mesh filter at mouth and is filtered before connecting to the storage tank. Water from storage
tank can be used for secondary purposes such as washing and gardening etc. This is the most
cost effective way of rainwater harvesting. It also saves transportation and distribution expenses.
b) To recharge ground water

Rainwater harvesting can be used to recharge ground water aquifers to ensure percolation of
rainwater preventing surface run-off. Commonly used recharging methods are include recharging of bore wells, dug wells, recharge pits etc. Structures like recharge pits and trenches allows
water percolation through soil at lower depth while other structures like borewell allows water
percolation to greater depth.
In roof top rainwater harvesting, rain-water from the top of the roofs can be used to recharge
water table by sending the stored water through dug-well or hand pump.
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Advantages of Rainwater harvesting

Rainwater harvesting helps in
recharging the aquifers

improving groundwater quality
improving soil moisture content
reducing soil erosion by minimizing run-off water.
4.4 | WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

A watershed is a geographic area through which water flows across the land and drains into a
common body of water, whether a stream, river, lake, or ocean. Size of watershed can vary from
a few square kilometres to few thousand square kilometers.
Watershed consists of complex interactions between various biotic and abiotic factors. Watershed is directly involved in agricultural production, water supply for irrigation, power generation,
transportation etc.
Objectives of watershed management

To use watershed for domestic water supply, irrigation, hydropower generation etc.
To use watershed for minimizing soil erosion and moisture retention.
Effective watershed management can be used to minimize the risks of floods, droughts
and landslides.
Various measures taken up for management include the following:
Soil conservation: A series of long trenches are built to hold the rainwater and allow it to
percolate into the ground and fully recharge water table. Trees, grass, herbs are planted to hold
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the soil together and prevents it from being washed away during rain. Modern agricultural
practices such as no-till farming, terracing, contour cropping, strip cropping are also practiced
to reduce erosion.
Rain water harvesting: Rainwater harvesting is done to replenish the water table. It also helps
in moderation of floods.
Afforestation and Agroforestry: Afforestation and agroforestry help to prevent soil erosion and
retention of moisture. Woody trees are grown in high rainfall areas in between crops to reduce
the surface runoff and loss of top soil.
Scientific mining and quarrying: Unscientific mining may result in lose of stability of hilly
terrain. This can result in landslides, rapid erosion etc.
Public participation: Public participation only makes a watershed management program success.
Government and NGO have a big role to play. Awareness and environment education or paying
certain incentives to them can help in effective public participation.
4.5 | RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION ISSUES

Major projects like dams, mine, railway, express highways etc may result in displacing large
number of people. Native people who occupy the project site are directly affected. These native
people are generally very poor, uneducated and directly depend on natural resources for their
livelihood.
Displacement problems due to dams: In India, in the past 50 years more than 20 million
people have been directly or indirectly affected by the construction of big dams. Hirakud Dam
has displaced more than 20,000 people residing in about 250 villages.
Displacement due to Mining: Mining also cause displacement of the native people in large
numbers. Several thousands of hectares of land are required for mining operation. Forests are
destroyed and the native people are displaced.
Displacement due to Creation of National Parks: To protect some endangered species, some
forest area is often declared as a National Park. This restricts and prohibits any kind of human
activity within the forest area. Natives and tribals are forced to shift from their habitat.
Rehabilitation problem
Some problems associated with rehabilitation are
Poverty: Tribals are usually the most affected amongst the displaced as they are already poor.
Displacement and rehabilitation only increases their poverty due to loss of land, home, jobs, food
insecurity etc. They often find it difficult to adjust with the new living conditions.
Loss of cultural values: Most of the cultural activities are very closely associated to their habitat.
Marriages, social and cultural functions, their folk-songs, dances and activities suffer with their
displacement.
Loss of heritage: Culture and indigenous knowledge inherited from forefathers are lost. Tribals
have great knowledge about local medicinal plants and know how to cure many diseases.
Ignorant of market trends: Tribals are not familiar with the current market policies and trends.
They are illiterate and are exploited and fooled easily.
Conflicts: Resettlement also affects the people who have been living in that area which was
selected for resettlement. Cultural diversity, religious practices, food habits etc can result in
conflicts. Both communities can fight over natural resources.
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4.6 | ROLE OF NGO

NGOs are nongovernmental organizations. The main function of NGOs is to advise the government about some local environmental issues. They can act both as an action group or a
pressure group. NGOs can be very effective in organizing public movements for the protection
of environment through creation of awareness. NGOs have been constantly working day-in and
day-out to solve various problems concerning global and local environment issues. The activities
of NGO are not limited to environmental, social and human rights work. It plays a major role
in improving society, promoting citizen participation etc.
Objectives of NGOs
Conducting awareness programs about environmental protection.

By undertaking research and publication on environment and development related issues.
NGOs can inform or suggest policy makers about the local needs and priorities.
Helping the public in case of disaster, hazards etc.
Filing public interest litigations
Remaining neutral and un-biased while passing relevant information to the public and
governmental bodies
Solidarity and support to eco-warriors, environmental supporters.
Some of the activities taken up by NGOs include solid waste management, zero waste
management, afforestation, vegetable roof gardening, rainwater harvesting, AIDS awareness,
pollution control etc.
Greenpeace is a non-governmental environmental organization with offices in over fifty countries with head office in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Activities of Greenpeace have made huge
impacts all over the globe. In India NGO has played crucial role for environmental protection.
Chipko Movement for conservation of trees by Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal or the Narmada Bachao Andolan against Narmada dam are some examples. The Bombay Natural History
Society (BNHS), the World Wide Fund for Nature - India (WWF, India) Kerala Sastra Sahitya
Parishad, Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) and many others are playing a significant
role in creating environmental awareness.
The total number of NGOs in our country is about 70,000. They have a great role in creating
environmental awareness, disseminating information and promoting sustainable growth and development.
4.7 |ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICSISSUES AND POSSIBLE

SOLUTIONS
Environmental ethics deals with issues related to the rights of individuals that are fundamental
to life and well being. It includes a search for moral values and principles. Ethics also deals
with the rights of other living creatures to exist. Needs of future generations are also addressed.
The attitude of people in ancient time towards environment was mainly governed by religious
beliefs, practices and cultural traditions. For example, ancient people used to worship sun, moon,
earth. Plants like tulsi, neem, banyan etc were considered holy. Animals like cow, elephant, snake
etc were worshipped. Rivers like Ganga, Yamuna, Pamba were considered holy. We believed
everything is made up of panchabhootha (five elements- prithvi (earth), jal (water), agni (fire),
vayu (air) and akash (sky)). But now man exploits nature for his own prosperity.
Some important ethical guidelines known as Earth ethics or Environmental Ethics are as follows:
Whole earth is a part of our body and we must learn to respect it as we respect ourselves.
Honor the earth since it has blessed you with life and governs your survival.
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Nature doesnt exist primarily for human use but for all living species.
Humans are not above other living things and have no right to drive other living things
to extinction.
Man should be grateful to the plants and animals as they nourish you by giving food.
Natural resources should not be over exploited as it is for the use of future generations as
well. Future generations have their right to live in a clean and safe planet.
Mahatma Gandhi has aptly summarized ethics as There is enough for everybodys need,
but not for anybodys greed.
4.8 | 12 PRINCIPLES OF GREEN CHEMISTRY

Green chemistry is a philosophy of chemical research and engineering that encourages the design
and synthesis of chemicals and processes in an environmental friendly way.
Paul Anastas and John C. Warner developed 12 principles of green chemistry, which help to
explain what the definition means in practice.
1. Prevention: It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after creation.
2. Atom Economy: Synthetic methods should be designed to maximize the incorporation of
all materials used in the process into the final product.
3. Less Hazardous Chemical Syntheses: Wherever practicable, synthetic methods should be
designed to use and generate substances that possess little or no toxicity to human health
and the environment.
4. Designing Safer Chemicals: Chemical products should be designed to affect their desired
function while minimizing their toxicity.
5. Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries: The use of auxiliary substances (e.g., solvents, separation
agents, etc.) should be made unnecessary wherever possible and innocuous when used.
6. Design for Energy Efficiency: Energy requirements of chemical processes should be
recognized for their environmental and economic impacts and should be minimized.
If possible, synthetic methods should be conducted at ambient temperature and pressure.
7. Use of Renewable Feedstocks: A raw material or feedstock should be renewable rather
than depleting whenever technically and economically practicable.
8. Reduce Derivatives: Unnecessary derivatization (use of blocking groups, protection/
deprotection, temporary modification of physical/chemical processes) should be minimized
or avoided if possible, because such steps require additional reagents and can generate waste.
9. Catalysis: Catalytic reagents (as selective as possible) are superior to stoichiometric reagents.
10. Design for Degradation: Chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their
function they break down into innocuous degradation products and do not persist in the
environment.
11. Real-time analysis for Pollution Prevention: Analytical methodologies need to be further
developed to allow for real-time, in-process monitoring and control prior to the formation
of hazardous substances.
12. Inherently Safer Chemistry for Accident Prevention: Substances and the form of a
substance used in a chemical process should be chosen to minimize the potential for
chemical accidents, including releases, explosions, and fires.
4.9 | CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change refers to change in average weather conditions over a period of time. Earths
temperature has changed considerably during past few decades. The surface of the Earth has
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warmed, on average, 0.3 to 0.6 C over last century. Change in rainfall pattern, hot or cold spells
of temperature, or cyclones and floods was observed in many countries.
4.9.1 Green house effect and global warming

Sun is the primary source of energy for earth. Nearly 30% of the solar radiation falling on earths
surface is reflected back to the space. Rest of the radiation is trapped by earths atmosphere. The
amount of heat trapped in the atmosphere depends mostly on the concentrations certain gases called
green house gases. The major green house gases are carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, nitrous
oxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and water vapor. The resultant warming of earths surface
due to increase in concentration of these gases is called the greenhouse effect. Heating effect
is similar in nature to a botanical greenhouse. In greenhouse, glass panes allows the sunlight to
enter inside but it cannot escape outside as it is trapped. This causes inside of green houses to
remain warm in winter.
The average global temperature is 15C. In the absence of green house gases this temperature
would have been 18C. Therefore, Green House Effect contributes a temperature rise of about
33C. Heat trapped by green house gases in the atmosphere keeps the planet warm.
The concentration of CO2 in the Earths atmosphere was about 280 parts per million by
volume (ppmv) in 1750, before the Industrial revolution began. In 2014, it is 397 ppmv and
rising by about 1.5 ppmv per year. If emissions continue at current rate, the concentration will
be around 500 ppmv by the end of this century. Deforestation, use of fossil fuels, use of CFCs
are responsible for increase in green house gases. In the past few decades, earths temperature
has increased by 2-3 degrees. This effect is known as global warming. Greenhouse effect leads
to global warming.
Causes of green house effect

Deforestation: Due to deforestation, photosynthesis takes place to lesser extend. This
increases CO2 content in the atmosphere resulting in global warming.
Burning of fossil fuels: Large amount of greenhouse gases (CO2, NOx, SOx etc) are
released into the atmosphere due to the burning of fossil fuels, oil, coal and gas.
Electrical Appliances: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are widely used in refrigerators as
coolants, in aerosol cans, foaming agents, fire extinguisher chemicals etc. These gases
slowly make way into earths atmosphere resulting in global warming.
Population explosion: Population growth increases CO2 level (by respiration). With the
increase in population, the needs and wants of people increase leading to urbanization and
industrialization resulting in higher green house emission.
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Consequences of Greenhouse Effect

Global temperature increase: It is predicted that the earths average temperature will rise
between 2 to 5C by 2050 if greenhouse gas emission continues to rise at the present rate.
Rise in Sea Level: With the increase in global temperature there will be rise in sea water
levels mainly due to melting of polar ice caps and glaciers. An increase in the average
temperature of 3C would raise the average global sea level by 0.2-1.5 meters. Many
coastal cities like Cairo, Bangkok, Sydney and Venice may submerge. Agricultural fields
in Bangladesh, India, China will be submerged in water. This will also cause damage to
lagoons, estuaries and coral reefs.
Effects on Human Health: Global warming will lead to changes in the rainfall pattern in
many areas. Places where experience more rainfall may result in the spreading of vectorborne diseases like malaria, filariasis etc. Warmer temperature and water stagnation may
assist breeding of mosquitoes and other vectors.
Effects on Agriculture: Global warming can lead to water scarcity and may result in
drought. As a result of global warming, soil moisture will decrease and evapo-transpiration
will increase. This can result in damage of many crops like wheat, maize etc. Rise in
temperature and humidity will increase growth of pests.
Natural disasters: Source of origin for many Indian rivers like Brahmaputra, Ganges, Indus
are The Himalayas. Melting of ice can lead to frequent flooding. Rise in temperature of
oceans may result in more frequent and stronger hurricanes.
Ocean acidification: Increased levels of CO2 in atmosphere cause more dissolution of CO2
in ocean water. CO2 dissolved in the ocean forms carbonic acid, resulting in acidification.
This can adversely affect marine organisms.
Control of Global Warming

To slow down global warming the following steps will be important:
Control deforestation and plant more trees.

Shift to renewable energy resources.
Cut down the current rate of use of CFCs and fossil fuels.
Use energy more efficiently.
Nuclear Power Plants can be used for generating electricity as it emits less green house gases.
Shift from coal to natural gas.
Adopt sustainable agriculture.
Stabilize population growth.
4.10 | WASTE LAND RECLAMATION

Wasteland is an empty area of land which is devoid of cultivation or built on or used in anyway.
These are economically unproductive lands suffering from environmental deterioration. The wastelands include salt-affected lands, sandy areas, gullied areas, snow covered areas, glacial areas,
barren hill-ridge etc. Wasteland has nearly or completely lost its topsoil. It is unfit for cultivation.
Waste land formation can happen due to
Water and wind erosion.
Physical degradation like water logging, desertification etc
Chemical degradation like salinisation, acidification, nutrient removal, decrease of organic
matter.
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Wasteland can be classified into three forms: a) Easily reclaimable b) reclaimable with some
difficulty and c) reclaimable with extreme difficulty. Easily reclaimable wastelands can be modified and used for agricultural purposes. Those which can be reclaimed with some difficulty can
be utilized for agroforestry. Wastelands that are reclaimed with extreme difficulty can be used
for forestry or to recreate natural ecosystems. National Wasteland Development Board (NWDB)
aims at the reclamation and use of waste lands.
Methods for reclaiming land

Land development and leaching: For reclamation of highly saline soil, salts from the root-zone
is removed by applying excess amount of water to push down the salts. This is known as leaching.
Continuous leaching and flushing for few hours can remove 90% of soluble salts.
Reclamation of waterlogged land: Drainage is required for water-logged land. In many fields water
stands on the fields after heavy rains. In such places, ditches are built to runoff the excess water.
Irrigation Practices: Scientific irrigation practices can help in waste land recovery. Over-irrigation
may lead to water-logging while under-irrigation may lead to desertification.
Selection of tolerant crops and crop rotations: Some crops like barley, sugar beet and date-palm
are highly tolerant which do not suffer from any reduction in crop yield even in highly saline
soil. Wheat, pearl millet, soyabean, mustard and coconut are also salt-tolerant crops. Such crop
combinations can be grown on saline soils and wasteland can be reclaimed.
Adding Gypsum: Adding gypsum to high sodium soils reduces soil sodicity as calcium from
gypsum replaces sodium.
Green-manures, fertilizers and biofertilizers: Salinity of soil was improved by the addition
green manure or nitrogen fertilizers. Biofertilizers based on blue green algae were found to
improve salt-affected soils.
Afforestation Programmes: Afforestation can prevent the problem of spreading wasteland.
4.11 | CONSUMERISM AND WASTE PRODUCTS

Consumerism refers to the consumption of resources by the people. It refers to the increased use
of consumer products by the people to satisfy their needs and lead a more easy life.
People in developed countries make up 20% of the world population but consume 80% of the worlds
resources and produce 80% of wastes. Two types of conditions of population and consumerism exist.
(i) People over-population: This occurs when population is huge and supplies of food, water
etc are limited. This leads to poverty, under nourished people and even deaths. This occurs
in less developed countries (LDCs). Here, per capita consumption is less although overall
consumption is high.
(ii) Consumption over-population: This occurs when population size is smaller. Resources
are abundant and due to luxurious life-style, per capita consumption of resources is very
high. This is found in more developed countries (MDCs). More consumption leads to more
waste generation and greater is the degradation of the environment.
In LDC.s - No. of people is very high, but per capita use of resources and waste generated
are less.
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In MDC.s - No. of people is low, but per capita use of resources and wastes generated are
very high.
4.12 | ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION

The need for environmental protection was discussed in the U.N. Conference on Human Environment in Stockholm, on 5th June, 1972. From then on, 5th June is celebrated all over the world
as World Environment Day. Many countries including India took substantive legislative steps by
enforcing laws for environmental protection. Some acts developed by our country include The
Wildlife (Protection) Act was passed in 1972, followed by the Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act 1974, the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981and subsequently the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
4.12.1 The Environment Protection Act, 1986

This act came into force on November19, 1986, the birth anniversary of our late Prime Minister,
Indira Gandhi. This act is aimed to protect and improve the quality of environment by Central
Government with the coordination with State Government. The Act clearly states and explain
each and every term very precisely like environment, environmental pollutants, environmental
pollution, handling, hazardous substance, prescribed.
General Powers and functions of the Central Government

1. Subject to the provisions of this Act, the Central Government shall have the power to take
all measures, as it deems necessary for the purpose of protecting and improving the quality
of the environment.
2. Planning and execution of a nationwide program for the prevention, control and abatement
of environmental pollution;
3. Laying down standards for the quality of environment in its various aspects;
4. Laying down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various
sources.
5. Restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of industries,
operations or processes shall not be carried out or shall be carried out subject to certain
safeguards;
6. Laying down procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances;
7. Examination of such manufacturing processes, materials and substances which are likely
to cause environmental pollution;
8. Carrying out and sponsoring investigations and research relating to problems of environmental
pollution;
9. Inspection of any premises, plant, equipment, machinery, manufacturing or other processes,
and to take steps for the prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution;
10. Preparation of manuals, codes or guides relating to the prevention, control and abatement
of environmental pollution.
Functions of the state government

The important functions of the state government are
1. Advice the industries in the state to treat their wastes before their release into the environment.
2. Encouraging industries to recycle and reuse their wastes.
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3. Promoting the implementation of clean technologies by the industries in order to increase

fuel efficiency and reduce environmental pollution.
4. Granting permission for the discharge of effluents and emissions into the environment only
after assessing the assimilative capacity of the receiving atmosphere/water body.
The Environmental protection of 1986 was amended in 1994 to include Environmental Impact
Assesment (EIA) of various developmental projects. These projects have to take clearance from
the Central government prior to establishment.
4.12.2 The water (Prevention and control of pollution) Act, 1974

Indian Government has formulated this Act in 1974 to prevent pollution of water by industrial,
agricultural and household wastewater.
Pollution is defined as contamination of water, or alteration of the physical, chemical or
biological properties of water, or discharge which is likely to render the water harmful or
injurious to public health, or to aquatic plants or animals.
The salient features and provisions of the Act are the following:
It provides for maintenance and restoration of quality of all types of surface and ground
water.
It provides for the establishment of Central and State Boards for pollution control.
It confers them with powers and functions to control pollution. The Central and State Pollution
Control Boards are widely represented and are given comprehensive powers to advise,
coordinate and provide technical assistance for prevention and control of pollution of water.
The Act has provisions for funds, budgets, accounts and audit of the Central and State
Pollution Control Boards.
The Act makes provisions for various penalties for the defaulters and procedure for the same.
The main regulatory bodies are the Pollution Control Boards, which have been, conferred the
following duties and powers:
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB):

It has the power to advice the central government in matters related to prevention and
control of water pollution.
Coordinates the activities of State Pollution Control Boards and provides them technical
assistance and guidance.
The main function of the Central Board is to promote the cleanliness of rivers, lakes, streams,
and wells in the country.
Organizes training programs for prevention and control of pollution.
The Board organizes a comprehensive awareness program on water pollution through mass
media.
Collects, compiles and publishes technical and statistical data related to pollution.
Prepares manuals for treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents.
Lays down standards for water quality parameters.
Plans nation-wide programs for prevention, control or abatement of pollution.
Establishes and recognizes laboratories for analysis of water, sewage or trade effluent sample.
State Pollution Control Board:

The Board has the power to advice state government on any matters concerning water
pollution.
It lays down standards for effluents and is empowered to take samples from any stream,
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well or trade effluent or sewage passing through an industry.

The Board inspects sewage or trade effluents, treatment plants, purification plants and the
systems of disposal and also evolves economical and reliable methods of treatment of
sewage and other effluents.
The Board suggests efficient methods for utilization, treatment and disposal of trade effluents.
Penalties are charged for actions that have caused pollution. This includes failing to furnish
information required by the Board, or failing to inform the occurrence of any accident
or other unforeseen act. An individual or organization that doesnt follow the law can be
convicted or punished with imprisonment for a term of three months or with a fine of
R10,000 or both and in case failure continues an additional fine of R5,000 everyday.
4.12.3 The air (Prevention and control of pollution) Act, 1981

Indian Government has formulated this Act in 1981 to prevent air pollution. According to this
act, air pollution has been defined as the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous substance
(including noise) in the atmosphere in such concentration which may be harmful to human beings
or any other living creatures or plants or property or environment.
The main objectives of the Act are as follows:
To provide for the Prevention, Control and abatement of air pollution.
To establish Central and State Boards with a view to implement the Act.
To confer on the Boards the powers to implement the provisions of the Act and assign to
the Boards functions relating to pollution.
The main regulatory bodies are the Pollution Control Boards, which have been conferred the
following duties and powers:
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB):

The main function of the Central Board is to implement legislation created to improve the
quality of air and to prevent and control air pollution in the country.
It advises the central government in matters related to prevention and control of air pollution.
It coordinates the activities of State Pollution Control Boards and provides them technical
assistance and guidance.
Organizes training programs for prevention and control of air pollution.
Organizes comprehensive programs on pollution related issues through mass media.
Collects, compiles and publishes technical and statistical data related to pollution.
Plans nation-wide programs for prevention, control or abatement of pollution.
State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB)

The State Boards have the power to advice the State Government on any matter concerning
the prevention and control of air pollution.
They are expected to inspect air pollution control areas at intervals or whenever necessary.
Penalties are charged for actions that have caused pollution. An individual or organization
that doesnt follow the law can be convicted or punished with imprisonment for a term of
three months or with a fine of R10,000 or both and in case failure continues an additional
fine of R5,000 everyday.
In consultation with the State Pollution Control Board, the state government may declare an
area within the state as air pollution control area and can prohibit the use of any fuel
other than approved fuel in the area causing air pollution. No person shall, without prior
consent of State Board operate or establish any industrial unit in the air pollution control area.
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4.12.4 The wildlife protection act, 1972

This Act passed in 1972 safeguards wild animals, birds and plants. The act is adopted by all
states in India except Jammu and Kashmir. The Amendment to the Wildlife Protection Act in
2002 is more stringent and prevents the commercial use of resources by local people.
The Act provides for setting up of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries etc.
It provides for the appointment of wildlife advisory Board, Wildlife warden, their powers,
duties etc.
The Act imposes a ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animals.
Under the Act, comprehensive listing of endangered wild life species was done for the
first time and prohibition of hunting of endangered species as mentioned.
There is provision for trade and commerce in some wildlife species with license for sale,
possession, transfer etc.
It provides for legal powers to officers and punishment to offenders.
It provides for captive breeding program for endangered species.
Penalties
A person who breaks any of the conditions of any license or permit granted under this Act shall
be treated guilty. The offence is punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to
three years or with a fine of R25,000 or with both. An offence committed in relation to any animal specified in Schedule I, or Part II of Schedule II, like the use of meat of any such animal,
or animal articles like a trophy, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term not less than
one year and may extend to six years and a fine of R25,000.
Some drawbacks of Wild life protection act

Offenders are not given harsh punishments. They can get away by paying paltry amount as fine.
Jammu and Kashmir follows its own wild life protection act. Hunting, trading of many endangered
species which are prohibited in other states are allowed there.
4.12.5 Forest (conservation) act, 1980

Forest conservation act was enacted to safeguard forests and their conservation.
Except Jammu and Kashmir, the act is adopted all over India. The Act covers under it all
types of forests including reserved forests, protected forests or any forested land irrespective of
its ownership.
The salient features of the Act are as follows:
To check deforestation, the root cause for environmental deterioration.
Puts restrictions on the use of forest land for non forest purpose. If at all state wants to
use it in any other way, it has to take prior approval of central Government.
Exercises control over shifting cultivation and encroachment on forest lands.
It expresses states that the network of Protected Areas should be strengthened and extended.
It gives States the ability to provide power to the local panchayats to manage local forest
resources.
Penalties for offences in Protected and Reserved Forests: No person is allowed to make
clearings or set fire to a Reserved Forest. Cattle are not permitted to trespass into the Reserved
Forest. Felling, collecting of timber, bark or leaves, quarries or collecting any forest product is
punishable with imprisonment for a term of six months, or with a fine which may extend to
R500, or both.
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4.12.6 Biomedical Waste and Handling

Biomedical waste is generated from biological and medical sources and activities, such as the
diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of diseases. Biomedical waste is waste that is potentially
infectious.
Biomedical waste may be solid or liquid. Examples of infectious waste include discarded
blood, unwanted microbiological cultures and stocks, identifiable body parts, other human or
animal tissue, used bandages and dressings, discarded gloves etc.
Treatment and disposal

Bio-medical waste shall be treated and disposed of as below.
Treatment and disposal

Bio-medical wastes shall be treated and disposed of as below.
Option
Waste Category
Treatment & Disposal
Category No. 1
Human Anatomical Waste

(human tissues, organs, body parts)
Incineration /deep burial
Category No. 2
Animal Waste
(animal tissues, organs, body parts etc)
Incineration / deep burial
Category No 3
Microbiology & Biotechnology Waste

(wastes from laboratory cultures, stocks or
specimens of micro-organisms, human and
animal cell culture used in research and
industrial laboratories)
Local autoclaving / microwaving / incineration
Category No 4
Waste sharps
(needles, syringes, blades, glass, etc. that
may cause puncture and cuts)
Disinfection /chemical treatment

/auto claving / microwaving
and mutilation/ shredding
Category No 5
Discarded Medicines and Cytotoxic drugs Incineration /destruct ion and

(wastes comprising of outdated,
drugs disposal in secured
contaminated and discarded medicines)
landfills
Category No 6
Solid Waste
(Items contaminated with blood, and body
fluids including cotton dressings, other
material contaminated with blood)
Incineration autoclaving / microwaving
Category No. 7
Liquid Waste
(waste generated from laboratory and
washing, cleaning, house-keeping and
disinfecting activities)
Disinfection by chemical
treatment and discharge into
drains.
Category No. 8
Incineration Ash
(ash from incineration of any bio-medical
waste)
Disposal in municipal landfill
Category No. 9
Chemical Waste
(chemicals used in production of
biologicals, chemicals used in disinfection,
as insecticides, etc.)
Chemical treatment and

discharge into drains for liquids
and secured landfill for solids
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Segregation, packing, transportation and storage

Bio-medical waste shall not be mixed with other wastes.
Bio-medical waste shall be segregated into containers/bags at the point of generation prior
to its storage, transportation, treatment and disposal. The containers shall be labeled.
If a container is transported from the premises where bio-medical waste is generated to
any waste treatment facility outside the premises, the container shall that information.
Untreated biomedical waste shall be transported only in such vehicle as may be authorised
for the purpose by the competent authority as specified by the government.
No untreated bio-medical waste shall be kept stored beyond a period of 48 hours
The Municipal body of the area shall continue to pick up and transport segregated non
bio-medical solid waste generated in hospitals and nursing homes, as well as duly treated
bio-medical wastes for disposal at municipal dump site.
4.13 |ENFORCEMENT MACHINERY INVOLVED IN

ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION
Environmental legislation is aimed to protect our environment as a whole, our health, and the
earths resources. Several government bodies along with NGOs are devoted for the protection
of environment. All countries have framed Environmental laws to protect natural resources and
minimizing pollution. In India, Pollution control boards are the main agency which ensures that
these laws are strictly implemented. Central and state pollution control boards are involved controlling pollution. Both have well defined goals and objectives.
4.13.1 Central Pollution Control Board

Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) of India is a statutory organization under the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) established in 1974. It is the national apex body for
assessment, monitoring and control of water and air pollution. It co-ordinate the activities of the
State Boards by providing technical assistance and guidance and resolve disputes among them.
The board is led by its chairman, who is nominated by the Central Government.
Functions of the Central Board at the National Level

Advise the Central Government on any matter concerning prevention and control of water
and air pollution and improvement of the quality of air.
Suggest any modification or amendments or introduction of new clause in existing
environmental laws.
Planning and executing nation-wide program (organize training of persons) for the prevention,
control or abatement of water and air pollution;
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Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and sponsor
investigation and research relating to problems of water and air pollution, and for their
prevention, control or abatement.
Co-ordinate the activities of the State Board and resolve disputes among them;
Organise through mass media, a comprehensive mass awareness programme on the prevention,
control or abatement of water and air pollution;
Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water and air pollution
and the measures devised for their effective prevention, control or abatement;
Prepare manuals, codes and guidelines relating to treatment and disposal of sewage and
trade effluents.
4.13.2 State Pollution Control Board

State Pollution control board has similar functions to national pollution control board but power
limited inside the state. It enacts and enforce the implementation of environmental laws within
the state. Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board (TNPCB) is the governing body to monitor
and control air, noise, and water pollution in the state of Tamil Nadu. TNPCB was established
in 1982 and has Head Office at Chennai.
Functions of the State Board

Advise the state Government on any matter concerning prevention and control of water
and air pollution and improvement of the quality of air.
Co-ordinate the activities of the district Boards.
Periodic inspections, collections of air and water samples for analysis for different areas
within the state.
Carry out investigation on problems related to water and air pollution, and for their
prevention, control or abatement.
4.14 | ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ANALYSIS/ASSESSMENT

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process of evaluating the likely environmental
impacts of a proposed project or development. EIA takes into account socio-economic, cultural
and human-health impacts of the proposed project. Both good and adverse effects of the project
are taken into account.
EIA would necessarily involve the following stages:
1. Screening: In the first step, it is determined whether a proposed project falls within existing
rules and regulations and whether proposed project is likely to have a significant effect on
the environment and therefore requires an assessment.
2. Scoping: In scoping, one identifies which potential impacts of the projects are relevant
to assess. The applicant can ask the local planning authority for their opinion on what
information needs to be included (scoping opinion). This is usually expert knowledge,
existing laws, international conventions, expert knowledge and public involvement etc.
Alternative solutions are also identified to mitigate or compensate environmental problems.
3. Preparing the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) or EIA report: When an assessment
is required, the applicant must compile the information which is required to assess the
likely significant environmental effects of the project. Public bodies can help the applicant
by passing on any relevant environmental information. The information finally compiled
by the applicant is known as an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS).
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4. Review of the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), based on the terms of reference
and public participation.
5. Decision-making on whether to approve the project or not, and under what conditions; and
6. Monitoring, compliance, enforcement and environmental auditing. If the proposal is
sanctioned, one has to monitor whether the predicted impacts and proposed mitigation
measures occur. It has to be ensured that unpredicted impacts or failed mitigation measures
are identified and addressed in a timely fashion.
4.15 |ECOMARK
In order to increase the consumer awareness about environmental issues, the Government of
India have intiated a eco-labelling scheme called Ecomark in 1991 for the identification of
eco friendly products. It is a certification mark issued by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
to products that are manufactured with least impact on the eco system.
Objectives of the scheme:

To provide an incentive for manufacturers for reducing adverse environmental effects during
manufacture of products.
To provide an incentive for manufacturers to produce eco friendly products.
To make consumers care for the environment.
To encourage citizens to purchase products which have less harmful environmental impacts
Ultimately to improve the quality of the environment and to encourage the sustainable
management of resources.
Scope of Eco-Mark:
The Eco-Mark scheme covers about 17 product categories which include
a wide range of products. Criteria for evaluating the products under these
categories are initially identified and analyzed. Every step starting from the
procurement of raw materials to manufacturing, usage and disposal are analyzed
and evaluated (cradle to grave approach, ie, from raw material extraction to
manufacture and disposal).
An earthern pot (matka) has been chosen as the logo for the Ecomark
scheme in India. Renewable resource earth is used in the making of pot. It
does not produce hazardous waste and consumes little energy in making.
Earthen pot has been used by our forefathers for carrying and storing water.
It is able to put across a strong environmental message to the public.
Ecomark logo
4.16 | DIASTER MANAGEMENT

Disaster is a sudden event which causes sudden disruption to the normal life of a society, and
causes damage to property and lives. Disasters are mainly of two types,
1. Natural disasters: Disaster caused by natural reasons. Example: Earthquakes, floods,
cyclones, landslides etc.
2. Manmade disasters: Disaster caused by anthropogenic (man made) reasons Example:
War, bomb blasts, chemical leaks, etc.
Diaster management: Disaster management involves preparing for a disaster before it happens,
response to the disaster (eg: emergency evacuation, quarantine etc.), and also supporting, and
rebuilding society after the occurance of the disaster.
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Disaster management = Management before, during and after the disaster

Disaster management is a multidisciplinary area where different issues varying from forecasting,
warning, evacuation, search and rescue, relief, reconstruction and rehabilitation are included. It
involves active participation of administrators, scientists, politicians, planners, volunteers and
communities. The main aim of disaster management is to reduce the impact of disaster though
we cannot prevent the disaster itself.
The process of disaster management involves four phases: mitigation, preparedness, response,
and recovery.
i) Mitigation: Mitigation refers to the attempt to prevent hazards from becoming disaster
or to reduce/minimize the effects of disasters when they occur. Mitigation is different
from other phases as it focuses on the preparedness to meet a disaster before the event
actually happens. Mitigation is aimed to reduce or eliminate risk. Mitigation is the most
cost effective method for reducing the impact of hazards. Public can be trained. Structural
and Non-structural measures can be taken to limit the impact of disasters.
Structural Mitigation: This refers to the construction of buildings that are resistant to
disasters. For example, earthquakes happen frequently in Japan. To reduce the impact of
the earthquake, houses are made of wood rather than concrete.
Non Structural Mitigation: This refers to measures taken other than improving the structure
of building.
ii) Preparedness: Disaster does not coming with any warning. Everyone should be prepared
to face a natural disaster at any point of time. Some disaster like cyclones, hurricanes etc
can be forecasted even 72 hours before. In such cases, people can stock food materials,
water and stay in the basement till the disaster gets over. Police, army and medical team
can coordinate effectively to deal the situation.
iii) Response: This include rapid rescue actions taken to save lives in the event of disasters.
Response refers to the implementation of action plans like emergency evacuation, quarantine,
mass decontamination, etc. It also includes provisions for temporary food and shelter,
clearance of debris, reestablishment of damaged roads, bridges and communication network.
iv) Recovery: Recovery refers to restoring of affected area to its normal state. After immediate
needs are addressed recovery efforts starts. It include rebuilding destroyed property,
rehabilitation and resettlement, re-employment and the repair of other essential infrastructure.
4.17 |FLOODS
Floods happen when rivers and streams carry more water than its carrying capacity. Excess water
overflows leading to the inundation of low land areas surrounding the riverbed. Floods arise from
abnormally heavy rains, dam failures, snow melts, river blockages.
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Types of Floods
Floods can be classified into three categories as under:
River floods: Rivers carry water above its carrying capacity due to heavy rains or by melting
of snow or sometimes both especially in the mountainous tracts.
Coastal floods: Coastal flooding happens due to tropical cyclones arising at the ocean surface.
Prolonged and indefinite rains in the rainy or monsoon season result in floods in coastal river
basins.
Flash floods: Flash floods happen within few hours of beginning of rainfall due to runoff from
heavy rain. They are also caused by sudden release of water from dams, dam breakage etc.
Effects of Floods
Floods results in extensive damage to life and property. It destroys everything which is
lying on its path. Humans and animals die by drowning.
Fresh water sources are destroyed or contaminated. Water borne diseases like dysentery,
cholera etc can spread.
Farmlands and crops are destroyed which can result in acute food shortage.
Floods result in soil erosion. Top soil is carried away by running water which make soil
infertile.
Flood Control
Increasing the storage capacity of dams and reservoirs to store more water during rainy
season.
Networking of rivers within the country. Excess water can be diverted to some other river
within the same country.
Water carrying capacity of the river can be increased by increasing the depth and width
of the riverbed. This will help the river to carry larger loads and thus reduce the damage
caused by floods.
Prevention of over-bank spilling by the construction of embankments and floodwalls.
Post Disaster Requirements

Primary response: Search and Rescue operations, drinking water provision, Medical assistance,
food and and temporary shelter.
Secondary response: Reconstruction of houses, equipment and tools supply, Creation of
employment, distribution of farm animals, financial assistance etc.
Two great river systems cause serious flood problems in India: Brahmputra River and River
Ganges.
North eastern regions in India are flooded year after year by the Brahmaputra river and its
tributaries. The river floods in monsoon season or in summer season due to the melting of ice
in Himalayas. It causes a great damage to both life and property.
Tributaries of the Ganga, namely the Rapti, the Sharada, the Ghaghra and the Gandak
cause extensive flooding along their banks. Damodar cause extensive flooding. In Delhi and
Haryana it is the Yamuna, the biggest tributary of the Ganga, which causes a marginal amount
of flooding.
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Flood Mitigation
Before the Disaster
During the Disaster
After the Disaster
Listen for warning signs

and community alert
systems
S
tock emergency building
materials
S
tore enough food and
drinking water.
P
lan immediate an
evacuation route
H
ave disaster supplies
and first-aid kit on hand
D
evelop an emergency
communication plan in
case of separation
T
each family members
how and when to turn off
the gas, electricity, and
water and teach children
how and when to call
emergency numbers
A
sk your insurance agent
about flood insurance
During a flood watch:

If indoors:
T
urn on battery operated
radio to get latest emergency
information
G
et pre-assembled emergency
supplies
I f told to leave, do so
immediately.
If outdoors:
C
limb to high ground or trees
and stay there
A
void walking through any
floodwaters.
I f in a car, turn around and go
another way; if your car stalls,
abandon it immediately and
climb to higher ground.
During an evacuation:
I f advised to evacuate, do
so immediately, follow
recommended evacuation
routes and listen to radio for
evacuation instructions
D
ont return home until
authorities express it is safe
to do so
U
se extreme caution when
entering buildings
I nspect foundations for
cracks or other damage
and examine walls, floors,
doors, and windows to make
sure that the building is not
in danger of collapsing
W
atch out for animals,
especially poisonous snakes,
that may have come into
your home with flood waters
T
ake pictures of damage for
insurance claims
L
ook for fire hazards
T
hrow away all food came
in contact with flood waters
S
ervice damaged septic
tanks as it can cause water
contamination.
4.18 | EARTH QUAKE

An earthquake is a sudden downward motion of the ground surface. It can range from a faint
tremor to a violent shake which can cause massive destruction of buildings.
The point of origin of an earthquake is called the epicenter. Richter scale was created by
Charles Richter in 1935 to measure the magnitude of energy released by an earthquake. The
severity of an earthquake is generally measured by its magnitude on Richter Scale, as shown below
Richter scale
Severity of earthquake
Less than 4
Insignificant
4.04.9
Minor
5.05.9
Damaging
6.06.9
Destructive
7.07.9
Major
More than 8.0
Great
The science that studies the behavior and patterns of seismic waves is called seismology.
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Plate Tectonic Theory suggests that the earth is composed of solid and moving plates having
continental crust or oceanic crust. The earths crust consists of 6 major plates (Eurasian plate,
American plate, African plate, Indian plate, Pacific plate and Antarctic plate) and 20 minor
plates. These plates are constantly moving in relation to each other. Collision of plates can cause
earthquakes.
Causes of Earthquakes
Major reasons for earthquakes are
Volcanic activity
Volcanic activity can result in earthquakes. Volcanic activity and earthquakes are so related that,
earthquakes may follow each volcanic eruption and many of the severe earthquakes cause volcanic eruptions. Example: The famous eruption of Cracatoa on August 26, 1883 is one of the
most disastrous volcanic eruptions. It sent up debris 26 kilometers high and 6,000 kilometers
wide, and the explosion could be heard thousands of miles away. The huge tidal waves created
by the explosion destroyed 165 villages in Sumatra and Java, killing more than 36,000 people.
Anthropogenic Causes
Certain human activities like over exploitation of ground water and oil, deep underground mining,
blasting of rocks by dynamites for constructional purposes etc. also cause earthquakes. Construction of large dams and enormous volume of water in big reservoirs can result in loss of rock
stability below. Under ground nuclear testing can result in earthquakes.
Effects of Earthquake
Damage to Life and property
Structures such as buildings, roads, rails, factories, dams, bridges can be completely or partially destroyed by earthquakes
Landslides and avalanche
Earthquakes can cause landslides. It can also trigger avalanche.
Damages to Government Infrastructure
Earth quakes can result in cutting of water supply, telecommunication cables etc. Thus, there is
total disruption of power and communication. Contamined water can cause spread of epidemics.
Fire Hazard
Strong oscillations of earthquakes can cause severe fires in houses and factories because of
bursting of cooking gas cylinders, contact of live electric wires etc.
Flash Floods
Strong seismic events result in the damages of dams and cause severe flash floods. Dams may
crack or break. This can result in flow of huge volumes of water.
Tsunamis
Earth quakes which originate beneath the ocean floor can result in the formation of gigantic sea waves
which approach the sea shore and cause great loss of life and property. These are called tsunami.
Earthquake Mitigation
Before the Disaster

Make sure all family
members know how to
respond after an
earthquake
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During the Disaster
After the Disaster
If indoors: Take cover under Be prepared for after shocks
a piece of heavy furniture or Help injured or trapped
against an inside wall and
persons and give first aid
stay inside
where appropriate
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Teach children when and

If outdoors: Move into the
how to call emergency
open, away from buildings,
numbers
street lights, and utility
Have disaster supplies
wires and remain there until
(food, water and first aid)
shaking stops
Develop an emergency
If in a moving vehicle: Stop
communications plan in
quickly, stay in vehicle,
case of separation during
move to a clear area away
the earthquake
from buildings, trees,
Built earth quake resistant
overpasses, or utility wires
structures.
A big earth quake is often
followed by small secondary
tremors. Watch out for them.
Listen to a battery operated

radio for emergency
information
Stay out of damaged
buildings and return home
only when authorities say it
is safe
4.19 |CYCLONES
Cyclones are the centers of low pressure characterized by inward spiraling winds that rotate
counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. They
range in shape from circular, elliptical to V shape. Temperate cyclones occur in mid latitudes
i.e. 400 to 600 N & S. These are formed due to convergence of the warm (tropical) and Cold
(Polar) air masses.
Tropical cyclones are those which occur in lower latitudes, normally 100 to 300 N & S latitudes and are caused due to the convergence of warm dry and warm moist air masses. Tropical
cyclones are called hurricanes in the Atlantic, Caribbean and north eastern Pacific, typhoons in
the western Pacific and cyclones in the Indian Ocean and willy willies in the sea around Australia.
Environmental impact of Cyclones

The destruction from a tropical cyclone depends mainly on its intensity, its size, and its location.
Change in weather: The main effects of tropical cyclones include heavy rain, strong wind, large
storm surges at landfall, and tornadoes.
Destruction to life and property: Cyclones can cause severe damage to human lives and
property. It can result in destruction of buildings, transport systems, water and power supply
systems, disruption of communication system, destruction of agricultural crops, domestic and wild
animals, natural vegetation etc. Nearly two million people die globally due to tropical cyclones.
Change in landscape: Tropical cyclones remove forest canopy as well as change the landscape near
coastal areas. It can cause extensive erosion along the coast by moving and reshaping sand dunes.
Spread of diseases: Scarcity of drinking water can result in the spread of water borne diseases.
Standing water can cause mosquitoes to breed.
Hurricane Mitigation
Before the Disaster

Plan an evacuation route.
Have disaster supplies on
hand
Chapter 04.indd 125
During the Disaster
After the Disaster
Hurricane Watch (conditions Stay tuned to radio for

within 24-36 hours):
information, return home
Listen to battery-operated
only when authorities advise
radio for progress reports;
it is safe to do so
check emergency supplies
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communication plan in case
of separation
Teach family members
when and how to turn off
gas and electricity
Trim back dead or weak
branches from trees
Teach children when and
how to call emergency
numbers
Make arrangements for
family pets because some
emergency shelters may not
allow pets
Leave the neighbourhood on
hearing hurricane warning.
Stay in another city and
come back after hurricane.
Charge your mobile phones
and emergency lamps.
Fuel car fully

Secure buildings by closing
and boarding up windows
Remove outside antennas
Store drinking water in
clean bathtubs, jugs, and
bottles
Review evacuation plan
Hurricane Warning:
Listen to radio for
instructions
Store valuables in
waterproof container
Avoid elevators.
If at home:
Stay inside, away from
anything glass
Keep a supply of batteries
and flashlights
If evacuation is necessary:
leave immediately,
avoiding flooded roads and
washed-out bridges
Secure home by unplugging
appliances and turning off
electricity and the main
water valve
Take blankets and sleeping
bags to a shelter and leave
immediately
Help injured or trapped

persons and give first aid
where appropriate
Avoid loose or dangling
power lines and report them
to the power company or
fire department
Beware of snakes, insects,
and animals driven to higher
ground by flood water
Open windows and doors to
ventilate and dry your home
Check refrigerated foods for
spoilage
Take pictures of the damage
for insurance claims
Drive only if necessary and
avoid flooded roads and
washed-out bridges
Use telephones only for
emergency calls.
4.20 |TSUNAMI
A tsunami is a giant wave (or series of waves) created by an undersea earthquake, volcanic eruption or landslide. Tsunami in Japanese means harbor wave. Tsunamis are not tidal waves
Causes of Tsunami
Earthquakes: These are the most destructive and common cause for tsunamis. When
earthquake is massive, at least 7.5 in magnitude, it displaces enough water vertically to
case a huge wave.
Volcanic eruption: A massive volcanic eruption can disturb the ocean floor which can
lead to the formation of tsunami. The explosive eruption of Krakatau in 1883 created a
tsunami that claimed more than 36,000 lives.
Landslides: Enormous submarine landslides can occur on the flanks of ocean islands
which can lead to tsunami. Landslides can be triggered by earthquake or volcanic activity.
Meterorites: Asteriods falling into the ocean can lead to tsunami.
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Theory of tsunami propagation

Tsunamis are generated by under seaquakes which suddenly displaces large volumes of water
vertically. Speed of tsunami is proportional to depth of water, so tsunami slows down on reaching
the shore. Tsunamis energy flux (which remains constant) depends on both its wave speed and
wave height. For the energy flux to remain constant, the tsunamis speed decreases as it travels
into shallower water but its height increases. It travels as fast as 200 m/s in open ocean. As a
tsunami reaches the shore, it begins to lose energy. Towering waves of tsunamis reach the coast
with tremendous amounts of energy to cause massive destruction.
Effects of Tsunami
Large scale destruction to life and property.
Tsunami cause fire, disrupt communication and transportation.
Tsunami Mitigation
Before the Disaster
During the Disaster
After the Disaster
Find out if your house is in

danger and know the height
of your street above sea
level
Be familiar with warning
signs (earthquakes, ground
rumbling, or rapid rise and
fall of coastal waters)
Ensure all family members
know how to respond
Make evacuation plans
with more than one route
and pick an elevated inland
location
Teach children how and
when to call emergency
numbers.
Have disaster supplies
on hand (flashlight, extra
batteries, portable batteryoperated radio, first aid kit,
emergency food and water,
cash and credit cards)
communications plan in
case of separation during
the earthquake Ask an
out-of-state relative or
friend to serve as the family
contact.
Listen to radio for

emergency and evacuation
information
Climb to higher ground
as soon as warning of a
tsunami is released
Stay away from the beach.
Do not assume that one
wave means the danger is
over - the next wave may be
larger than the first
Stay out of the area and do
not return until authorities
say it is safe to do so
Waves move much faster
than you think. Dont go to
beach to watch tsunamis.
Stay tuned to radio for

emergency information
Help injured or trapped
persons and give first aid.
Stay out of damaged
buildings
Enter home with caution,
checking for electrical
shorts and live wires
Do not use appliances or
lights until properly checked
by an electrician
Open windows and doors to
help dry the building
Check food supplies,
throwing out all fresh food
that may be contaminated
and have tap water tested by
local health department.
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4.21 |LANDSLIDES
The sliding down of a mass of earth or rock from a mountain or cliff is called landslide.
Causes of landslides:
Geological causes: Earthquakes, Weathered materials, Sheared materials, Ground water changes,
Rainfall and snow fall etc
Morphological causes: Erosion, Vegetation change etc
Human causes: Over exploitation of ground water, mining, quarrying, deforestation
Landslides Mitigation
Before the Disaster
During the Disaster
Get a ground assessment of If indoors:

Stay inside and get cover
your property
under a sturdy piece of
Minimize home hazards
furniture. If outdoors:
(plant ground cover on

Try
to get out of path of
slopes, build retaining
mudflow
walls, and in mudflow areas,
build channels or deflection Run to nearest high ground
in a direction away from
walls to direct flow around
path
buildings)

If rocks and other debris are
Make evacuation plans,
approaching, run for nearest
planning at least two routes
shelter such as a group of
allowing for blocked and
trees or a building
closed roads

If escape is not possible,
curl into a tight ball and
communication plan and
protect your head.
ask an out-of-state relative
or friend to serve as the
family contact
Purchase home insurance.
After the Disaster

Stay away from slide area
Check for injured and
trapped persons and give
first aid where needed
Listen to battery-operated
radios for emergency
information
Remember flooding may
occur after a mudflow or
landslide
Check for damaged utility
lines and report damage to
the utility company
Check the building
foundation, chimney,
and surrounding land for
damage
Replant damaged ground
as soon as possible since
erosion caused by loss of
ground cover can lead to
flash flooding.
4.22 | PUBLIC AWARENESS

We are facing various environmental challenges. The only way to protect and preserve our degrading environment is by public awareness. Everyone needs to understand it because. environment
belongs to all.
The electronic media, the press, school and college education, adult education, are all essential
part of public awareness. Eco-friendly acts can be promoted for sustainable development.
Methods to Propagate Environmental Awareness

Among students through education: Environmental education must be imparted to the
students right from the childhood. He should be taught to take care of mother earth.
Environmental studies now form a part of curriculum in all schools and colleges following
directions from the Supreme Court.
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Among the Masses through mass-media: Mass-Media plays an important role to educate
the people on environmental issues through articles, rallies, campaigns, street plays etc.
Serials, documentaries etc can help promoting environmental awareness.
By leaders, most influential people: Influential people, film stars, sports person can
promote environmental activities by their partymen, fan club etc.

1. What is sustainable development? How can it be achieved?
2. What are the major urban problems related to energy?
3. What are the objectives of water conservation? How is it carried out?

4. What is rain water harvesting? Explain their types with suitable sketches.

5. What is a watershed? Critically discuss the objectives and practices of watershed management.

6. Discuss the rehabilitation and resettlement of people, its problems and its concerns.

7. Write notes on

a) role of NGOs in environmental protection and management.
b) environmental ethics
8. Write notes on

a) Principles of green chemistry
b) Wasteland reclaimation
9. Briefly discuss the salient features of wildlife protection act.
10. Write short notes on the following acts
a)
Water prevention and control of pollution act of 1974
b) Forest conservation act 1980
11. Write an elaborate note on the salient features of Environmental protection act.

12. Briefly describe the role of central and state pollution control boards in controlling pollution.
12. What is an earthquake? Enumerate its effects. What efforts should we take to mitigate this
disaster?
13. Write short notes on nuclear accidents and ozone layer depletion. (Anna Univ, Dec 2013)
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Unit
HUMAN POPULATION
AND THE ENVIRONMENT
SYLLABUS
Population growth, variation among nations population explosion family welfare
programme environment and human health human rights value education
HIV / AIDS women and child welfare Environmental impact analysis (EIA)
GIS-remote sensing-role of information technology in environment and human
health Case studies.
5.1 |POPULATION
Population is defined as the number of individuals of same species in a given area at a given
time. Population dynamics refers to change of population with time.
Demography is the statistical study of human population. It deals with (i) Changes in
population size (growth or decline) (ii) Composition of the population (age groups, sex ratio)
(iii) Distribution of population.
Current World population is 7.4 billion (May 2015). World population exceeded 7 billion in
March 2012. World population was around 1 billion in 1810. It became 7 times in past 200 years.
DEMOGRAPHICS OF INDIA
Current Indian population:
1.21 billion (2011 census)
Indian population growth rate:
1.41% (ranked 102nd in the world in 2010)
Birth rate:
22.22 births/1,000 population
Death rate:
6.4 deaths/1,000 population
Life expectancy:
69.89 years
male:
67.46 years
female:
72.61 years
Fertility rate:
2.5 children born/woman
Infant mortality rate:
30.15 deaths/1,000 live births
Most populated city:
Mumbai (12.5 million)
Population of Chennai:
4.6 million (2011 census)
One out of every seven person in the world is an Indian. 75% of the population of India
lives in the villages.
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5.2 | POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS

1. Nature of Population growth
Population growth refers to the variation in population (increase or decrease) with time. Negative
growth leads to decrease in population. Three types of population growth has been observed.
a) Exponential growth
b) Logistic growth
c) Zero growth
a) Exponential growth:
If a population has a constant birth rate and no other factors like food or disease influence
the population, then exponential growth is observed. In this case, birth rate alone controls the
population. Eg: growth in bacteria, some insects etc. It can be represented mathematically as,
P = P0ert, where P is future population after t years, Po is the present population, r is the annual
growth rate. The curved obtained is J shaped curve.
b) Logistic Growth:
The logistic curve shows three phases
Lag phase: slow growth
Exponential phase: rapid growth
Stationary phase: stable growth
The curve is S Shaped. In most real populations both food and disease become important
factors to check population growth. Environment cannot support indefinite number of individuals.
The maximum number it can support is determined by the carrying capacity of the environment.
Carrying capacity of environment is defined as the number of species (humans, plants, animals)
that it can support without environmental degradation.
c) Zero (population) growth

More developed countries (MDC) show zero population growth. This happens when birth rate
becomes equal to death rate.
2. Population Dispersion
It describes how individuals are distributed themselves in their habitats. Three types of dispersion
are seen
a) Uniform Dispersion: Species are evenly distributed about their habitat.
Species has the ability to survive anywhere in the habitat.
This kind of distribution is more seen in plants so that there is less competition for water
and nutrients as they are widely spaced. Animals like penguins show territorial behaviour.
Eg. Arrangement of shrubs in deserts.
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Human Population and the Environment 133
b) Random Distribution: Population found randomly about their habitat.

Individual have been distributed by chance
Natural resources are distributed randomly, so animal populations which depend on them
are also randomly distributed.
Eg: Dandelions grow randomly.
c)Clumped Dispersion: Population are clustered together (high density patches). This is the
most common population distribution in nature.
Caused by a number of factors: species are together for protection, species are grouped
around natural resources necessary to their survival.
Eg. Herd of lions, flock of birds.
3. Population Doubling Time

Population doubling time is the time needed for a population to double its size at a constant
annual growth rate. Td = 70/r, where Td-doubling time in years (r- annual growth rate).
For example if a country has annual growth rate of 2%, its population doubling time will be
70/2 = 35 years.
4. Total Fertility rate (TFR)

Total fertility rate is the average number of children that would be born to a woman in her
lifetime. TFR is almost 2 in most developed nations and around 5 in developing nations or less
developed nation. In our country TFR was 6.1 in 1950 and currently it is 2.6 (2011 census).
5. Crude birth rate

Crude birth rate is the number of live births occurring during the year, per 1,000 people.
Crude birth rate =
Number of live births

1000
Estimated midyear population of that yearr
6. Mortality rate
Mortality rate is the number of deaths per thousand of individuals in a year. Decrease in mortality
rate will increase population. Due to technological advancements, better medical facilities and
better literacy rate, the mortality rate has gone down in many countries.
7. Infant mortality rate

It is the number of infants dying before reaching one year of age, per 1,000 live births. The rate
has declined in the last 50 years in our country.
8. Crude death rate

It is the number of deaths in a particular year per thousand people in a particular region.
Crude death rate =
Number of deaths
11000
Estimated midyear population of that year
9. Replacement level
Replacement level is number of offsprings replacing two parents. For a developing nation this is
always greater than 2, while for a developed country it is mostly under 2.
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10. Migration
Migration is the movement of individuals into (immigration) or out of place (emigration) or
country. People migrate from one place to another for better economic and social life.
11. Female Male sex Ratio

Sex-ratio is the number of females per thousand males. Due to female infanticide and gender-based
abortions, ratio has declined in many developing countries including India (933:1000).
12. Life expectancy

Life expectancy is the average age that a newborn infant is expected to attain in a given country.
13. Demographic transition

Demographic transition is the correlation between population growth and industrialization or
economic development.
Demographic transition occurs in four phases:
(a) Pre industrial phase: This is characterized by high growth and death rates and overall
increase in population is low.
(b) Transitional phase: Industrialization begins. Better hygiene, medical facility and food
results in decreased death rate. Birth rate remains high. Most of the developing countries
are currently in this phase.
(c) Industrial phase: Birth rate drops. Many developed countries are currently in this stage.
A few developing countries have entered this phase.
(d) Post industrial phase: Birth rate drops further and zero population growth is achieved.
Many European countries are in this stage now. In some cases, population even declines.
14. Carrying capacity:

Carrying capacity is the number of individuals of a species that can be indefinitely sustained
in a given area without harming the habitat. It depends and varies with the habitat. If growth
exceeds carrying capacity, environmental resistance lower population size and population enter
the death phase. Species will become threatened, endangered or extinct.
For example, in an aquarium if we introduce more fishes, the carrying capacity will be exceeded
which result in the collapse of entire ecosystem.
15. Environmental Resistance:

Environmental resistance is any factor in the environment limiting carrying capacity.
5.3 | VARIATION OF POPULATION AMONG NATIONS

World population has crossed 7 billion. The existing population is not uniformly distributed. Less
developed countries have 75% of worlds population while developed countries have only 25%.
Population pyramid
Variation in population can be easily represented with the help of a population pyramid. A population pyramid represents the age and sex structure of a population. The shape of the pyramid
reflects the characteristics of a population.
Graphs are on their sides with the axis in the middle. Population plotted on the X-axis
and age on the Y-axis. The number of males is shown on the left, females on the right in
five-year age groups.
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Different age classes are pre-productive (0-14 yrs) reproductive (1544 yrs) and postproductive (45yr and above)
Information derived from Population Pyramids

The following information can be obtained from population pyramids
Birth and death Rate

Life expectancy
Sex ratio
Fertility Rate
Infant Mortality Rate
Can relate to social and economic problems of the nation.
Based on the shape of the population pyramid there are three types of population pyramids
1. Pyramid Shaped
2. Bell shaped
3. Urn shaped
1. Pyramid Shaped: (Growing population)-Least Developing Countries

Characteristics
Pyramid has a broad base and narrowing as it goes higher.
Very young population is more and old people are less.
Young individuals will soon enter into reproductive age resulting an increase in population.
As the number of older people are less, death rate is less.
This type of behaviour is characteristic of developing countries indicated by

i. High Birth rate

ii. Percentage of young population is higher.
iii. Slow/moderate but steady growth rate.
Developing countries like Congo, Philippines, Ethiopia, Nigeria etc
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2. Bell Shaped (Stable or zero population growth):

Characteristics
It is bell shaped pyramid.
It is characterized by almost equal birth and death rates.
Birth rate is low, so the number of people in between 0-35yrs remains almost the same.
Number of individuals entering into reproductive age group remains almost the same. These
pyramids indicate stable population results in zero population growth.
Many developed countries follow this type of population behaviour. It is characterized by

i. Declining Fertility

ii. Declining Mortality
iii. Moderate Growth Rate
Countries like Finland, France have this kind of population growth.
3. Urn Shaped (Negative growth)

Characteristics
This pyramid has a narrow base and narrow top.
Declining birth and death rates.
People in post-reproductive phase is higher hence there is a decline in the population.
These are future developed countries characterised by

i. Low fertility

ii. Low Mortality
iii. Ceasing Growth Rate

iv. Very old Population
Germany, Italy, Hungary, Sweden, Japan have this type of population pyramid.
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5.4 | POPULATION EXPLOSION

Population explosion is the rapid and significant increase in the size of a population caused
by such factors as a sudden decline in infant mortality, death rate or an increase in life
expectancy.
Causes of population explosion

i) Better health care facilities: In the past few decades there has been a remarkable
improvement in the health facilities which resulted in the decrease of mortality rates.
ii) Increased food productivity and distribution: Green revolution, use of scientific methods
in agriculture resulted in increased food production which could feed millions. In other
words, famine and drought incidents reduced considerably.
iii) Illiteracy and lack of awareness about family planning concepts: Due to illiteracy,
many people in the under-developed countries still remain ignorant of family planning
techniques.
iv) Believes and cultural reasons: In many middle east countries, polygamy is common.
Number of male children is of family prestige and pride. So parents prefer to have as
many off springs (preferably male) as possible. Many parents believe that more children
are needed to take care of them at their old age.
v) Eradication/control of diseases: Many diseases like small pox have been eradicated
completely. Other diseases like plague, polio, malaria is under check in many countries.
Earlier, these diseases used to wipe out entire city.
vi) Government and other agencies funding: Many agencies like WHO, World bank, UNO
and other agencies monitor the progress of many under developed countries by releasing
funds for improved health facility, better living conditions. Many schools in India have
adopted free mid day meal program which reduce poverty and starvation.
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Consequences of population explosion

i) Inadequate fresh water: Population explosion can lead to severe shortage of drinking
water, especially in semi-dry or dry areas.
ii) Depletion of natural resources: It can lead to over exploitation of many natural resources
(water, forest, mineral, food, energy, soil etc).
iii) Pollution: More number of people will result in severe environmental pollution (air, water,
soil, marine, noise etc).
iv) Deforestation: Forests will be cleared for human settlement, agriculture etc. Deforestation
cause extinction of rare and endangered species.
v) Poverty, malnutrition and starvation: Shortage of food and drinking water among people
can result in poverty and malnutrition.
vi) Emergence of new epidemics and diseases: Malnutrition along with unhygienic living
conditions and lack of good healthcare facility can result in the emergence of epidemics
vii) Unemployment issues, Lower wages: Population explosion can result in serious unemployment
issues as the number of people having minimum education will be more. Severe competition
may result in the underpayment.
viii) Climate change: Growing population can result in the increase of greenhouse gases which
can result in global warming.
ix) Migration: Population explosion may result in the migration of people from one place to
another in search of food, water and facilities.
Control of population explosion
Adoption of any family planning methods

Late marriage reduce the fertility rate
Health and sanitation
Recreation facilities
Emigration to other countries in search of better opportunities.
Educating the youth about the problems associated with population explosion.
High standard of living
Creating awareness
5.5 | ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH

World health organisation (WHO) defines health as a state of complete physical, mental and
social well-being and not merely the absence of diseases or infirmity. Environment and human
health are very much related. Degradation of environment and poor living conditions may result
in being sick. Some health issues related to environment are
i) Infectious Diseases
ii) Disposal of Chemicals
iii) Pesticide and heavy metal contamination
iv) Occupational hazards
v) Noise
vi) Radiation
vii) Food
viii) Settlement
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i) Infectious diseases
Unhygienic conditions of environment forms the breeding grounds for various deadly
diseases causing organism like virus, bacteria, vectors etc. This scenario is more common
in the developing countries. Infectious organisms cause food poisoning, respiratory diseases
and gastrointestinal diseases.
Water-borne(Polluted water): Cholera, Dysentery, Amoebiosis, Hepatitis

Air-borne(Polluted air): Asthma, Bronchitis, Pneumonia, Tuberculosis
Food-borne(Food-poisoning): Cholera, Dysentery
Vector-borne: Malaria, Typhoid, Filaria
Animal-borne: Plague
ii) Disposed Chemicals

A large number of chemicals are introduced in the environment by human activities.
Chemicals can be hazardous (Eg: explosives and inflammable chemicals), Carcinogenic
(Eg: aromatic hydrocarbons like benzene, various amines etc), Mutagenic (Eg: Polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbon, benzene) etc.
iii) Pesticide and heavy metal contamination

Many pesticides can cause severe physiological problems. They can cause cancer, tumors,
deformation of body parts, inhibit hormones in humans and other species and affect reproduction etc. Chemicals like DDT and other chlorinated pesticides accumulate in food chain
and concentrate in body tissues as it goes to top of the food chain. Heavy metals, arsenic,
chromium, lead, mercury can cause severe health issues.
iv) Occupational Hazards

Workers in various factories, mines, construction of dams, buildings, commercial forms,
forestry and agriculture are exposed to risks, especially health hazards Dust (lung diseases),
dust contaminating free silica (silicosis), finest fibres of asbestos (asbestosis).
v) Noise
Sound levels beyond the permissible level of human ear may damage ears. Prolonged exposure to noise can cause hearing impairment, hypertension, heart diseases etc. It can affect
pregnant mothers and their foetus.
vi) Radiation
Cosmic and ultraviolet rays cause harmful effects on human health which may include cancer.
vii) Diet
Contamination of food can cause indigestion, food poisoning and other various ill effects.
Undernutrition or malnutrition makes humans prone to other diseases.
viii) Settlement
Improper settlement and poor hygiene around settlement can cause various psychological
problems.
5.6 | FAMILY PLANNING

Family planning is the planning of when to have children, how many children to have and
the use of birth control and other techniques to implement such plans. Family planning allows
couples to decide their family size and also the age interval between two offsprings. In short,
family planning means a deliberate attempt to limit the size of family.
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Following are some of the important family planning measures:

Use of contraceptives (Mechanical, Chemical methods):
Contraception means the prevention of pregnancy. There are many contraceptive techniques
available for use.
Mechanical method
Condom (For males use): The condom is a thin sheath of rubber, which is put over the
erect penis. Condom prevents sperms reaching the vagina during ejaculation. It is a cheap
and effective method for family planning. It also protects from many sexually transmitted
diseases by avoiding direct skin to skin contact.
Diaphragm (For females use): The diaphragm is a rubber cup stretched over collapsible
metal spring coil. It is designed to fit over the cervix (the mouth of uterus).
Intrauterine Contraceptive Device (IUD): It is a small metal or plastic device, which is
designed to fit inside the uterus mouth. A doctor must fit and remove IUD. Eg: Copper T
Chemical Method
Jellies, creams and foam: Jellies, creams, and foams are used as contraceptive agents.
These jellies, creams or foams have germicidal power and kill sperms. They are applied
on to vagina five to fifteen minutes before copulation to take place.
Oral contraceptive: These are popularly known as birth control pills or simply pills.
It contains hormones (estrogens and progesterone) which suppress the production of ovum.
E.g. mala D.
Sterilization: It is surgical technique by which the passage of sperms or ovum is disconnected.
Both men and women can be sterilized without loosing their ability to function sexually.
Vasectomy: In man, the sterilization procedure is called a vasectomy. In this procedure the vasa
deferentia, the tubes that lead from the testes to the ejaculatory ducts, are cut so that the sperm
produced in the testis cannot reach the ejaculatory ducts to ejaculate.
Tubectomy: In females, tubectomy is done. In this procedure, the fallopian tubes, which transport
the egg from the ovaries to the uterus are cut and tied off.
5.7 | WOMEN AND CHILD WELFARE

Women and child development is of great importance in the socio-economic growth of any
country because of following reasons.
i) They form high priority group as they form 70% of population in developing countries
(65% in India)
ii) They constitute vulnerable or special risk as soft, weak, prone to diseases easily and most
of them are economically depended on their spouse or parents.
In recent years, the empowerment of women has gained considerable interest. National
Commission for Women was set up by an Act of Parliament in 1990 to protect the rights
of women. Reservation of seats in the local bodies of Panchayats and Municipalities for
women were made mandatory to involve women in decision making at the local levels.
Rights and Privileges of women

Men and women have equal rights and opportunities in the political, economic and social spheres.
Equal protection of law,
Prohibit discrimination against any citizen on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth,
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Securing all citizens, men and women, equally, the right to means of livelihood
Equal pay for equal work
Humane conditions of work and maternity relief.
Important Social Legislation relating to Women
The Child Marriage Restraint (Amendment) Act, 1976

The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976
The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971
The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961
Family Courts
Policies Concerning Womens development

The National Plan of Action for Women (NPA) was adopted in 1976.
The National Perspective Plan for Women (NPP) aims at holistic approach for the
development of women.
National Policy for the Empowerment of Women (2001)

The policy aims at:
The advancement, development and empowerment of women in all spheres of life.
Ensuring womens equality in power sharing and active participation in decision-making.
Comprehensive economic and social empowerment of women.
Partnership with community-based organizations.
Implementation of international commitments and cooperation at the international, regional
and sub-regional levels.
Various other schemes for women welfare

Balika samridhi yojana (1997) to encourage enrolment & retention of girl child in
schools by providing free education for girl child along with a financial grant to the family
below poverty line
Current Prime minister of India, Sri Narendra Modi has introduced and initiated many
new schemes for women. Some are the following.
Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (save girls, teach girls) in Haryana
Sukanya Samriddhi Accounts: This account can be opened on a girl childs name by
her natural (biological) parents or legal guardian.
Child welfare in India

The welfare of children is of utmost importance in the countrys developmental agenda. Children
are our supreme assets and also the future human resources of the country
Legislative measures and policies

Child Labour (Prohibition & Regulation Act) (1986): An Act to prohibit child labour
in certain employments and to improve the conditions of work of children in certain other
employments.
The Child Marriage Restrain Act, 1929 -to abolish and eliminate child marriage.
The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2000.
The Commissions for Protection of Child Rights Act, 2005
The National Policy for Children (1974)
This Policy aims at providing adequate services towards children, both before and after birth
and during the growing stages for their full physical, mental and social development.
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Constitutional Provisions for children

Free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years
Prohibits trafficking of human beings and forced labour.
Prohibits employment of children below the age of fourteen years in factories, mines or
any other hazardous occupation
Other Schemes for Children welfare

Schemes/Projects Programmes being implemented by the Ministry of Women and Child
Development are as under:
Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme
Rajiv Gandhi National Creche Scheme for the children of working mothers
Gramodya Yojana and Nutrition Programme for Adolescent Girls
Integrated Programme for Juvenile Justice
Balwadi Nutrition programmaes (1970-71) -to provide nutrition, informal schooling for
providing early education to children of 3-5yrs
Child labour eradication scheme (1984) -to shift child labour from hazardous jobs into
schools
Mid day Meal scheme for school children (1995) -To provide free mid day meal to primary
school children in the country
Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) -Launched in 1975

Objectives of ICDS:
Proper psychological and overall development of the child
Improve nutritional and health status of children 0-6 years
Reduce incidence of mortality, morbidity, malnutrition and school drop-outs
Enhance the capability of the mother and family to look after the health, nutritional and
development needs of the child
Achieve effective coordination of policy and implementation among various departments
to promote child development
A few of the organisations who work with childrens rights in India are Plan India, CRY (Child
Rights and You), Save the Children, Bal Vikas Dhara-New Delhi, Bachpan Bachao Andolan.
5.8 | HIV/AIDS
HIV: HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is a virus that causes AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome). AIDS is a health condition in which a person is easily vulnerable and
affected by a series of diseases due to poor immunity.
HIV by itself is not an illness and does not instantly lead to AIDS.
AIDS: Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome is a health condition that results from the deficiency
in the bodys immunity following HIV infection. It is a break down the bodys immune system
leaving the patient to a number of life threatening infections
Origin of HIV/AIDS
AIDS was discovered in 1983. Though definite source of this virus is not known, some theories
have been suggested. It is generally believed that HIV has been transferred to humans from
African monkeys.
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Transmission of HIV
Contaminated Fluids: Contamination of blood stream with HIV infected body fluids,
particularly blood, semen, breast milk and vaginal fluid.
Sharing of needles: Sharing of HIV contaminated needles in blood transfusion.
Unprotected sex: By sexual contact with affected person
Maternal-fetal transmission: Infected mother give birth to infected baby. Breast milk can
also act as a transmission-medium.
Improperly sterilized hospital tools: If surgical devices like syringes and scalpels, or
even certain instruments, used on an infected person, are used on another person without
proper sterilization. Contaminated needles or syringes used drugs. can cause infection.
HIV is not spread by

Physical touch of infected persons
Air borne- by means of sneezing or coughing
Water borne -by means of saliva, tears etc
Mechanism of HIV infection

HIV is a retro virus which damages immune system by destroying lymphocytes (white
blood cell), helper T cell
Development of HIV:
Incubation period is longer- an average of eight years
During the incubation period, the virus will be multiplying, infecting, and killing cells of
the immune system
Four Stages of infection
Initial Infection:destruction of helper T cells or lympocytes

Asympotic or incubation period
AIDS related complex (ARC)
Final stage- Fully infected AIDS patients receiving different kinds of infection
What are the early and later symptoms of HIV/AIDS?

Many people do not develop any symptoms when they first become infected with HIV.
More persistent or severe symptoms may not surface for several years, even a decade or more.
Symptoms at later stage
Lack of energy
Rapid weight loss.
Frequent fevers and sweats
Fatigue combined with headaches and dizziness
Long-lasting bouts of diarrhoea
Swelling or hardening of glands located in the throat, armpit, or groin
Increasing shortness of breath
How is HIV diagnosed?

Two types of tests are available to diagnose HIV infection
1. Study the presence of antibodies produced by body in response to HIV
ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immuno sorbent Assay),
Western Blot (WB)
Immunoflouroscent Assay (IFA).
Saliva and Urine test
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2. Study the presence of virus itself.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) looks for HIV itself in the blood. This test can recognize
the presence of the virus in the blood. It can detect the virus within a few days of infection.
Treatment against HIV and AIDS

HAART (Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy)
The commonly available treatment for AIDS is the treatment against opportunistic infections.
Prevention of AIDS
Global education about disease

Use of screened blood samples, disposable infections.
Protected Sex (use of condoms)
Monogamy or abstinence from sex
The risk of HIV transmission from a pregnant woman to her baby is significantly reduced
if she takes treatment during pregnancy
It is necessary to treat STD as soon as you suspect infection
The National AIDS Research Institute (NARI) was established in 1992 with the mission
to promote biomedical research on HIV/AIDS in India with an aim to compliment and
strengthen the National AIDS Control Programmes.
5.9 | HUMAN RIGHTS

Human Rights and the salient features of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted
by UN on December 10th 1948.
Human rights are the rights a person has, because he or she is a human being. Human rights
are held by all persons equally, universally, and forever. Human rights cannot be taken away from
a person under any circumstances. These rights cannot be lost.
Human rights are considered as the basic standards without which people cannot live in dignity.
To violate a persons human rights is to treat that person as though he or she was not a human
being. Human rights demands that the human dignity of all people be respected.
Some of the most important characteristics of human rights are the following:
Human
Human
Human
Human
Rights are guaranteed by international standards and legally protected.

Rights focus on the dignity of the human beings.
Rights are indivisible and hence one cannot be denied, waived or taken away.
rights are interrelated and universal.
Human Rights in India

Our Constitution guarantees every citizen of India seven fundamental rights.
1. Right to equality: This advocates equality before law. All are treated equal irrespective of
religion, race, caste, gender or place of birth. All have equality of opportunity in matters
of employment.
2. Right to freedom: This right includes freedom for speech and expression. It also includes
right to practice any profession or occupation, right to life and liberty, right to education.
3. Right against exploitation: This prohibits all forms of forced labour, child labour and
traffic of human beings.
4. Right to freedom of religion: This right ensure a person freedom to practice any religion
and also freedom to manage religious affairs.
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5. Cultural and Educational rights: It preserves the right of citizens to conserve their
culture, language or script. The right of minorities to establish and administer educational
institutions of their choice are also preserved.
6. Right to constitutional remedies: This right advocates for the enforcement of Fundamental
Rights.
7. Right to life: This gives the right to live with human dignity. This includes rights such as
right to education, health, shelter and basic amnesties that the state shall provide.
5.10 | VALUE EDUCATION

Education assists in bringing about socio-economic and cultural progress of a country. It does
not simply mean acquiring knowledge and information, it also mean the use of knowledge for
the betterment of society.
Values Ones own principles and standards that enable one to judge between the right and
wrong behavior or actions or practices.
Need for value based Environmental education

Environment is a common property and our actions affect environment. Any degradation in environment affects our health and well being. Value education in relation to environment provides
an understanding and appreciation of nature and the importance of its conservation. It helps to
promote the concept citizen of the earth. It advocates duty of each individual to care for the
earth and use its resources in a sustainable way.
Value-based Education
Value based education teaches about
Distinction between good and bad

How to live life
How to be happy and make others happy
How to be compassionate, helpful, loving, generous and tolerant.
How to move towards sustainable future
Responsibility towards society and nation.
Following attitudes and behavior to be incorporated through value based education

1) Human values
To develop positive attitudes towards environment and to recognize that man in nature
rather than nature for man.
2) Social Values
To develop values such love, compassion, tolerance and justice towards nature so that all
forms of life (biodiversity) can be protected.
3) Cultural and Religious Values
To nurture, respect and protect every aspect of nature by considering them sacred (plants,
rivers, mountains etc are sacred)
4) Ethical values
To promote earth citizenship thinking rather than human centric thoughts/ views
5) Global Values
To recognize that nature and all the natural phenomenon occurring in the earth are interconnected and exist in harmony. Disturbing the harmony will lead to ecological collapse.
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6) Spiritual values
To develop principles of self control, contentment, reduction of desires and freedom from
greed. These values will help to attain sustainable development and environmental conservation.
5.11 | ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ANALYSIS/ASSESSMENT

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process of evaluating the likely environmental impacts
of a proposed project or development. It takes into account various inter-related socio-economic,
cultural and human-health impacts of the proposed project, both beneficial and adverse.
EIA would necessarily involve the following stages:
1. Screening: This is the first step in EIA. Screening determines whether a proposed project
falls within the remit of the Regulations, whether it is likely to have a significant effect
on the environment and therefore requires an assessment.
2. Scoping: Scoping is done to identify which potential impacts that are relevant to assess.
This is done based on legislative requirements, expert knowledge and public involvement.
Alternative solutions are suggested so that adverse impacts on environment is minimized.
3. Preparing the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) or EIA report: When it is decided
that an assessment is required, the applicant must compile the information required to assess
the likely significant environmental effects of the development. This can be done with the
help of public authorities who provides him any relevant environmental information in their
possession. The information finally compiled by the applicant is known as an Environmental
Impact Statement (EIS).
4. Review of the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS): Review is based on the terms of
reference and public participation.
5. Decision-making: A final decision is made on whether to approve the project or not, and
under what conditions.
6. Monitoring, compliance, enforcement and environmental auditing: Finally, after sanctioning the project, it is closely monitored to see whether the predicted impacts and proposed
mitigation measures occur. It also ensures that unpredicted impacts or failed mitigation
measures are identified and addressed in a timely fashion.
5.12 |ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN

ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH
Information Technology (IT) is defined as the collection, processing, storage and dissemination
of information. IT is of immense help in the field of environmental education and health. It
helps the development of internet facilities, Geographical information system, Remote sensing
technologies etc. IT also assist to generate up-to-date information on various aspects of Environment and health. Obtained data is in computerized form and can be retrieved whenever required.
5.12.1 Role of IT in Environment

i) ENVIS Environmental Information System
Government of India established Environmental Information System (ENVIS) , in 1982.
It was created to collect, handle and store Environmental Information.
Collects information from 25 centers all over the country.
Generates network of database on areas like pollution control, remote sensing, biodiversity,
Environmental Management, renewable energy, Desertification, Mangroves, Wildlife, Mining etc.
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Few objectives of ENVIS

a) To build up a repository and dissemination centre in Environmental Science and Engineering
b) To support and promote research and development in the area of environmental information
technology.
c) To promote exchange of information amongst developing countries.
ii) NIMS National Management Information System
The National Science and Technology Management Information System (NSTMIS), a division
of Department of Science and Technology (DST) was created to build the information database
on a continuous basis on natural resources in the country. It is devoted to scientific and technological activities.
iii) RIS Remote Sensing Information System
Remote Sensingis the collection of data by sensors not in direct contact with the phenomena
of interest.
A typical RIS system has four elements: a source, the sensor, interactions with the
atmosphere, and interactions with the earths surface.
Satellite imageries provide the actual information about various resources and their
degradation in a digital form through remote sensing.
Satellite data provides correct, reliable and verifiable information about forest coverage,
desertification, afforestation etc.
Provides information of ozone layer depletion, smog, approach of monsoon etc.
To discover many new reserves of oil, minerals etc.
To find out land cover, forest cover, bio diversity etc. by mapping
Plays a key role in Environmental Management, Environmental Impact Assessment etc.
iv) GIS Geographical Information System

GIS is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all
types of geographical data.
Different thematic maps containing digital information on a number of environmental
aspects like water resources, soil type, forest land, grass land etc. are superimposed in a
layered form in computer using software.
For interpretation of polluted zones, degraded lands, emission sources etc.
Zoning Atlas is prepared by GIS to locate suitable areas for industrial growth
GIS plays a key role in resource mapping, environmental conservation, management,
planning, Coral reef mapping etc.
Helps in disaster Management and relief operations
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v) WWW World Wide Web

Internet and web resource materials, online learning centre, provides the most current and
relevant information on environmental applications, problems & solutions etc.
Student and teacher friendly features: To get detailed information, case studies, current
articles, career information, encyclopedia (Wikipedia), videos (youtube) etc.
vi) Computer based instruments for environment studies
Environmental monitoring, data collection and analyses involve the extensive use of computers.
Many techniques involve automated sampling and analysis. Almost all analytical techniques
involved like Atomic absorption spectrometry, flame photometry etc are attached to computer
where data can easily read, analysed, compared and stored.
5.12.2 Role of IT in Human Health

Information technology (IT) has the potential to improve the quality, safety, and efficiency of
health care. Combination of IT and health is bioinformatics. Some applications of computer
based technology in the field of health are listed below.
i) Electronic health records (EHR)
EHR is a collection of electronic health information about individual patients.
It is a digital record which can be easily shared.
EHRs may include a range of data, including medical history, medication and allergies,
immunization status, laboratory test results etc.
EHR saves considerable amount of time for doctors, as it contains entire medical history
of the patient.
It also helps in easy access and sharing of information.
ii) Automated dispensing machines (ADMs)
This is an advanced automated technology which distributes required medication doses
to the prescribed patients on time.
iii) Picture archiving and communications system (PACS)
This captures and integrates diagnostic and radiological images from various devices (e.g.,
X-ray, MRI scan), stores them, and disseminates them to a medical record, a clinical
data repository etc.
iv) Medical Transcription
Medical transcription is the transcribing (typing) of doctors reports from dictated audio
files. These files are used for diagnosis, information sharing and health care delivery.
v) Teleconferencing
Using latest computer aided technology, it is possible for a physician to have a teleconference
with other medical experts in the middle of surgery.
vi) Endoscopy and Laproscopy
Endoscopy involves examining the inside of a persons body using an endoscope. An
endoscope is a medical device consisting of a long tube with light or cameras attached
that is used to look inside a body cavity or organ. The image of the organ can be seen
on computer monitor and can be studied for the growth of tumor, cancer etc.
Lapscropic (key hole) surgery uses computer based applications.
vii) Instruments in health care
Magnetic resonance imaging unit (MRI scan), Computed Axial Tomography (CT scan),
Intensive Care units (ICU) etc widely use computers for functioning.
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viii) Mobile blood banks

Mobile blood banks have data of different blood groups and those who are in need of
blood to meet critical medical situations can get it from these banks. Software application
can help people to find a nearest donor from his/her own locality. List of blood donors
with their blood group and phone numbers will be available through the application.

1. With a neat diagram explain the variation in population growth among various nations.

2. Write a brief note on family welfare programmes initiated by Government of India.

3. Discuss the role of Information Technology in environmental protection and human health.

4. Explain the effects and control of AIDS
5. Explain the environmental problems posed by population explosion (Anna Univ, June 2013)
6. Write the methods and strategies on imparting value education (Anna Univ, Dec 2014)
7. Briefly describe the various activities launched for women and child welfare in India

8. Write a short note on human rights.
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APPENDIX
ANNA UNIVERSITY TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND
ANSWERS
UNIT I
Environment, Ecosystems and Biodiversity
1. Define environment.
Environment is the sum total of air, water and land, inter relationships among themselves and
also with human beings, other living organisms and property. The word Environment is derived
from the French word Environ which means surrounding.
2. State the significance and scope of environmental education.

Environment studies have become significant for the following reasons:
Environment issues being of international importance
Environment issues like global warming and ozone depletion, loss of biodiversity etc are
not merely national issues but are global issues. These issues must be addressed with
international efforts and cooperation.
Problems associated with industrialization and development
Rapid growth of science and technology resulted in industrialization. This rapid industrialization has caused severe environmental damage due to its activities.
Population explosion
Total world population has crossed 7 billion. This population explosion will cause depletion
of all natural resources.
Natural resources: Conservation and management
Due to over exploitation, many natural resources are being depleted at an alarming rate.
Proper steps have to be taken for their preservation.
Environmental pollution and control
Human activities have resulted in wide spread pollution of land, water and air. Irrecoverable
damage to environment can happen if pollution is not checked.
3. What is hazard?
A Hazard is a potential source of harm or adverse health effect on a person or persons. Or it is
the way in which an object or a situation may cause harm.
A hazard exists where an object (or substance) or situation has a built-in ability to cause an
adverse effect. Such hazards include uneven pavements, unguarded machinery, an icy road, a fire,
an explosion and a sudden escape of toxic gas.
4. What is a risk?
A risk is chance or probability that a person may be harmed or suffers adverse health effects if
exposed to a hazard. Risk can be high or negligible.
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Factors that influence the degree of risk include:

how much a person is exposed to a hazardous thing or condition,
how the person is exposed (e.g., breathing in a vapour, skin contact), and
how severe are the effects under the conditions of exposure.
Risk = hazard + exposure
5. What is an ecosystem? What are its components?

An ecosystem is a group of biotic communities of species interacting with one another and with
their non-living environment exchanging energy and matter. Ecology is the study of ecosystems.
Two major structural components of ecosystem are
Abiotic components: Non-living components (physical and chemical) of an ecosystem collectively
are called abiotic components.
Biotic components: Living organisms or living members in an ecosystem form biotic components.
It includes plants, animals and microorganisms present in an ecosystem.
6. What is food chain?

The transfer of energy within the ecosystem (among various levels) by a sequence of eating and
being eaten in an ecosystem is known as food chain.
An example of a simple food chain is:
Grass grasshopper Frog Snake Hawk (Grassland ecosystem)
7. What are the main functions of the ecosystem?

The major functions of ecosystems are
(i) Food chain, food webs and trophic structure (Ecological pyramids)
(ii) Energy flow
(iii) Cycling of nutrients (Biogeochemical cycles)
(iv) Primary and Secondary production
(v) Ecosystem development and regulation
8. What is biodiversity?
Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life. It is a measure of the variety of organisms present in different ecosystems. This can refer to genetic variation, ecosystem variation, or species
variation (number of species) within an area, biome, or planet. The variety and variability of life
on earth is known as biodiversity.
9. What are extinct species? Give examples.

A species is said to be extinct when it is not seen in the wild for 50 years at a stretch.
Example: Dodo, passenger pigeon, dinosaur, mammoth, saber-toothed tiger.
10. What are endangered species? Give examples.

A species is said to be endangered when the number has been reduced to a critical level or whose
habitats have been drastically reduced. They can become extinct when not protected and conserved.
Example: Giant panda, Indian elephant, Royal Bengal Tiger.
11. What are endemic species? Give examples.

Species which are restricted to a particular area is called as endemic species.
Example: Nilgiri Tahr, Lion tailed macque.
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Appendix 153
12. What is a keystone species?

Species or set of species whose impact on its community or ecosystem is much larger and more
influential are termed as keystone species. Extinction of these species would consequently lead
to the extinction of many other forms of life.
In the African savanna (grassland), elephants are the key stone species as they shape their
environment. They destroy trees, making room for the grass species. Without elephants, much
of the savannah would turn into woodland or forest.
13. What is red data book?

Red Data Book is a state document established for documenting rare and endangered and threatened species of animals and plants.
14. What do you mean by in situ conservation of biodiversity?

In situ conservation refers to the conservation of plants and animals in their own natural habitat
where they survive. Example: Biosphere reserve, National parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries etc.
15. What do you mean by exsitu conservation of biodiversity?

Ex situ conservation include conservation of plant and animal species outside the habitat. The
species are provided their habitat artificially. Threatened animals and plants are taken out from
their natural habitat and placed in a place where they can be protected and given special care.
Example: Gene banks, Botanical Gardens, Zoos, Genetic resource centers.
UNIT II
Pollution
1. Define pollution.
Environmental pollution can be defined as any undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of any component of the environment (air, water, soil), which can cause harmful
effects on various forms of life or property. The material that causes pollution is called pollutant.
2. What are the functions of atmosphere?

Functions of atmosphere are
Blocking harmful rays: Harmful ultra violet radiation from the sun is blocked by ozone
layer, which is a part of our atmosphere.
Source of Oxygen and Carbondioxide: Atmosphere acts a source for both oxygen and
carbondioxide which is essential for respiration and photosynthesis.
Maintenance of earths temperature: Atmosphere cause heat retention and keep earth surface
warm. In the absence of atmosphere the temperature of earth would be sub zero in the night.
Saving earth from meteors: Most meteoroids that enter the Earths atmosphere vaporize
completely due to high temperature and friction and never reach the planets surface.
Climate and weather: Earth gets heated non-uniformly by the sun resulting in different
weather patterns. Air sets in motion resulting in winds causing cyclones, monsoon, rainfall etc.
3. How is ozone layer formed?

Ozone in the stratosphere is produced by photochemical reactions involving O2. When diatomic
oxygen in the stratosphere absorbs ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths less than 240 nm, it
breaks apart into two oxygen atoms.
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O2 + hn 2 O (light of l < 240 nm)

The resulting oxygen atoms combine with O2 molecules to form ozone in the presence of a
third body M.
O + O2 + M (N2 or O2) O3 + M
The third body M absorbs the excess energy liberated by the above reaction and there by
stabilizes the O3 molecule.
4. Describe the chemistry behind ozone hole formation.

Major reason for the depletion of ozone layer is halogen atoms (F, Cl, Br) which are formed
by the photochemical decomposition of CFCs. CFC is an organic compound that contains only
carbon, chlorine, hydrogen and fluorine. CFCs are widely used as coolants in refrigeration systems
and air conditioners, propellants for aerosols due to low boiling point. These slowly rise up and
reach stratosphere and cause depletion of ozone. The chemical reaction can be represented as
CF2Cl2 +hn CF2Cl +Cl
Cl + O3 ClO + O2
ClO + O Cl + O2
In the second step, Cl is generated again which can cause the reaction to continue like a chain
reaction. One chlorine atom can thereby destroy thousands of ozone molecules. Similarly other
atoms present in CFC like Fluorine and Bromine can also cause similar effect.
5. Explain the effect of ozone layer depletion

Ozone depletion in the stratosphere will result in more UV radiation reaching the earth
especially UV-B (290-320 nm). The UV-B radiations affect DNA. Any change in DNA
can result in mutation.
Can cause skin cancer (basal and squamous cell carcinoma) which donot cause death but
cause disfigurement.
Easy absorption of UV rays by the lens and cornea of may cause cataract.
Ozone depletion will result in decrease in phytoplankton population thereby affecting the
population of zooplankton, fish, marine animals, infact the whole aquatic food chain.
Yield of vital crops like corn, rice, soybean, cotton, bean, pea and wheat will decrease.
6. Why is carbon monoxide considered as a very harmful pollutant?

CO is a very poisonous gas and is produced by incomplete combustion of fuel. CO, being a very
strong ligand, binds strongly with Fe present in the hemoglobin. CO has affinity for haemoglobin
210 times more than oxygen. Thus it interferes with the oxygen carrying capacity of blood.
HbO2 + CO

HbCO + O2
Oxyhemoglobin carboxyhemoglobin
Haemoglobin is, therefore, unable to transport oxygen to various parts of the body. This causes
the reduction in oxygen levels in the tissues. Prolonged exposure leads to dizziness, reduced vision
and even death. People who survive severe CO poisoning may suffer long-term health problems.
7. What is smog?
Smog is a kind of air pollution, originally named for the mixture of smoke and fog in the air
Smog = Smoke + Fog
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Appendix 155
8. What is acid rain?

Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic (pH below 5.6).
Acid rain literally means the presence of excessive acids in rain waters. Acid rain can be wet
or dry. Natural rain water has a pH of 5.6 at 20C because of formation of carbonic acid due to
dissolution of CO2 in water. Any precipitation less than pH 5.6 can be considered acidic. Typical
acid rain has a pH value of 4 or lower. Acid precipitation is a mixture of strong mineral acids
sulphuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3) and in some locations, hydrochloric acid (HCl).
9. Define BOD and COD

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is the measure of the quantity of oxygen used by microorganisms (e.g., aerobic bacteria) in the oxidation of organic matter. The result is that the oxygen
content of the water will be decreased. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measure of the
capacity of water to consume oxygen during the decomposition of organic matter and the oxidation of inorganic chemicals such as Ammoniaand nitrite.
10. What is soil pollution? How is it caused?

Soil pollution is the presence of toxic chemicals (pollutants or contaminants) in soil in high
enough concentrations to be of serious risk to health of living organisms or ecosystem.
The major sources of soil pollution are

i) Industrial Wastes
ii) Urban Wastes
iii) Agricultural practices
iv) Radioactive pollutants
v) Biological wastes
11. What is noise pollution? How is it caused?

Noise pollution is excessive, displeasing human, animal, or machine-created environmental noise
that disrupts the activity or balance of human or animal life.
Sources of Noise Pollution
Transport/Traffic: One of the main sources of noise is various modes of transportation
(like air, road, rail-transportation).
Industrial activity: Use of sirens, heavy machines, engines, turbines, cutting, grinding etc
causes significant noise pollution.
Domestic activity: Use of grinders, food blenders, television, music system can produce
unpleasant loud sound disturbing the neighborhood.
Celebrations: People celebrate festivals by exploding crackers. During Diwali, New year,
marriages etc involve extensive use of
12. Suggest some methods to reduce noise pollution

Following methods can be used to control noise pollution:
Reduce noise at the source: Sources of noise pollution like heavy vehicles and old vehicles
may not be allowed to ply in the populated areas.
Proper maintenance: Proper oiling will reduce the noise from the machinery and other
moving parts.
Use of sound absorbing substances/silencers: Use of substances that absorb sound or
silencer in motor vehicles can reduce the intensity of noise pollution.
Planting trees: Plants and trees should be planted all around the hospitals, libraries and
schools and colleges. These trees can absorb noise.
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Personal precaution: Industrial workers should be provided with ear plugs or cotton plugs.
People should not cause nuisance to public by playing music, television very loud
Law enforcement: Strict legislation can ensure that sound production is minimized at
various festivals and social functions. Fire crackers shall not be used at any time in silence
zones, as defined by the Ministry of Environment and Forests.
13. Explain the role of an individual to reduce soil pollution.

Use rechargeable batteries. Rechargeable batteries will reduce metal pollution.
The solid waste generated during one manufacturing process can be used as a raw material
for some other processes.
Promote reuse and recycling wherever possible and reduce the production of solid wastes.
Biodegradable materials can be converted into compost or mature or for the production
of bio-gas.
Timely disposal of waste to prevent decomposition of household refuge as to check foul
odors and spread of disease by insects, flies and other pathogenic bacteria.
UNIT III
Natural Resources
1. Distinguish between renewable and non renewable resources.
Renewable resources are inexhaustive and can be regenerated within a given span of time.
Example: Forests, wildlife, wind energy, biomass energy, tidal energy, hydro power etc.
Non-renewable resources are resources which cannot be regenerated. Example: Fossil fuels
like coal, petroleum, minerals etc. Once we exhaust these reserves, the same cannot be
replenished.
2. What is deforestation? What are its consequences?

Removal of earths forest is known as deforestation. It is the clearing of trees, transforming a
forest into cleared land.
Consequences of deforestation are
Global warming
Soil erosion
Loss of habitat for plants and animals
Loss of soil fertility
Lowering of water table
Shifting of tribal people
Loss of biodiversity, Genetic and species diversity
Desertification
3. What is an aquifer? What are its types?

A layer of sediment or rock that is highly permeable and contains water is called an aquifer.
Aquifers may be of two types:
Unconfined aquifers which are overlaid by permeable earth materials and they are recharged by
water seeping down from above in the form of rainfall and snow melt.
Confined aquifers which are sandwitched between two impermeable layers of rock or sediments
and are recharged only in those areas where the aquifer intersects the land surface.
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Appendix 157
4. What are consequences of over exploitation of ground water?

Consequences of over exploitation of ground water are
Lowering of water table
Ground subsidence
Water logging and salinity
Water pollution/Chemical contamination
Decline in agricultural production
Drying up of lakes, rivers and water bodies
Desertification
5. What are floods? How can it be prevented?

A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land which is usually dry. This happens when
river carries water much beyond its normal capacity.
Control measures for the prevention of flood
Building dams
Networking of rivers
Watershed management
Control of deforestation
Floodwalls
6. What is drought? How is it caused?

Scarcity of water which occurs due to inadequate rains, late arrivals of rains and excessive withdrawal of ground water is called drought.
Causes
1. Less rainfall/Failure of monsoon: Less rainfall/ monsoon failure may result in severe
water scarcity result in drought.
2. Deforestation: Unscientific cutting down of trees can result in change in hydrological cycle
which can lead to drought.
3. Overgrazing: Cattles may eat away the vegetation converting the land into dry, arid or
semi-desert lands which may cause drought.
4. Unscientific agricultural practices: Erroneous, intensive agricultural methods, unscientific
practices may lead to water scarcity leading to drought.
7. What is eutrophication? What are its consequences?

Eutrophication is the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients
(as phosphates) that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life usually resulting in the depletion
of dissolved oxygen. Eu means more and trophic means nutrition.
Consquences of eutrophication
Increased biomass of phytoplankton
Decreases in water transparency (increased turbidity)
Colour, smell, and water treatment problems
Dissolved oxygen depletion
Loss of desirable fish species
Decreases in aesthetic value of the water body
Difficulty in transport
8. What is the role of an individual in conserving food resources?

Do not waste food. Take as much as you can eat.
Dont cook food more than required.
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Reduce the use of chemical pesticides.

Use organic fertilizers for your crops.
Use drip irrigation to water the crops.
Have a vegetable garden at your own home so that you can get fresh vegetables.
Eat local and seasonal vegetables. This saves lot of energy on transport, storage and preservation.
9. What is soil erosion? How is it caused?

Removal of top soil from one place to another by various agents like water, wind etc is known
as soil erosion. Soil erosion results in the loss of fertility of the soil because of the loss of top
soil layer which is fertile.
Causes
Deforestation: Removal of trees make top soil loose and hence can be easily removed by
agents of erosion.
Floods and heavy winds: Floods and heavy winds may wash(carry) the top soil causing
soil erosion.
Agricultural practices: Traditional agricultural practices like tilling and ploughing expose
top soil, which is prone to erosion.
10. What is desertification?

Desertification is a type of land degradation in which a relatively dry land region becomes
increasingly arid, losing its bodies of water as well as vegetation and wildlife. In short conversion
of a dry land into a desert is called desertification.
11. What is the role of an individual in conserving energy resources?
Turn off lights, fans and other appliances when not in use.
Use pressure cooker for cooking. This makes cooking faster and saves fuel.
Use fluorescent lamps and LEDs instead of incandescent lamps. This save a lot of power.
Always cook in closed containers so that energy wastage is minimum.
Switch off electrical equipment completely when not in use.
Dry the clothes in sun instead of drier if it is a sunny day.
Use solar lanterns.
Drive less, make fewer trips and use public transportations whenever possible. Use bicycles
to commute.
UNIT IV
Social Issues and the Environment
1. What is sustainable development?
Sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable development
means improving the life of the people. It refers that the progress in well being of humans and
other living beings should be extended or prolonged over many generations than just few years.
2. What is rainwater harvesting? What are its advantages?

Rainwater harvesting is a technique of collecting and storing rainwater and increasing the
recharge of ground water by collected water.
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Appendix 159
Rainwater harvesting helps in

recharging the aquifers
improving groundwater quality
improving soil moisture content
reducing soil erosion by minimizing run-off water.
3. What is green house effect?

Nearly 30% of the solar radiation falling on earths surface is reflected back to the space. Rest
of the radiation is trapped by earths atmosphere. The amount of heat trapped in the atmosphere
depends mostly on the concentrations certain gases called green house gases. The major green
house gases are carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
and water vapor. As the effect is similar in nature to what happens in a botanical greenhouse
(the glass panes allows the light energy to enter inside but diminishes the loss of heat), these
gases are called greenhouse gases and the resultant warming from their increase is called the
greenhouse effect.
4. What are the consequences of greenhouse effect?

Consequences of Greenhouse Effect are the following
Global temperature increase
Melting of polar icecaps and rise in Sea Level
Decline in agricultural production.
Natural disasters disasters like floods can happen
Ocean acidification
5. What is ecomark?
In order to increase the consumer awareness about environmental issues, the Government of
India have intiated a eco-labelling scheme called Ecomark in 1991 for the identification of
eco friendly products. It is a certification mark issued by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
to products that are manufactured with least impact on the eco system.
6. What are the consequences of earthquake?

Earthquake can result in
Damage to Life and property: Structures such as buildings, roads, rails, factories, dams,
bridges can be completely or partially destroyed by earthquakes
Landslides and avalanche: Earthquakes can cause landslides. It can also trigger avalanche.
Damages to Government Infrastructure: Earth quakes can result in cutting of water supply,
telecommunication cables etc. Thus, there is total disruption of power and communication.
Contamined water can cause spread of epidemics.
Fire Hazard: Strong oscillations of earthquakes can cause severe fires in houses and
factories because of bursting of cooking gas cylinders, contact of live electric wires etc.
Flash Floods: Strong seismic events result in the damages of dams and cause severe flash
floods. Dams may crack or break. This can result in flow of huge volumes of water.
Tsunamis: Earth quakes which originate beneath the ocean floor can result in the formation
of gigantic sea waves which approach the sea shore and cause great loss of life and property.
These are called tsunami.
7. What is Tsunami? How is it caused?

A tsunami is a giant wave (or series of waves) created by an undersea earthquake, volcanic eruption or landslide. Tsunami in Japanese means harbor wave. Tsunamis are not tidal waves
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Causes of Tsunami
Earthquakes: These are the most destructive and common cause for tsunamis. When
earthquake is massive, at least 7.5 in magnitude, it displaces enough water vertically to
case a huge wave.
Volcanic eruption: A massive volcanic eruption can disturb the ocean floor which can
lead to the formation of tsunami. The explosive eruption of Krakatau in 1883 created a
tsunami that claimed more than 36,000 lives.
Landslides: Enormous submarine landslides can occur on the flanks of ocean islands
which can lead to tsunami. Landslides can be triggered by earthquake or volcanic activity.
Meterorites: Asteriods falling into the ocean can lead to tsunami.
8. What is disaster management?

Disaster management involves preparing for a disaster before it happens, response to the disaster
(eg: emergency evacuation, quarantine etc.), and also supporting, and rebuilding society after the
occurance of the disaster.
Disaster management = Management before, during and after the disaster
UNIT V
Human Population and the Environment
1. Define population and population dynamics.
Population is defined as the number of individuals of same species in a given area at a given
time. Population dynamics refers to change of population with time.
2. What is population explosion?

Population explosion is the rapid and significant increase in the size of a population caused by
such factors as a sudden decline in infant mortality, death rate or an increase in life expectancy.
3. What is population doubling time?

For example if a country has annual growth rate of 2%, its population doubling time will be
70/2= 35 years.
4. What are the consequences of population explosion?

Inadequate fresh water: Population explosion can lead to severe shortage of drinking water,
especially in semi-dry or dry areas.
Depletion of natural resources: It can lead to over exploitation of many natural resources (water,
forest, mineral, food, energy, soil etc).
Pollution: More number of people will result in severe environmental pollution (air, water, soil,
marine, noise etc).
Deforestation: Forests will be cleared for human settlement, agriculture etc. Deforestation cause
extinction of rare and endangered species.
Poverty, malnutrition and starvation: Shortage of food and drinking water among people can
result in poverty and malnutrition.
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Appendix 161
Emergence of new epidemics and diseases: Malnutrition along with unhygienic living conditions
and lack of good healthcare facility can result in the emergence of epidemics
Climate change: Growing population can result in the increase of greenhouse gases which can
result in global warming.
5. What is population pyramid?

A population pyramid represents the age and sex structure of a population. The shape of the
pyramid reflects the characteristics of a population.
Graphs are on their sides with the axis in the middle. Population plotted on the X-axis
and age on the Y-axis. The number of males is shown on the left, females on the right in
five-year age groups.
Different age classes are pre-productive (0-14 yrs) reproductive (15-44yrs) and postproductive (45yr and above)
6. Name some schemes initiated by Government of India for the uplift of

women

Balika samridhi yojana (1997)
Beti Bachao Beti Padhao
Sukanya Samriddhi Accounts
7. Name some Legislative measures and policies initiated by Government of

India for child welfare
Child Labour (Prohibition & Regulation Act) (1986)

The Child Marriage Restrain Act, 1929
The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2000
The Commissions for Protection of Child Rights Act, 2005
The National Policy for Childre n (1974)
8. What are the applications of Geographical Information System?

GIS is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of
geographical data. GIS plays a key role in resource mapping, environmental conservation, management, planning, Coral reef mapping etc. GIS helps in disaster Management and relief operations.
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SOLVED ANNA UNIVERSITY QUESTION PAPERS

B.E / B.Tech Degree Examination Nov/Dec 2014
GE6351- Environmental Science and Engineering
Third Semester
Regulation 2013
Time: Three hours
Maximum: 100 Marks
Answer ALL questions

PART A (10 X 2 = 20 marks)
1. What is an abiotic environment?

Non-living components (physical and chemical) of an ecosystem collectively are called abiotic
components of the environment.
Example: Sunlight, soil, water, air etc.
2. What are called endangered species?

A species is said to be endangered when the number has been reduced to a critical level or
whose habitats have been drastically reduced. They can become extinct when not protected
and conserved.
Example: Giant panda, Indian elephant, Royal Bengal Tiger.
3. Mention the effect of ozone on plants.

Ozone damages vegetation and ecosystems by reducing the ability of plants to open the
microscopic pores on their leaves to breathe. It reduces photosynthesis process. High levels
of ozone leads to reduced agricultural crop productivity. Plants become more susceptible to
diseases, pests etc.
4. List the sources of marine pollution.

Sources for marine pollution are oil spillage, industrial wastes, domestic wastes, wastes from
nuclear power plants etc.
5. What are renewable resources?

6. Define the term landslide.

Landslides refers to the sudden movement of large amounts of earth, rock, sand or mud or
any combination of these.
Causes of landslide:

Deforestation, underground mining, heavy rainfall, earthquakes.
Consequences of landslide:

Loss of life and property, Loss of transportation and communication, Increase in turbidity
in lakes, Avalanche.
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Solved Anna University Question Papers 163
7. What is rainwater harvesting?

Rainwater harvesting is a technique of increasing the recharge of groundwater by capturing
and storing rainwater. This is done by constructing special water harvesting structures like
dug wells, percolation pits, lagoons, check dams etc.
8. What are the objectives of water act?

Water act aims at maintaining and restoring the wholesomeness of water by preventing
and controlling its pollution. It provides for the establishment of Centre and state pollution
control board which lays down standards for water quality parameters. Act makes provisions
for various penalties for defaulters.
9. Define the term nuclear energy.

The splitting up of a heavier nucleus using projectile, into two or more lighter nuclei with the
liberation of large amounts of energy is known as nuclear fission. The process of fission is
always accompanied by the ejection of two or more neutrons and a large amount of energy.
U235 + 0n1 36Kr94 + 56Ba139 + 30n1 + Energy

92
1 0. What are the sources of HIV infection?
Contaminated Fluids: Contamination of blood stream with HIV infected body fluids,
particularly blood, semen, breast milk and vaginal fluid.
Sharing of needles: Sharing of HIV contaminated needles in blood transfusion.
Unprotected sex: By sexual contact with affected person
Maternal-fetal transmission: Infected mother give birth to infected baby. Breast milk can
also act as a transmission-medium.
Improperly sterilized hospital tools: If surgical devices like syringes and scalpels, or even
certain instruments, used on an infected person, are used on another person without proper
sterilization. Contaminated needles or syringes used drugs.
PART B (5 X 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) (i) Define ecosystem. Give an account of structure and features of grassland
ecosystem.(8)

Refer 1.6.2, Page 16

(ii) What is biodiversity? Discuss the values and significance of biodiversity.
(8)

Refer 1.7, 1.9, Page 22
Or
(b) (i) With a neat sketch discuss Nitrogen cycle.
(8)

(ii) What do you mean by conservation of biodiversity? State and explain the basic
approaches to wildlife conservation.
(8)

Refer 1.16, Page 31
12. (a) (i) Describe the various chemical and photochemical reactions in the atmosphere. (8)

Refer page 38

(ii) Explain the sources, measures and control measures of noise pollution.
(8)

Refer 2.18, Page 61
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Or

(b) (i) Write informative notes on water treatment process.
(8)

Refer 2.13, Page 54

(ii) Describe the role of an individual in the prevention of pollution.
(8)

Refer 2.22, Page 68
13. (a) (i) Describe the causes and effects of deforestation.
(8)

Refer 3.2.2; Page 73

(ii) What is land degradation? Discuss the factors responsible for land degradation. (8)

Or
(b) (i) What are the changes caused by agriculture and overgrazing?
(8)


(ii) Discuss the production of biogas. Mention its uses
(8)

14. (a) (i) What are the objectives of water conservation? How is it carried out?
(8)

Refer 4.3, Page 104

(ii) What is an earthquake? Ennumerate its effects. What are the measures to be taken
to mitigate this disaster.
(8)

Refer 4.18, Page 123
Or
(b) (i) Discuss the resettlement and rehabilitation of people, its problem and concerns.(8)

Refer 4.5, Page 107

(ii) Briefly discuss the salient features of wildlife protection act.
(8)

15. (a) (i) Discuss the variation of population among nations
(8)

Refer 5.3, Page 134

(ii) Write the methods and strategies of imparting value education.
(8)

Or
(b) (i) Write explanatory notes on women and child welfare.
(8)

Refer 5.7, Page 140

(ii) Explain the role of information technology in environment and human health. (8)

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B. E / B.Tech Degree Examination April /May 2015

Ge2211- Environmental Science And Engineering
Third Semester
Regulation 2013
Time: Three hours
Maximum: 100 Marks
Answer ALL questions

PART A (10 X 2 = 20 marks)
1. What is the difference between renewable and non-renewable resources?

Non-renewable resources are resources which cannot be regenerated.

Example: Fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, minerals etc. Once we exhaust these reserves,
the same cannot be replenished.
2. What is overgrazing?

The rapid consumption of grass and other small plants by cattle stock (cows, goat, buffalo,
sheep) without giving enough time to regenerate is known as overgrazing.

Overgrazing leads to deforestation, soil erosion, land degradation, desertification etc.
3. Define ecological succession.

Ecological succession is defined as the orderly changes that happens in a community structure
and function over a period of time. Quite often it is observed that one type of community
is totally replaced by another over a period of time. In other words, a community evolves
slowly from a simple community to a much complex community.
4. How is estuary formed in coastal zones?

Estuary is formed when river meets the sea. Estuarine ecosystem is a rich ecosystem, water
is brackish.
5. What is the difference between sound and noise?

Noise is undesirable and unwanted sound. Not all sound is noise. What may be considered
as music to one person may be noise to another.

Sound is measured in a unit called the Decibel. Ordinary conversation has a noise value
of 60 decibels. If loudness exceeds 80 decibels, it can cause noise pollution.
6. List out the sources and causes of thermal pollution Sources

i) Industries: Heat producing industries like thermal power plants, nuclear power plants, oil
refineries, steel mills etc uses water for various purposes.
ii)Nuclear power plants: Nuclear power plants use water as coolant. After heat exchange
water having higher temperature is discharged to water body.
iii) Domestic homes: Hot water discharged from homes (geyser) and kitchen can also cause
thermal pollution.
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Effects of Thermal pollution

i)
Reduction in amount of dissolved oxygen
ii)
Death of aquatic organism
iii)
Increased toxicity of chemicals at higher temperature
iv)
Migration of fishes
v)
Reduced fertility rate in fishes
7. Differentiate between inter and intra generation equity in sustainable development.
Intragenerational equity is concerned with equity between people of the same generation.
Interagenerational equity is concerned with equity between people of the different generation.
8. What are the prime objectives of rain water harvesting?

Rainwater harvesting has the following objectives:
to meet the growing water requirements
to raise the water table by recharging ground water
to reduce run off loss
to avoid flooding of roads
to reduce groundwater contamination
9. What is doubling time? How is it calculated?


For example if a country has annual growth rate of 2%, its population doubling time will
be 70/2 = 35 years.
10. Write the social values of environmental education.

To develop values such love, compassion, tolerance and justice towards nature so that all
forms of life (biodiversity) can be protected.

Value based education teaches about

Distinction between good and bad
How to live life
How to be happy and make others happy
How to be compassionate, helpful, loving, generous and tolerant.
How to move towards sustainable future
Responsibility towards society and nation.
PART B (5 X 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) (i) Discuss the major mineral resources in India
(8)

Refer 3.3, Page 81

(ii) Explain nuclear reactions with respect to nuclear fission and fusion reactions. (8)

Or
(b) (i) Describe how geological erosion differ from accelerated erosion?
(8)

(ii) Explain the role of individual in conservation of natural resources
(8)

Refer 3.2.9, 3.4.3, 3.5.4, 3.6.9, Page 74
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12. (a) (i) Compare the ecological pyramids of grassland and forest ecosystem.
(16)

Or
(b) (i) Discuss the hot-spots of biodiversity in India
(8)

Refer 1.11, Page 25

(ii) Explain the energy flow in the ecosystem with suitable diagram.
(8)

13. (a) (i) Write short note on minamatha disease and blue baby syndrome
(8)

Refer 2.14.1; Page 56, 84

(ii) Explain the different types of disaster managements

Or
(b) (i) Discuss the effects and control measures of soil pollution
(8)

Refer 2.15; Page 57

(ii) As an individual, how will you prevent the pollution load in the environment (8)

Refer 2.22; Page 68
14. (a) (i) Explain the urban problems associated to watershed management.
(8)

Refer 4.4, Page 106

(ii) List out the salient features of forest conservation act in detail.
(8)

Or
(b) (i) Discuss the environment ethics to be practiced towards issues and possible
solution.(8)

Refer 4.7, Page 108

(ii) Explain the climatic changes due to global warming and acid rain.
(8)

15. (a) (i) Explain the family welfare programmes practiced by Government of India.
(8)
Refer 5.7, Page 140
(ii) Explain the role of information technology in environment and human health. (8)
Or
(b) (i) Discuss the highlights of human rights and value based education
(8)

Refer 5.9, 5.10, Page 144, 145

(ii) Give a detailed account on the women and child welfare
(8)

Refer 5.7, Page 140
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Appendix.indd 168
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Environmental Science

For III Semester Civil, EEE, EIE, CSE, IT and Bio-Tech

Dr. Arun Luiz T

S. CHAND & COMPANY PVT. LTD.

RAM NAGAR, NEW DELHI-110055

S. CHAND & COMPANY PVT. LTD.

Head Office: 7361, RAM NAGAR, NEW DELHI - 110 055

2015, Dr. R.L. Madan

First Edition 2015

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

About The Book

UNIT IIEnvironmental Pollution

UNIT IIINatural Resources

of resources for sustainable lifestyles. Introduction to Environmental Biochemistry: Proteins

UNIT IVSocial Issues and the Environment

UNIT VHuman Population and the Environment

1. Environment, Ecosystems and Biodiversity

2.15 Soil Pollution

4. Social Issues and the Environment

5. Human Population and the Environment

1.1 |ENVIRONMENT STUDIES: DEFINITION, SCOPE AND

2 Environmental Science and Engineering

Problems associated with industrialization and development

Methods to propagate environmental awareness

World water day

World environment day

World population day

1.2 | HAZARD AND RISK

Environment, Ecosystems and Biodiversity 3

Examples of Hazards and Their Effects:

Example of Harm Caused

Metal fume fever

Hard rock mining

1. Chemical hazards in the environment

4 Environmental Science and Engineering

Classification of chemical hazards

Suggestions to minimize risks due to chemical hazards

2. Physical hazards in the environment

High temperature can lead to dizziness, dehydration, head

Environment, Ecosystems and Biodiversity 5

3. Biological hazards in the environment

Controlling biological hazards

Practice good personal hygiene (e.g. regular hand washing)

Examples of Environmental Health Hazards by type of Agent

Animals (rodents, wild

Metals (Pb, Cd, Hg)

Dusts (asbestos, silica, wood)

Principles of hazard management

Establish the context and identify the hazard

6 Environmental Science and Engineering

1.4 | STRUCTURAL ASPECTS OF ECOSYSTEMS

Environment, Ecosystems and Biodiversity 7

Main abiotic factors of the ecosystem are include

1.5 | FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEMS

8 Environmental Science and Engineering

1.5.1 Food chains, food webs and ecological pyramids

Some features of food chain:

Involves nutritive interaction between the various biotic components of an ecosystem.

Types of food chain

Significance of food chain and food web

Environment, Ecosystems and Biodiversity 9

Food Chains and Food Webs- A Comparison

1. Quite complex structure

3. Number of organisms are less

1. Environment, Ecosystems and Biodiversity

2.15 Soil Pollution

4. Social Issues and the Environment

5. Human Population and the Environment

1.1 |ENVIRONMENT STUDIES: DEFINITION, SCOPE AND

4.Food chain is a single strand of different

4.Food web will show many food chains in a