Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
,I
.li
DOS FlLHOS DA JNDIA O.RIEN';r'Al.,
1415-1825
E DAPJlVlN<;lA-OOAPOSTOLO S .THOME
~"""'~ DOJ F.R.APES _MF.NOR,_~ nAREG'Vl.All
DJlSERVANpA DA .MES.MA1NDIA.
BY
PoroP'Frei
C. R. BOXER
CAMOENS PROFESSOR OF PORTUGUESE
KING'S COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY OF LONDON
P>:a-ui>ui",
. I
,,I
PREFACE
HONG KONG
London
May, 1963
U4'/
CONTENTS
Frontispiece: The frontispiece of Fr. Miguel da Purificac;:ao,
O.F.M., Relafiio Defensiva {Barcelona 1640), pleading the
came of Creole friars in India.
I. MOROCCO AND WEST AFRICA
41
86
IJI
VII
ourselves.' 1
during the preceding eighty-three years. The sixteenthcentury Portuguese chronicler, Joao de Barros, in justifYing King Manuel's assumption of his grandiloquent
title, explains that the Popes 'are universal lords, empowered to distribute among the faithful of the Catholic
Church, the lands which are in the power of those who
are not subjected to the yoke thereof'. Whatever the
theological validity of this assertion, it certainly reflects
the Portuguese conviction that they were primarily
crusading conquistadores who were entitled to conquer or
to dominate the lands of the Muslim and the Heathen
from Morocco to Mindanao. The successor of Joao .de
Barros, the soldier-chronicler Diogo do Couto, who spent
most ofhis long life in the East, emphasized from personal
experience the close connection between the Cross and
the Crown when he wrote: 'The kings of Portugal
always aimed in their conquest of the East, at so uniting
the two powers spiritual and temporal, that the one
should never be exercised without the other.' 3
Since Portuguese expansion overseas began with the
capture of the Moorish stronghold at Ceuta in I4I5, and
since its further development was powerfully influenced
by the ensuing struggle with the Moors, we can begin
our survey with a brief consideration of Portuguese
activities in Morocco. Whatever the motives which
induced the Portuguese to undertake the conquest of
Ceuta in I4I 5, and subsequent! y to occupy a chain of
'
' '
3 Joao de Barros, Decada Prime ira da Asia, Livro VI, cap. i.,' first
published in 1552: Diogo do Couto, Decada VI, Livro IV, cap. 7, first
published in r6u. For the relevant fifteenth-century Papal documents
see Ch.-Martel de Witte, Les Bulles Pontfficales et 1' expansion portllgaise
au XVe sihle (Louvain, !958).
'
'
11
l
\
I
I
11
{ed.
I2
IJ
authoritative,
SO
SO
lllUSicians, SO
n1anage.' 14
I4
I5
12
for work in the mines than the Bantu from Angola and
the Congo. This led to the reopening of the slave-trade
between the Brazilian ports-Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, and
Recife-and the 'Costa da Mina' as the Portuguese called
Lower Guinea. Despite the intense opposition of the
Dutch at Elmina, who claimed the right to force all
Luso-Brazilian ships trading on the coast to call there and
pay a tax of 10 per cent on their tobacco cargoes, the
Portuguese succeeded in establishing themselves at
Whydah in 172r. After the conquest of this place by
Dahomey seven years later, an average of about 6,ooo
slaves was exported to Brazil from this port annually. The
Brazilian demand for slaves of Sudanese origin was
counterbalanced by the Dahomians' preference for Brazilian tobacco, rum, and sugar above all other. Hence, despite
periodic disputes between the two parties which involved
occasional interruptions in the trade, it continued to
flourish tmtil well into the nineteenth century. The LusoBrazilian slavers at times enjoyed a more favourable
position in Dahomey than any of their European rivals. 1 '
In surveying the relations of the Portuguese with the
Africans of the Guinea coast in the widest sense of the
term, it can be said that, apart from the immediate
vicinity of the forts at Mina and Axim, these relations
were characterized by peaceful commercial penetration
and by mutual interest in the slave-trade. Missionary
activities took a very secondary place, and nowhere did
they meet with any lasting or impressive success on the
18
A. F. C. Ryder, 'The re-establishment of Portuguese factories
on the Costa da Mina to the mid-eighteenth century', in Journal of
the Historical Society of Nigeria, vol. i (Dec. 1958), pp. 157-83.
r6
17
!8
200-2;
A. F. C. Ryder, 'The
insistence in rsr8.
19
19
2I
22
23
played such a prominent part. In earlier years, the Portuguese had aided successive kings of Congo against these
barbarous invaders, who, at one time, had sacked the
capital itself and who had only been driven off by timely
assistance from Sao Tome. In Angola and Benguela,
however, the Jagas were mostly on good terms with the
white men. They formed the backbone of the guerra
preta ('Black War') or native auxiliaries (also known as
empacasseiros from a word meaning buffalo-hunters),
with whose aid the Portuguese dominated the other tribes.
'Their chiefs pride themselves on being very loyal to
us,' wrote a Portuguese chronicler at Luanda in r68r,
'for which reason they are hated by the other heathen
of these kingdoms, and this warlike band terrorizes all
this part ofEthiopia.' 21
At tllis period many of the Jagas were still caffilibals,
eating human flesh not merely as a ritual sacrifice, but as
a matter of habit, convenience, and conviction. They
originally killed all their own offspring, and kept the
choicest of the youtlls and maidens whom tlley captured
in war, bringing tllem up in the 'law of the Jagas'.
Unlike the other Bantu tribes, they kept no flocks and
indulged in no agricnltural pursuits. They were primarily
24
25
26
I
I
27
24
28
29
27
vol. i, p.
118
210.
30
3I
29 'Senhor, o terc;:o da ordenanp desta Cidade corista de 4 companhias s6mente par nao haver gente de que se possio formar mais:
nellas nao ha distin~ao de pessoas, porque todas servem difuzamente
Nobres e Plebeos, de que se seguem bastantes inconvenientes que se
poderao atalhar ordenando Vossa Magestade que se observa neste
Reina o mesmo que no Estado do Brazil que he servirem em huma
dellas os homens cidadoins que costumao servir na Republica e seas
ftlhos somente' (Luanda Municipal Council to the Crown, 2 August '
I7IJ, in Archives of the Municipal Council, Luanda, Codex 483,
fl. 100). For the carta-dgia of 24 March 1684, abolishing the colourbar in military promotions and postings, see Ralph Delgado, His-
31
E. A. da Silva Correa, Hist6ria de Angola, 1792 (ed. 2 vols.,
Lisboa, 1937), vol. i, p. 84. For the career of Luis Lopes de Sequeira,
passim.
az Brief of Leo X dated 12 June 1518 apud A. Bd.sio, C.S.Sp.,
Monumenta Missionaria Africana, vol. i, pp. 421-2.
32
33
30
and the
quotation is from
34
p. 297-
35
by
37
38
39
89
Antonio Zucchelli, O.F.M.Cap., Relazioni del viaggio e
missione di Congo nelt.F:thi~p.ia ItifCrio~e Occidentale (Venice, I7I2), pp.
'THE
'
4I
40
4
42
43
the natives of the region who did not want peace and
friendship with them, and whom they punished so
severely that they spared the lives of none, not even
women and children.''
Despite the cruelty with which they acted towards
the Muslims on many occasions, and despite the fact that
they systematically deprived the Swahili of the best part
of their trade in gold, ivory, and slaves, the Portuguese
eventually reached a more or less amicable relationship
with those who remained south of Cape Delgado. North
of this point, the Portuguese position was never very
secure, and they were driven from this region by d1e
Omani Arabs at the end of the seventeenth century. In
Zambesia and the offshore islands of Mo~ambique they
allowed the Swahili to remain on sufference, more or less
in the manner envisaged by Duarte de Lemos in 1508.
Their sheikhs, headmen, and merchants were kept in
strictly subordinate positions and prevented from amassing great wealth, but were employed as intermediaries
in the trade with the Bantu. The humbler Muslims served
as sailors, casual labourers, and in various menial capacities.
Social relations between Christians and Muslims became
quite friendly in some of the remoter regions, though the
more zealous Roman Catholic clergy prevented any
44
45
6
A. Hamilton, A New Accou11t of the East Indies, 1727 (ed. W.
Foster, 2 vols., London, 1930), vol. i, pp. r6-r7.
47
of Quelimane did not have then (nor has it got now) any
fortification whatsoever. Still, who can be certain that
this friendship will last for ever, and that it will never
change; the more so, since these same Kaffrrs are treated
with excessive harshness by their masters? May not this
affection be changed into hatred, owing to the ill treatment they receive? May they not do in future to the
Muzungos what they formerly did to the Majutos? This
is worth thinking about, and it is not very sound that
we should continue to rely solely on the good faith of
these Kaffrrs.' 7
Two outstanding Dominican friars who exercised
great and in some respects lasting influence over the
regions they controlled for about forty years, were Fr.
Joao de Menezes in the Querimba islands, and Fr. Pedro
da Trindade in the Zumbo district beyond Tete. The former, who died in 1749, was the virtual ruler of the
northerly Querimba islands, and he ignored all the
orders of his ecclesiastical and secular superiors to leave
his ftef and return to Goa. He carried on an active contraband trade with the French and English, and died
surrounded by a numerous progeny of sons and grandsons. His colleague of Zumbo, who died in 1751, apparently led a celibate life, but he was the owner of vast
landed estates, and he traded for gold, ivory, and slaves
with native chiefs in what is now Matabele- and Mashonaland. His memory was for long revered among the Bantu,
to whom he taught various arts and crafts, including
49
that of a prince'. He maintained his prestige and reputation, by being 'very lavish in giving, and very fierce, even
cruel, in chastising, which are two qualities that will make
any man adored by the Kaffirs'. 8
Originally, as described by Barreto, the prazos were
virtually private principalities, founded by White,
Mulatto, or Goan adventurers, who became completely
integrated in the Bantu tribal system and took over the
rights and duties of the indigenous chiefs they displaced.
They often intrigued, and occasionally fought one
another with their private armies of free and enslaved
Negroes, some of which were ten, twenty, or thirty
thousand strong. These feuds and the involvement of the
prazo-holders in frequent warfare with unsubdued and
hostile tribes, led to these estates changing hands and in
extent with great rapidity, and the owners tended to
become completely Africanized. With the object of
averting this, and in order to bring lands under the control of the Crown, the prazos were transformed into
entailed estates which were granted by the Crown for
three snccessive lines on payment of an annual quit-rent
in gold dust. They were granted to white women born
of Portuguese parents, on condition that these women
married with white Portuguese men. Male children of
these unions were excluded from the succession, the
prazos descending only in the female line, with the same
proviso that the heess must marry a white man. A
11
The best discussion of the evolution and development of the
pra.:zo system is by A. Lobato, Evolufii'O administrativa e ecou6mica de
so
SI
_...Mofambique, 1752-1763, pp. 209-33. Cf. also Sebastiiio Xavier Botelho, Memoria Estatistica sobre os dominios Portugueses na Africa Oriental
(Lisboa, 1835), pp. 262-71. For a succinct survey in English cf.
]. Duffy, Portuguese Africa (1959), pp. 82-89; ibid., Portugal in Africa
1962), pp. 92-95
52
53
"'
12
Cf. the stm1ffiary of Dr. Duarte Salter de Mendon'ra;'s project
apud A. LobatoEvolu_r5o administrativa e ecoti6mica de Mo.rambique, pp.
297-307. It was probably Salter de Mendon<;a who inspired the Lisbon
journalist, Jose Freire Monterroio Mascarenhas, to make an identical
54
55
13
vol. i, p. 17.
1727
(ed. 1930),
14
57
'
58
59
6o
6r
62
verts from Hinduism and Islam were never suspect in their new faith.
The published records of the Jesuits and of the Goa Inquisition contain ample proof to the contrary.
20
In 1524 the married white men of Goa were 'todos ou a mor
parte, Casados com Negras que levam aigreja em cabello muy humtado' (letter of D. Henrique de Menezes, d. Goa, 27 October 1524,
ap11d A. de Silva Carvalho, Garcia d'Ortn, Coimbra, 1934, p. 52 11).
ban on Indians and mesti~os. In this attitude they consciously or unconsciously followed the precedent of the
same Religious Orders working in Spanish America and
the Philippines, who took a similar line which they
upheld for even longer. Like the Spaniards in the Philippines, the Portuguese in India were prepared to train
Ihdian and mesti~o candidates for the secnlar priesthood,
but they Kept them in strictly subordinate positions as a
matter of ecclesiastical and colonial policy, and they
flatly refused to let them become fully-fledged Jesnits,
21
Letter of Fr. Pietro Avitabile, d. Goa, 31 December 1645, apud
Carlos Merces de Melo, S.J., The recruitment and formation ~f the
uatiue cle~'!Y in India, 16th-1gth cent11ry. An historico-canonical Jtudy
(Lisboa, 1955), pp. 247-8. Miguel da Purificacao, O.F.M., RelacJo
Defensiva dos filhos da lt1dia Oriental e da Provincia do -Apostolo S.
Thome dos frades menores da regular observanfia da Jncsma India (Barcelona, 1640), a book whose exceeding rarity is probably due to its
publication in a limited edition at Barcelona in the year of the Catalan
and Portuguese revolutions. For the adamant refusal of the Spanish
regular clergy in the Philippines to admit Indios and 1Vfestizos to their
ranks and their determination to keep the native secular clergy in a
strictly subordinate position c J. L. Phelan, The Hispanizatio11 of the
Philippines. Spanish aims and Filipino responses (Madison, 1959), pp.
85-89; Domingo Abella, The See of Nueva Cdceres (Manila, 1954),
pp. 56-58, 69, 78-79, 87-93, 104, 122 ff., 168, 269-70; ibid.,
'Eighteenth century documents on Bishop Miguel Lino de Espeleta
of Cebu', 8-page reprint from The Philippine Historical B111letin, vol.
iv, Nr. J (Manila, 1960).
22
quiere, Matthieu de Castro, premier vicaire apostolique aux Indes (Louvain, 1937); Carlo Cavallera, Matteo de Castro, 1594-1677, Primo
Vicario Apostollico dell' India (Rome, 1936). For Fr. Joseph Vaz and
the labours of the Goan Oratorians in Ceylon see R. Boudens, The
Catholic Church in Ceylon tmder Dutch mle (Rome, 1957), pp. 89-II5.
68
23
da
71
t5o do Exmo Vice-Rei Marquez de Aloma ao seu s11ccessor o Exmo ViceRei Marquez de Tavora, ed. Filippe Nery Xavier, Nova Goa, 1856,
pp. ror, roS--9). Nothing would be easier than to multiply ~uch
derogatory quotations from the correspondence of viceroys and
governors over the centuries. Cf. J. H. Cunha Rivara, Archi(}O
Oriental Portugts~z. Fasc. VI (r878), pp. 477-8, and A India Portuguesa
(2 vols., Nova Goa, 1923), vol. ii, p. 433, for the quotations from
AntOnio de Mello de Castro and the Cmmt of Ega.
27
73
6
Archivo Portuguez Oriental, Vl {1876), pp. 498-9. For the nonfulfilment of the-alvari.of 29 May 1761 enjoining the establishment
of a seminary for coloured clergy at Mos:ambique, seep. 57 above
74
75
other, and the Brahmins (Brahmane, Bragmane, etc., in IndoPortuguese), enjoyed much oftheir former prestige, though
some of the Chardos tried to claim equality with them. 29
It is often thought that the Portuguese married on a
large scale with high-caste women who had been
converted to Christianity from Hinduism, ever since
Albuquerque initiated a policy of inter-racial marriage
with light-skinned women of Aryan origin in rsro. Such
marriages did indeed take place, but they were the
exception rather than the rule, since the Brahmins and
Chardos converted to Christianity kept their pride of
caste and race, and they did not wish their daughters
to marry with European or with Mesti(o men. The
Portuguese authorities on their side did not encourage
29
For a curious work by a Christian Brahmin secular priest
affirming the superiority of his caste over all other Asian races, and
its inherent right to be treated on an equal footing by the Portuguese,
77
Asia. In rs6r the Crown actually went so far as to prohibit the enrolment of meslifOS in the royal service, but
this measure was certainly not enforced for long. 31 Even
at the best of times there were seldom more than two or
three thousand able-bodied men who emigrated from
Portugal to India in a year, and the wastage among those
who survived the voyage, from tropical diseases, battle,
and desertion was exceedingly high. The MeslifOS had
necessarily to be employed on an increasing scale,
particularly when Brazil attracted the majority of emigrants from Portugal in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. As early as r6ro the soldier-chronicler, Diogo
do Couto, complained that most of the Portuguese in
India 'had more relatives in Gujerat than in Tras-os
Montes'. But although the MestifOS, with a greater or
lesser mixture of Eurasian blood, were more numerous
than the Reinols from Portugal, they likewise tended to
become something of a caste, having no more wish to
intermarry with the Christian Brahmins and other
Indians than the latter had to marry with them. The
main ambition of most MeslifO parents was to marry their
daughters witl1 European-born Portuguese, failing which
they would wed with men of their own kind-and the
lighter the colour the better."
31
'0 capitulo 31, em que Vossa Al~eza manda que senao assentem
os mistiyos, asi o guardo, mas parece que devia Vossa Alteza despemsar com alguns que o merecem' (Viceroy Count of Redondo to the
Crown, Goa, 20 December, rs6r, apud Studia, val. ii, p. 59).
32
78
79
35
So
8r
times, out of hatred for our religion and even for our
King; for as the Portuguese were the conquerors and they
were the conquered, they could not help hating them in
general and our friars in particular, since they were the
ones who had begun these holy evangelical deeds. I dare
say that this feeling endures to this day, not out of hatred
to our religion, for by the mercy of God they have
become very good Christians, but withal they still have a
certain antipathy for us, as is frequently seen. And when
we try to ascertain tl1e reason for this, we cannot find any
other canse but that it originated in the begitming of our
missions.' 37
During the Maratl1a invasions of Bardez and Sa Ieete in
1739-40, similar allegations were made that the native
Christians secretly sympathized with the itwaders; bnt in
actual fact they remained loyal to the Portuguese, and the
bulk of the ransom money which was paid to prevent the
victorious Marathas from occupying Goa itself was contributed by the Indian Christian and Hindu vassals of
the Portuguese Crown. 38 The dictatorship of Pombal,
the local Christians they had nothing to fear from a Muslim conquest,
Journal, and the sources there quoted, most of which are taken from
82
37
Anon, 'Noticia do que obravao OS frades de sao Francisco . . .
no servi~o de Deos e de Sua Magestade', Goa, 1722, apud A. da Silva
of Canara, the old Carnatic region of the Deccan. But the Portuguese
from their pioneer days mistakenly applied the term to the people
of Goa, who, geographically are Konkani-Marathi ethnically are
Tnrln-A rv<>n "-11..1 nln~nlnn;r,ll-u ,,.,.. r,.,rln-11'11rf"'MP'>n
'T'hP t"Pr't'YI
r"'"''"';"'~
ERRATA
p. 85 line 3
II5
line
p.
r21
note
12
read E a mulata
for Catons read Carma
APPENDIX
A Note on the term 'Canarim'
Conselho do Estado da India, V, 1696-1750, pp. 530-2; ibid., 'Portugueses eMaratas', inBoletim do Instituto Vasco de Gama, nr. XI, Nova
Goa, 1932, pp. 69-86.
39 AntOnio de Noronha, 'Os indUs de Goa e a RepUblica Portuguesa', in A I11dia Portuguesa (z vols., Nova Goa, 1923), vol. ii, pp.
2II-J68.
85
from their pioneer days mistakenly applied the term to the people
of Goa, who, geographically are Konkani-Marathi etlmically are
Indo-Aryan, and glotologicallyare Indo-European. The term Canarins
was sometimes used to designate those who became Christians,
sometimes those who remained Hindus, and sometimes for both
categories indiscriminately. During the eighteenth century, and
perhaps earlier, the word Canarim acquired an offensive connotation,
presumably because the Portuguese were apt to be so contemptuous
of the native inhabitants of Goa. When discussing how to raise
troops for the Anglo-Portuguese expedition against Kanhoji Angrja
in 1721-22, D. Christov[o de Mello observed: 'No trust whatever
can be placed in the Canarins as they are absolutely useless (unluckily
or luckily for us, as the case may be) and they cannot even defend their
own homes, still less attack and conquer fortresses' (c P. Pissurlencar,
Assentos do Conselho do Estado da India, v, 1696-1750, pp. 340, 482).
This is typical of many such snide remarks.
Conselho do Estado da India, V, 16g6-1750, pp. 530-2; ibid., 'Portugueses e Maratas', in Boletim do Instituto Vasco de Gama, nr. XI, NOva
Goa, 1932, pp. 69-86.
39 AntOnio de Noronha, 'Os indUs de Goa e a RepUblica Portuguesa', in A India Portuguesa (2 vols., Nova Goa, 1923), vol. ii, pp.
2II-J68.
ss
86
For the above and what follows cf. the standard history of the
4
Pablo Hernandez, S.J., Organizaci6n social de las doctrinas guaraniticas de Ia Comp5n{a de Jesus (z vols., Barcelona, 1913); Magnus
MOrner, The political and economic activities of the Jesuits ill the La Plata
regio11 (Stockholm, 1953), a:re two of the best books out of many on
88
7
90
9I
92
93
10
~omingos Jorge Velho to the Crown, 15 July 1694, apud
Ant6mo Ennes, As guerrqs nos Palmares. Subsfdios para a sua historia.
Domingos jorge Vellw e a 'Troia Negra', 1687-1700 (Sao Paulo, 1938),
pp. 205-17.
94
95
96
11 'Proposta da Camara do Pad. a S.M. appresentada pelo Procnrador do Estado, Paulo da Silva Nunes, em 1724', and supporting
documents (Biblioteca Publica de Evora, Codex CXV), swnmarized
by Joio Lucio de Azevedo, Os Je.suitas no Griio-Pard. Suas missiies e a
colonizatiio (Coimbra, 1930), pp. 204-8.
97
Pombal decreed the secularization of all the nussronvillages, and ordered that they should be handed over to
the Amerindians who inhabited them. At the same time,
the white soldiers of the various garrisons in Brazil
and the Maranhao-Pad. were urged to marry Amerindian
women, but the response must have disappointed the
imperious dictator who was so anxious for the fusion of
the two races. Deprived of their Jesuit and other missionary mentors, the Amerindians of the aldeias, now pompously renamed as towns, quickly reverted to savagery
in many instances. Gomes Freire de Andrada, who was
governor-general of most of southern Brazil at this time,
reported in February 1761, that the emancipated Amerindians were selling their livestock, neglecting their
husbandry, and letting everything on field and farm go
to rack and ruin. All they seemed to be interested in was
holding dnmken orgies; 'for which reason', he concluded
gloomily, 'there is nobody as yet who wants to marry
any of them'. In fact, many of the Amerindians who had
been given their freedom were unable to adjust themselves
to the new responsibilities for which they were totally
unprepared, nor did their white neighbours and cocitizens cease at once to try and exploit them. Nevertheless, if many commrmities declined and disappeared from
the face of the earth, others successfully survived their
changed circumstances and eventually became absorbed
in the mass of the Luso-Brazilian population."
12
13
Joao Ltkio de Azevedo, Novas Epanrlforas. Estudos de hist6ria c
literat11ra (Lisboa, 1932), pp. 50-62, for -Gomes Freire de Andrada's
dispatch of9 February 1761, and the re1evant laws and decrees relating
to the formal emancipation of the Amerindians, which were printed
integrally in the Collecfiio Jos Breves Pontificios e leys regias que foriio
99
six months from the publication date in Brazil and Africa, and a year
in Asia.
roo
IOI
weeks after its publication, and less than ten existing copies of this
eighteenth-century edition are recorded by bibliographers; Jorge
Benci, S.J., Economia Christii dos Senhores no govemo de escravos (Roma,
1705), is even rarer. The only recorded copy seems to be that in the
National Library at Rome, utilized by Seraftm Leite, S.J., for the
second edition published at Oporto in 1954. Crown edicts against
the mistreatment of Negro slaves were promulgated in 1688, 1698,
and 1714, but they had no lasting effect.
103
I04
!05
ro6
!07
by King John N, the father of King Peter II. Cf. Jose .Antonio
Gonsalves de Mello, Henrique Dias. Governador dos Pretos Crioulos
108
109
IIO
III
in the churches, masters and slaves all receive communion at the same table.' 21
That the treatment of slaves in Brazil did not improve
appreciably during the eighteenth centnry, despite the
gradual spread of humanitarian ideas in what was evidently a restricted circle, is proved by a comparison of
tl1e accounts given by Antoni! and Benci at the end of
the seventeenth century with that of Vilhena a htmdred
years later. Many of the abuses and atrocities denounced
by the two Jesuits are also condemned in the pages of the
Noticias Soteropolitanas e Brasilicas, which the Portuguese
professor of Greek compiled during a residence of twelve
years (r787-99) at Bahia. 22 Like his predecessors, Vilhena
thought that something ought to be done to check 'the
barbarous, cruel and unheard-ofway in which the majority
of owners treat ilieir tmfortunate slave labonrers'. He
also denounced the sadistic floggings to which they were
frequently subjected; the totally inadequate rations and
clothing which they received-when they received any at
all-and their being allowed only one day a week (apart
II2
21 Manuel Ribeiro Rocha, Ethiope Resgatado, emp~nhado, sustentado, corregido, instmido, e libertado (Lisboa, 1758), especially pp.
r88-223, for the mistreatment of slaves in colonial Brazil. The
1825:
'The knout was formed of several thongs of hard dried hull's hide,
covered with knots, and attached to a stick about three feet long, as a
handle' (Narrative of Voyages, London, 1833, vol. i, p. 124). The
pnlmatoria was a wooden hand-shaped ferrule, pitted with holes,
which was used to strike the offender's open hand, often inflicting
weals and swellings which made it tmusable for a time.
22 Luis dos Santos Vill1ena, RecopilafiiO de Noticias Soteropolitanas
II3
II4
Il5
23
Even the household service was often done 'to the sound of the
II6
I759
II7
59-6!.
II8
Il9
of both sexes in accordance with the terms of its compromisso or statutes. Early in the eighteenth century, Bahia
had no less than thirty-one approved brotherhoods
dedicated to the Virgin Mary alone. These were divided
on a racial basis, six being reserved for Negroes and five
for Mulattoes (pardos), the remainder being exclusively
white confraternities constituted according to social
position or to age. As indicated above, some of the Brazilian white brotherhoods were so exclusive that their
statutes contained a clause that any brother who married
beneath him in class or colour should automatically
forfeit his membership. 30
From the foregoing it is, I hope, sufliciently clear that
racial prejudice and racial tension existed in colonial
Brazil to a much greater extent than some modern
authorities-'no names, no pack-drill', as we used to say
in the army-are willing to allow. In Brazil, as in Portuguese Asia and Portuguese Africa, Negro, Preto, and
Cafre, were all pejorative terms, often synonymous wit!1
Escravo. 'Have pity on a man living among Kaflirs,' wrote
the Count of Assumar from Minas Gerais to an aristocratic
friend at Lisbon in 1718, and the next year he advised his
correspondent to reject the viceroyalty of Brazil if it were
offered to him by the Crown, 'since America is no country
for white men.' Despite these sour observations, the free
Negro and the dark-hued Mulatto had little or no hope
of ascending in the social scale, whatever their aptitudes
30
M. S. Cardozo, 'The lay brotherhoods of colonial Bahia', in The
I20
9
122
!23
124
125
on this topic of religious bigotry and toleration in Portuguese India; though it can be said as a rough guide that
bigotry was more in evidence than tolerance for most of
the two centuries between 1561 and I76I.
As with religious bigotry, so with racial prejudice, and
for obvious reasons the two often went lund in hand.
The Muslim, the Hindu, and the Negro who was
legally and socially discriminated against on account of
his religion, was apt to fmd himself despised on account
of his colour. Indeed, colour-prejudice survived the
draconic edicts of the Marquis of Pombal in 1763-74,
and the egalitarian legislation of the Constitutional
government in Portugal in the early nineteenth century.
But here again it is unsafe to generalize. In May 1825,
Captain W. F. Owen, R.N., attended a ball at Government House on Mo~ambique island, 'at which was present
every soul that could claim European origin, however
distant or tinged by the mixture of black blood. Such an
extraordinary collection as this was scarcely ever witnessed. It included nearly every grade, from highly
polished civilization to the just fledged savage, whose
limbs had never before been confmcd within the limits
of broadcloth; from the well-fitted and neat costun1c of
Europe, to the loose butterfly-looking suit of vanity and
126
PP
I9I-2.
'" 's e
127
128
gucsc.39
I29
INDEX
41-42.
Almeida, Dom Pedro de,
59 n, 72 n, IIS n, rzo-r.
sS,
J30
Arzila, 5 n.
A vitabile, Fr. Pietro, his defence
of the colour-bar, 66--67.
Axelson, Eric, 44 n.
Axim, 7, II, r6, 17.
Azevedo, Joiio Lucio de, 97 n~
99 n.
Bailadeiras, 77.
Bandcirantes, 93-95
Banha Cardozo, Bento, 28.
Banians, in Moyambique, 53-54Barreto, Manuel, S.J., 49-50.
Barros,Joao de, 3. 7
Benci,Jorge, S.J., 103, II3.
Benguela, 22, 24, 25, 38.
Benin, 12.
Blake, J. W., ro H, II 11.
Bosman, Willem, 12.
Braganya Pereira, A. B., 76 11.
Brahmins, Christian, 75-77
Brisio, AntOnio, C. S. Sp.,
n.
Religious,
II H, I6 1'1, 20 11, 22
Brotherhoods,
r6,
roS-9, II9-20.
Caboclo, 87, n6.
Cadomega, AntOnio de Oliveira,
on the loyalty of the Jagas,
24; his attitude to the Bantu
of Angola, 26-27, 30; to
Mulattoes and mixed bloods,
30-32; his praise of Capuchin
missionaries, 35-36; on the
Dem_bos, 36-37; on Luanda,
39; and Salazar, 40.
13 I
INDEX
Cafre (Kaifu), pejorative term,
120.
Cain, Negroes aUegedly descended from, 96, J04-5Caio Prado Junior, 120 11,
I2I 11.
11,
II5
11,
I2I _11.
Dahomey, 17-18.
Dalgado, S. R., 76.
Davidson, Dasil, 20 n.
Delgado, Ralph, 34 n.
Dembos, 36-37.
Descendentes, 79-80.
Dias, Henrique, 106.
Dias Ferreira, Gaspar, 86.
Dias de Novais, Paulo, 23.
Dominican friars, in Mo<;:am-
INDEX
Gouveia, Francisco de, S.J.,
22-23.
Guerreiro, Fernao, S.J., ro ll.
Hamilton, Alexander, 47, 55-56.
Hindus, legal discrimination
against, 8r-8z, 124-6; sometrines favoured at the expense
of Christian converts, 125-6;
political emancipation of, 79,
83-84; denotmced by the
Viceroy Dam Pedro de
Almeida, 72 n; loyalty during
the Maratha invasions, 83.
Irish, schemes for emigration
into Mo<;:ainbiquc, 54-55
Innandades, 108-9, r r9-20.
Jadin, Louis, 20 u, 34 n.
Jagas (Bayaka), 23-25.
Jews and Jewesses, intermarriage
with Negresses and Negroes in
Sio Tome, rs.
Joloffs, ro.
Kaffir, pejorative term, 120.
Kiemen, Mathias, O.F.M., 93 11.
Konk::ull language, Portuguese
efforts to suppress, 8r -82.
Lanqados, 9-II, 52.
Lancilotto,
Nicholas,
S.J.,
denounces Portuguese concupiscence in India, 59-61.
Las Casas, Fr. Bartolome de,
O.P., 101-2.
Le Gentil de la Barbinais, II4-
rs.
133
INDEX
INDEX
Mirra, Sao Jorge da (Elmina),
Portuguese fortress on the
Gold Cost, r48z-r6J7, 7,
II-IZ, IJ
n,
17.
Orlando Ribeiro, 79 n.
Owen, Captain W. F., Royal
Navy, II3 11, 126-7.
Paiva Manso, Visconde de, 20 n,
36 11.
Palmatoria, rr2-13.
Pardos, criticism of, II7-18.
Paulistas, and the Amerindians,
93-95
Pissurlencar, Panduronga, 76 1t,
77 n, 83 11, ss.
Pombal, Sebastiao Jose de
Carval110 e Mello, Count of
Oeiras and Marquis of, and
the colour-bar in Moc;:ambiq uc,
57, 73-74; and the colourbar in India, 83-84, 126; his
suppression of the Jesuits, 87,
98; his emancipation of the
Brazilian Amerindians, 98roo; his abolition of N cgro
slavery in Portugal, 1oo-r,
I04
Prazo system, 49-53
Pumbos and Pumbciros (Pombeiros), 28-29.
Purificac;:ao, Miguel da, O.F.M.,
his defence of the Creole
friars in India, 66, 67 11, II5 n.
Querimba islands, race relations
in, 43-46.
Quilombo, 2 5.
I34
Reinol(s), 77-79.
Religious intolerance, in Portuguese fudia, Sr-84, 125-26;
Religious tolerance in the
same, 125-6; in the Querim_ba
islauds, 43-46.
Religious Orders, upholders of
'White supremacy in Portuguese India, 65-69; in Brazil,
IIS-19.
Ribeiro, Orlando, 79 11.
Ribeiro Rocha, Manuel, 1!2-IJ.
Rodrigues, Francisco, S.J., 8 n,
I4 n.
Rodrigues, Jose Hon6rio, 39 11.
Ryder, A. F. C., 8 n, 13 11, 15 n,
16 11, 17 11, 18 n.
Sa.fim, 4, 5.
Salazar, Dr. AntOnio de Oliveira,
I, 2 11, 40, 1JO.
Salter de Mcnonc;a, Dr. Duarte,
54-55
Sanceau, Elaine, I29 11.
Sandomil, Count of, 68.
Santa Teresa, Ignacio de (Archbishop of Goa, 1721-40), 69.
Santos,Joao dos, O.P., 43-45.
Santos Marrocos, I 14 11.
Sao Salvador (Mbanza Congo),
2G-2I.
no.
I35
INDEX
Vieira, AntOnio, S.J., praises
Cape Verde clergy, 14; and
the freedom of the Amerindians, 92---93, roz-3; and
Negro slavery, 102-3; and
the pardos of Bahia, II7.
Vieira, Joio Fernandes, 27.
Vilhena, Luis dos Santos, II]I4, II5.
Warri, 8
Whydah, J7-I8.
Witte,
Charles-Martel
O.S.B., 3 n.
Zucchelli, Antonio,
Cap., 39 11.
Zmnbo, 48.
sr.
de,
52.
O.F.M.,
OXFORD BOOKt
HE IA
97061
'
'it
1,,-
f.
assi- fill
ANGOLA: A SYMPOSIUM
Views of a Revolt
(Institute of Race
ReiGt~)
LA TIN AMERICA
The Balance of Race redreued
By
a for-t/ by
PROSPERO'S MAGIC
Some thouJhts on clU!i and raGe
.~'
f ~.
By PHILIP MASON
(Institute of R.ce ReiGtioas)
R. B. SEIUEANT
'
325.