CHAPTER

3
Steady
St
Steadyd -State,
St t
One--Dimensional
One
Conduction

Heat Transfer

Objectives

Determine expressions for the temperature

distribution and heat transfer rate in Plane Wall.
Introduce the concept
p of thermal resistance and
to show how thermal circuits may be used to
model heat flow.

Heat Transfer

I t d ti
Introduction

Heat Transfer

Heat transfer problems are often

classified as being steady or
transient
i
( l called
(also
ll d unsteady).
d )
The term steady implies no change
with time at any point within the
medium,
while transient implies variation
with time or time dependence.

Heat Transfer

Heat transfer problems are also classified as being

one-dimensional,
two
two-dimensional,
dimensional, or
three-dimensional,
ddepending
di on the
th relative
l ti magnitudes
it d off heat
h t transfer
t
f rates
t in
i
different directions and the level of accuracy desired.

Heat Transfer

The temperature in a medium, in some

cases, varies mainly in two primary
di
directions,
directions
i
andd the
th variation
i ti off
temperature in the third direction (and
thus heat transfer in that direction) is
negligible.

A heat transfer problem in that case

is said to be Two-Dimensional.

Heat Transfer

A heat transfer problem is said to be One

One--Dimensional if the
temperature in the medium varies in one direction only and thus
heat is transferred in one direction, and the variation of temperature
andd th
thus heat
h t transfer
t
f in
i other
th directions
di ti
are negligible
li ibl or zero.

For example, (Figure).

Heat Transfer

Methodology of a Conduction Analysis

Specify appropriate form of the heat equation.
Solve for the temperature distribution.
Apply Fouriers law to determine the heat flux.
Common
C
G
Geometries:
ti
The Plane Wall: Described in rectangular (x) coordinate. Area
perpendicular to direction of heat transfer is constant (independent of x).
The Tube Wall: Radial conduction through tube wall.
The Spherical Shell: Radial conduction through shell wall.

Heat Transfer

3.1
The Plane Wall
_________________

Heat Transfer

Steady Heat Conduction In Plane Walls

IF
the temperature of the wall
varies in one direction only.
the surrounding temperatures
remain constant.
then heat transfer through the
wall can be modeled as steady
and one-dimensional

Heat Transfer

10

In Fig. 3.1a, a plane wall

separates two fluids of
different temperatures.
Heat transfer occurs;
by convection from the
hot fluid at T,, 1 to one
surface of the wall at
Ts, 1,
by conduction through
the wall, and
by convection from the
other surface of the
wall at Ts, 2 to the cold
fluid at T, 2.
Heat Transfer

11

3.1.1 Temperature Distribution

The Standard Approach

Heat Transfer

12

The appropriate form of heat equation is Eq. 2.21

d dT
k
=0
dx dx

(3.1)

The equation may be integrated

twice to obtain the general solution
T(x) = C1x + C2

(3.2)

Apply BCs of the first kind at x = 0

and x = L, to obtain C1 and C2, in
which case
T(0)=Ts,1

and

T(L)=Ts,2

Heat Transfer

13

T(x) = C1x + C2
T(0)=Ts,1

(3.2)

and

T(L)=Ts,2

Applying
l i the
h condition
di i at x = 0 to the
h generall solution,
l i it
i
follows that
T( ) = T(0) = Ts,1= C1*0 + C2
T(x)
Ts,1= C2
Similarly, at x = L,
T(x)
( ) = T(L)
( ) = Ts,2 = C1L + C2= C1L+Ts,1
in which case

Ts , 2 Ts ,1
L

= C1

Heat Transfer

14

T(x) = C1x + C2
C1 =

Ts , 2 Ts ,1
L

(3 2)
(3.2)
C2=Ts,1

Substituting into the general solution, the temperature

distribution is then
T ( x) =

x
(Ts , 2 Ts ,1 ) + Ts ,1
L

(3.3)

In a plane wall, the temperature varies linearly with x.

Assumptions:
1D,
Steady-State conduction,
No heat generation and,
and
Constant k
Heat Transfer

15

x
T ( x) = (Ts , 2 Ts ,1 ) + Ts ,1
L

(3.3)

Now that we have the temperature distribution, we may

use Fouriers
Fourier s law to determine the conduction heat transfer
rate. That is
dT kA
q x = kA
=
(Ts ,1 Ts , 2 )
dx
L

(3.4)

The heat flux is

q "x

qx k
=
= (Ts ,1 Ts , 2 )
A L

(3.5)

Eqs. 3.4 & 3.5 indicate that both heat transfer rate and heat
flux are constants, independent of x.

Heat Transfer

16

3.1.2 Thermal Resistance

Heat Transfer

17

dT kA
q x = kA
=
(Ts ,1 Ts , 2 )
d
dx
L
9

A very important concept is

suggested
gg
byy Eq.
q 3.4. In
particular, there exists an
analogy between the
diffusion of heat and
electrical charge.

Just as an electrical
resistance is associated
with the conduction of
electricity,
l i i a thermal
h
l
resistance may be
associated with the
conduction of heat.
Heat Transfer

(3.4)

18

Defining resistance as the ratio of a driving potential to the

corresponding transfer rate, it follows from Eq. 3.4 that the
thermal resistance for conduction in a plane wall is
Rt ,cond =

Ts ,1 Ts , 2
qx

L
kA

(3.6)

Similarly, for electrical conduction in the same system,

Ohms law pprovides an electrical resistance of the form
Re =

E s ,1 E s , 2
I

L
A

(3.7)

The analogy between Eqs. 3.6 and 3.7 is obvious.

Heat Transfer

19

A thermal resistance may also be associated with heat

transfer by convection at a surface. From Newtons law of
cooling,
q = hA(Ts T )

(3.8)

The thermal resistance for convection is then

Rt ,conv =

Ts T
1
=
q
hA

Heat Transfer

(3.9)

20

Circuit representations provide a useful

t l for
tool
f both
b th conceptualizing
t li i andd
quantifying heat transfer problems.

The equivalent thermal circuit for the

plane wall with convection surface
conditions is shown in Fig. 3.1b.

The heat transfer rate may be

determined from separate consideration
of each element in the network. Since
qx is constant throughout the network,
it follows that

qx =

(T ,1 Ts ,1 )
1 / h1 A

(Ts ,1 Ts , 2 )
L / kA

(Ts , 2 T , 2 )
1 / h2 A

Heat Transfer

(3.10)
21

In terms of the overall temperature difference, T,1 T,2 and the

total thermal resistance,
resistance Rtot, the heat transfer rate may
ma also be
expressed as
qx =

(T ,1 T, 2 )

(3.11)

Rtot

Because the conduction and convection resistances are in series

and may be summed, it follows that
Rtot =

1
L
1
+
+
h1 A kA h2 A

(3.12)

A thermal resistance for radiation may be defined by reference

to Eq
Eq. 1.8:
1 8:
Rt , rad =
where

Ts Tsur
1
=
q rad
hr A

(3.13)

2
hr = (Ts + Tsur )(Ts2 + Tsur
) see Eq. (1.9)
Heat Transfer

22

3.1.3 The Composite Wall

Heat Transfer

23

Composite walls may

involve any number of
series and parallel thermal
resistances
it
due
d to
t layers
l
off
different materials.
Consider the series
composite wall of Figure
3 2 The
3.2.
Th one-dimensional
di
i l
heat transfer rate for this
y
may
y expressed
p
as:
system
qx =

T,1 T , 4

(3.14)

Heat Transfer

where T ,1 T ,4 is the overall

temperature difference and the
s mmation includes
summation
incl des all the thermal
resistances.
24

Hence

qx =

T ,1 T, 4
[(1 / h1 A) + ( L A / k A A) + ( LB / k B A) + ( LC / k C A) + (1 / h4 A)]

(3.15)

Alternatively, the heat

transfer rate can be related
to temperature difference
and thermal resistance
associated
i t d with
ith eachh
element.
For example

qx =

T,1 Ts ,1
(1 / h1 A)

Ts ,1 T2
( L A / k A A)

T2 T3
= .....
( LB / k B A)
Heat Transfer

(3.16)
25

With composite systems it is often convenient to work with

an overall heat transfer coefficient, U, which is defined by
an expression analogous to Newtons law of cooling.
Accordingly
T T
q x = UAT

(3.17)

qx =

,1

,4

(3.14)

The overall heat transfer coefficient is related to the total

thermal resistance, and from Eqs. 3.14 and 3.17 we see that
UA=1/Rtot
Hence for the composite wall of Fig.3.2

U=

1
Rtot A

1
[(1 / h1 ) + ( L A / k A ) + ( LB / k B ) + ( LC / k C ) + (1 / h4 )]

(3.18)

In general, we may write

Rtot =

Rt =

T
1
=
q
UA

Heat Transfer

(3.19)
26

S i Parallel
Series
P ll l C
Composite
it W
Wall:
ll

Note departure from onedimensional conditions for kF kG

Circuits
Ci
it based
b d on assumption
ti of:
f
(a) isothermal surfaces normal to x
direction, or
(b) adiabatic surfaces parallel to x
direction provide approximations
for qx.

Heat Transfer

27

3.1.4 Contact Resistance

Heat Transfer

28

Thermal Contact Resistance

In the analysis of heat conduction through

multilayer solids, we assumed perfect
contact at the interface of two layers, and
thus no temperature drop at the interface.

This would be the case when the surfaces

are perfectly smooth and they produce a
perfect contact at each point.
point

Heat Transfer

29

Thermal Contact Resistance

In reality, a surface is microscopically rough with

numerous peaks and valleys, no matter how
smooth it appears to be.
be

When two such surfaces are pressed against each

other the peaks will form good material contact
other,
but the valleys will form voids filled with air.

As a result, an interface will contain numerous air

gaps of varying sizes that act as insulation because
of the low thermal conductivity of air.

Thus, an interface offers some resistance to heat

transfer, and this resistance per unit interface area
is called thermal contact resistance, RC.

Heat Transfer

30

Heat Transfer

31

How thermal contact resistance can be minimized?

Thermal contact resistance can be minimized by

applying
l i a thermally
h
ll conducting
d i liquid
li id on the
h surfaces
f
before they are pressed against each other,
by
y replacing
p
g the air at the interface byy a better conducting
g
gas such as helium or hydrogen,
by increasing the interface pressure, and
by inserting a soft metallic foil such as tin,
tin silver,
silver copper,
copper
nickel, or aluminum between the two surfaces.

Heat Transfer

32

Example
p Problem

Heat Transfer

33

Heat Transfer

34