Cell Membranes

All biological membranes made up of phospholipid bilayer

Eukaryotic cell: plasma membrane and membrane bound
organelles
Prokaryotic cell: plasma membrane but no membrane bound
organelles
Importance of membrane fluidity: affects permeability of
membrane which serves as a barrier and allows transportation
of specific molecules to specific regions of the membrane to
carry out cellular activities

Components of cell membrane

1. Phospholipids
-

Amphipathic molecule: hydrophilic phosphate head,

hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails
Form stable bilayers in aqueous medium (or micelles)
Phospholipids help together by hydrophobic interactions and
van der waals forces
o Because they are weak: phospholipids and proteins are
able to drift laterally within plane of membrane
fluidity of membrane
forms transient pores by vibrating phospholipids:
small uncharged non-polar molecules + gases can
get across
o at low temps: phospholipids become less active and
settle in a closely packed arrangement, drawn by van
der waals forces becomes less fluid
o kinks in unsaturated hydrocarbon tails can prevent close
packing
temperature they solidify depend on 1. Ratio of
unsaturated and saturated hydrocarbon tails and 2.
Relative amount of cholesterol in the membrane
cells may alter phospholipid composition in the membrane in
response to changes in temperature

2. Cholesterol
-

four ring structure

slightly amphipathic
regulates membrane fluidity (lipids)
o fused ring of cholesterol is rigid and stabilizes the lipid
layer through van der waals interactions

3. Proteins
-

determine most of membranes specific functions

a. Integral/Intrinsic proteins
o 2 types: Unilateral reach partway across membrane,
Transmembrane completely span across
o When folded have exposed hydrophobic and hydrophilic
proteins = amphipathic
o Hydrophobic regions lie in hydrophobic core of
phospholipid bilayer
o Hydrophilic regions exposed to aqueous medium on
both or either side
o May be attached to fibres of extracellular matrix
b. Peripheral/Extrinsic proteins
o Not embedded in lipid bilayer, loosely attached to
surface of membrane or to integral proteins, through
weak ionic and h bonds
o May be attached to fibres of extracellular matrix
o Held by filaments of cytoskeleton on cytoplasmic side
Helps to maintain cell shape and fix location
-

Functions: movement of substances across membrane (later

on)

4. Glycoproteins and Glycolipids (carbohydrate components)

-

Carbohydrate covalently bonded to lipid or protein

Vary from species to species/between individual of same
species e.g. blood type/cells in same individual
Where: always projecting out of cell into extracellular matrix

Cell to cell recognition:

- Ability of cell to determine if other cells encountered are alike
or different
o Sorting of animal embryo cells into tissues and organs
o Rejection of foreign cells by immune system
- Membrane carbohydrates have good diversity good cell
markets to differentatiate
Cell receptors:
- Receptors for hormones in cell-signaling
o Bacteria and viruses: evolved to recognize glycoproteins
and glycolipids as receptors for infection (have other
function for host cell)
o White blood cell recognition: when under attack cells will
express glycoproteins so that they are recognized by
white bloody cells for immune system to respond
Fluid Mosaic Model

Fluid:
- Phospholipid bilayer dynamic structure where proteins and
phospholipids are in continuous lateral motion within each
layer
- Phospholipids are able to flip flop from one layer to another
but this is rare (have to cross membranes hydrophobic core
making process unfavourable)
Mosaic:
-

Integral and peripheral proteins and glycoproteins are

randomly distributed among the phospholipids

Functions of membranes
1. Regulate movement of substances across the membrane
-

Only partially permeable: only allows some molecules to cross

without assistance
o Non polar able to dissolve and diffuse through
hydrophobic core
o Hydrophobic core barrier to ions and charged and most
polar molecules transport proteins
Movement of substances across membrane can be regulated:
create an environment within cell/organelle that is diff from
external one

2. Compartmentalization
-

Because of above reason:

Formation of unique environment for specialized activity e.g.
lysosomes
Accumulation of charged ions and formation of chemical
gradients across membranes e.g. chemiosmosis and formation
of ATP
Storage of food source e.g. amyloplasts in plants
Localization of proteins of related function along membrane
o Sequential biochemical process is facilitated e.g.
photosystems I and II on thylakoid membrane
Increase surface area for chemical reactions e.g. cristae of
mitochondria
Cell-cell recognition and adhesion e.g. glycoproteins and
glycolipids drugs and chemical messengers to dock
Signal transduction: transmembrane proteins serve as cell
surface receptors to transfer information from environment to
cell when specific molecules bind to them e.g. binding of
glucagon (large molecule that cannot enter cell) to its receptor

triggers chemical reactions that leads to hydrolysis of

glycogen to glucose
Movement of substances across membranes
-

Obtain nutrients for energy and raw materials

Excrete waste materials
Secrete useful substances
Generate ionic gradients essential for nervous and muscular
activity
Maintain suitable pH and ionic concentration within cell for
enzyme activity

1. Simple Diffusion (non polar molecules and small polar water

molecules)
-

able to pass through membranes directly down concentration

gradient without assistance of transport proteins
does not require ATP
will continue until particles evenly distributed such that there
is no net movement of particles in any direction = reach
dynamic equilibrium
o each molecules independent of other concentration
gradients

Factors affecting rate:

a. Size: smaller = faster
b. Solubility in lipid bilayer: non-polar faster than polar
c. Concentration gradient: steeper=faster
d. Kinetic energy of molecules (temperature): high temp =
faster but not to the point of over fluidity that affects integrity and
selectivity of membrane
e. Surface area of cell membrane: greater = faster
f. Distance: shorter = faster
Graph:

2. Facilitated Diffusion (ions, charged and polar molecules)

-

down concentration gradient

no ATP
transport proteins needed as these substances cannot diffuse
through hydrophobic core of plasma membrane: both types
transmembrane

Channel Proteins:
- provides hydrophilic pore through which only a particular ion
or polar/charged molecule can diffuse readily through
o e.g. aquaporins = allow FAST diffusion of water (kidneys)
- some are gated: will open with arrival of a chemical or
electrical stimulus
Carrier Proteins:
- exists in 2 alternate conformations
o hydrophilic interior contains binding site for solute and is
exposed to 1 side of membrane
o conformational change occurs when solute binds to
binding site
o solute now exposed to other side of membrane where it
is released
- direction of flow depends on relative concentrations of solutes
across the membrane bidirectional (both ways): can pick up
substances from either side (higher conc side)
Factors affecting rate:
Number of carriers: transport depends on chance collisions
between solute and proteins
Graph:

3. Osmosis: form of simple diffusion or facilitated diffusion (ONLY

water molecules)
-

movement of water molecules from region of higher water

potential to region of lower water potential through partially
permeable membrane

4. Active Transport (ions, polar or charged molecules)

-

transport against concentration gradient

uses ATP
involves carrier pumps/proteins
one direction only

oscillates between 2 conformational states in 1 pumping cycle

translocates __ out of cell for every _ pumped in
ATP power the changes in conformation by phosphorylating
transport protein

5. Bulk Transport (macromolecules or large quantities)

ATP used (active process): used to mobilize movement of

membranes

Endocytosis(uptake):
1. Phagocytosis (solid material): e.g. white blood cells engulfing
bacteria
a. Filaments of cytoskeleton rearranged to form
pseudopodia (with use of ATP)
b. Pseudopodia are outward extensions of membrane
which wrap around and engulf particle
c. Ends of pseudopodia fuse and vacuole containing solid
matter pinched off and moves toward cytoplasm
2. Pinocytosis (liquid): e.g. human egg cell takes up nutrients by
pinocytosis
a. small area of plasma membrane invaginates to form
tiny vesicles within the cell
3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Exocytosis:
- Secretion of macromolecules (waste, manufactured products)
by fusion of vesicles with plasma membrane
a. Transport vesicle from golgi apparatus moves to plasma
membrane
b. When in contact 2 membranes fuse to release contents
of vesicle to extracellular environment
c. Often used for export of manufactured products e.g.
insulin in pancreas secreted into blood

Osmosis and Water Potential

Water potential: relative tendency for water molecules to leave the
solution (kPa)
-

Pure water = 0 kPa max water potential

Higher (less negative) = greater tendency for solution to lose
water to environment
Diffuses from region of high water potential to region of low
water potential

Solute potential: extent by which solutes lower the water potential,

proportional to number of dissolved solute molecules
-

Pure water = solute potential of zero

Presence of solutes decreases solute potential

Solutes dissolve draw water molecules form hydration

shells lowers concentration of free water molecules that can
diffuse out of system
Higher solute concentration = more negative water potential

Pressure potential: pressure exerted by cell wall on plasma

membrane
-

Only taken into consideration in plant cells

When there is net movement of water into cell, pressure of
water inside cell builds up and pushes against cell wall (turgor
pressure) cell wall exerts equal and opposite force against
cytoplasm

Water potential = solute potential + pressure potential

Plasmolysis: shrinkage of protoplasm from cell wall due to loss of
water from cell
Incipient plasmolysis: cell membrane is ABOUT to pull away from
cell wall, pressure potential = 0
Full turgor: plant cell reaches maximum size permissible by rigid cell
wall, pressure potential is at maximum, no further net water
uptake, cell in equilibrium with surrounding occurs when cell is in
pure water
To determine mean solute potential of cell sap:
- Point when all cells reach and maintain in state of incipient
plasmolysis (when 50% of cells are plasmolysed )
- No net movement of water in and out of cells = equilibrium
o Since pressure potential = 0
o water potential of cell = solute potential of cell
o water potential of solution = solute potential of solution
o there is no net movement of water
o so solute potential of cell = solute potential of solution
Endosmosis: net entry of water
Exosmosis: net loss of water
Hypertonic, Isotonic, Hypotonic: used to describe difference in water
potential