ESE122

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
Qualities of Measurement

Introduction

MEASURAND
A physical quantity which is measured
MEASUREMENT
The process associating a number with a
measurand to a reference called standard
STANDARD
The foundation of modern structured measurement
system which provide for uniform and reliable
measurement.

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Types of standard
1.

2.

3.

4.

International Standards
Defined by international agreement
Maintained at the International Bureau of Weight
and Measure Paris
Primary Standards (National Standards)
Maintained at national standard laboratories in
different countries (Malaysia: SIRIM)
Secondary Standards
Basic reference standard used by measurement
and calibration laboratories in industries
Working Standards
Used to check and calibrate laboratory instrument
for accuracy and performance
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S.I Units
The system of units

that is used with the

international
agreement. Consists
of 6 fundamental
quantities.

Quantity

Symbol

Unit

Symbol

Length

Meter

Mass

Kilogram

kg

Time

Seconds

Temperature

Kelvin

Luminous Intensity

Ir

Candela

cd

Electric Current

Ampere

Performance Characteristics
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Accuracy
Uncertainty
Repeatability
Precision
Resolution
Sensitivity
Threshold

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Performance Characteristics
Accuracy

1.

Qualitative term describing the degree of closeness

with which the indications of an instrument
approach the true value of measurand.

Uncertainty

2.

Expression of the corrected result of a

measurement which defines the range of values
within which the true value or the accepted true
value is estimated to lie.

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Repeatability

3.

Quantitative expression of the closeness of the

agreement between the results of successive
measurements of the same value of measurand
carried out under the same conditions at short
intervals of time.

Precision

4.

Measure of the repeatability of a series data points

taken in the measurement of some quantity.

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Example of Precision

Low precision of measurement

High precision of measurement

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5. Resolution

Minimum change in a measurand that can be

detected

Example:
For an analog voltmeter, the value can only be read to 1/4 of a
division. Assume that 1 division represents 1V on 100V range scale,
hence the resolution is 0.25V or 0.25%.

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6.

Sensitivity

7.

Ratio of the change of the output to the change of

the input

Threshold

Minimum level of input quantity to which an

instrument responds.

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Types of Error
Errors can be categorized under three major types:

1.

Gross Error mistake

2.

Systematic Error

3.

Random Error

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1. Gross error

These errors are result of carelessness and cover

human mistakes like:
i.
Reading a result from a wrong scale
ii. Recording result in a wrong column
iii. Error in calculation
To avoid gross errors, measurement should be
done with more care and all result should be
checked against the expected values

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2.

Systematic errors is divided into 4 categories.

a)

Instrument errors
Inherent in measuring instruments because of
the mechanical structure.
Preventive measures:
i.
Selecting a suitable instrument for the
particular measurement applications
ii.
Applying correction factors after determining
the amount of instrument error
iii. Calibrating the instrument against a standard

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b) Observational errors
Due to two main reasons
- types of instrument (analog)
- Parallax (eye should be directly in line)
Preventive measures:
i.
Using digital instruments.

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c)

Environmental errors
Errors due to conditions which are external to
the measuring device such as the area
surrounds the instrument.
May caused by the changes in pressure,
humidity, dust, vibration or external magnetic
or electrostatic field.
Preventive measures:
i. Try to keep the condition as constant as
possible
ii. Use magnetic shield
iii. Use instruments which is immune to these
effects
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d)

Simplification errors
Arise due to simplification of formula
Example:

A = B + C + D2

if D is too small, then the formula can be

simplified to

A=B+C

i.

There will be a slight difference between the

two equations
Preventive measures:
Do not apply any simplification even for a very
small value
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3.

Random Errors

Due to unknown causes and occur even when

all systematic errors have been accounted
Since the cause are not known the
elimination or reduction of these error is not
possible
The best way to offset the errors is by
increasing the number of reading and use
statistical mean to obtain the approximation

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Significant Figures
The figures that are known to be correct are

significant figures
It is wise to retain all figures during calculation and

truncate only the final result once the uncertainty has

been calculated
Numbers having three significant figures:

587

89.4

0.777

0.000999

Numbers having two significant figures:

16

8.9

0.12

0.0082

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Rules
1.

Non zero integers always count as significant

figures.

2.

There are three classes of zeros:

Leading zeros
Zeros that precede all the non zeros digit
They do not count as significant figures
Ex: 0.00562 (3 significant figures)

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Captive zeros
Zeros between non zeros digits. They always

count as significant figures

Ex: 13.009 (5 significant figures)

Trailing zeros
Zeros at the end of numbers. They count as

significant figures only if the number contain

a decimal point
Ex: 200 (1 significant figure)

2.00 (3 significant figures)

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S.F in Mathematical Operation

1.

Multiplying or Dividing
Significant figure for final answer is the same as

the quantity which has the least number of

significant figures
Ex: 16.3 x 4.5 = 73.35 (4 s.f)
The final answer must have 2 s.f., therefore,
16.3 x 4.5 = 73 (2 s.f.)

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2.

Adding or Subtracting
No. of decimal places for final answer should equal
the smallest number of decimal places of any
quantity in the sum
Ex: 12.11 + 8.0 + 1.013 = 31.123 (X)
The final answer is 31.1 (1 decimal places)

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Exercise:
i.

Ohms law states that V = IR. If V = 3.75 V and I =

0.45 A, calculate R and express your answer to the
correct number of significant figures.

ii.

If the resultant force on an object of mass 260 kg

is 5.20 x 102 N, use equation F = ma to find
acceleration.

iii.

If a car is traveling at a constant speed 72 km/h for

a time 35.5 s, how far has the car traveled?
(distance = speed x time)

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Solution:

Error in Measurement
Defined as the degree to which measurement

conforms to the expected value.

Error can be expressed in term of absolute or as a
percent of error.

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Error in Measurement
Absolute error (e) - defined as the difference

between the expected value of a variable and the

measured value of that variable.

e = Yn X n
Where Yn = expected value
Xn = measured value

Error in Measurement
Relative error

Absolute error
Expected value
e Yn X n
=
=
Yn
Yn

R=

Percent of error (% error) = R x 100%

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Error in Measurement
Yn X n
Relative accuracy A = 1
Yn
Percent of accuracy = 100% percent of error

= A 100%

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Exercise:
The expected value of the voltage across a resistor
is 80V. However, the measurement gives a value of
79V. Determine the:
a)
b)
c)
d)

Absolute error
Percentage error
Relative accuracy
Percentage of accuracy

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Solution:

Accuracy and Precision

If a measurement is accurate, it must also be precise.

However, precision may not be accurate.

Precision,

Xn Xn
P =1
Xn
Where,

Xn = value of the nth measurement

Xn = average set of measurements

31

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Exercise:
Table below gives the set of 10 measurements that were
recorded in the laboratory. Calculate the precision of the
6th measurement.
Measurement number, n

Measurement value, Xn

98

101

102

97

101

100

103

98

106

10

99

Solution:

Statistical Analysis of Error

1.

Mean value/Arithmetic mean

2.

Deviation

3.

Algebraic Sum of deviation

4.

Average Deviation

5.

Standard Deviation

6.

Probable error

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Statistical Analysis of Error

Mean value / Arithmetic mean

X 1 + X 2 + X 3 + ... + X n
X=
n
Deviation,

d1 = X 1 X
d2 = X 2 X
.
.
.
dn = X n X
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 Algebraic Sum of deviation

Average deviation

Standard deviation
But for n < 30

(d1 ) 2 + (d 2 ) 2 + ... + (d n ) 2
=
n 1

Probable error
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Exercise:
Six observers took a set of independent current
measurement and the result were recorded as:
12.8 A, 12.2 A, 12.5 A, 13.1 A, 12.9 A, 12.4 A
Calculate the followings:
a)
b)
c)
d)

Arithmetic Mean
Deviations from mean
Average deviation
Standard Deviation

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Solution:

Exercise:
A sensor is used to detect the flow rate of fuel to a jet
engine.
Due
to
electrical
interference
in
the
instrumentation used, however, successive readings from
the sensor fluctuate. The readings recorded were shown in
Table below:

39

Reading No.

Flow rate (litre/min)

5.32

5.48

5.43

5.46

5.31

5.43

5.36

If the arithmetic mean for

the 8 readings is 5.39,
determine:
i.
the flow rate for the
4th reading
ii. the precision of 6th
reading
iii. the average deviation
for the readings
iv. the standard deviation
for the readings

Solution:

Limiting Errors
The limits indicating the accuracy of certain

instrument guaranteed to a certain percentage of full

scale reading
If reading is less than the full-scale, the limiting error
will increase
It is important to obtain the measurement as close as
possible to full-scale

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Example 1:
If a resistance of a resistor is given as 50010%, the
manufacturer guarantees that the resistance is between
450 and 550 (limiting error is 10% of 500. i.e.
50)

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Exercise:
A 600V voltmeter is specified to be accurate within
2% at full-scale . Calculate the limiting error when
the instrument is used to measure a voltage of 250V.

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Exercise:
Three resistor are arranged in series, where
R1 = 10 1%, R2 = 15 1% and R3 = 25 2%.
R1

R2

R3

The total resistance, RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 50 . But how about

the limiting errors?

New limiting error: RT = 50

?? %

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Exercise:
A voltmeter reading 70V on its 100V range and an
ammeter reading 80mA on its 150mA range are used to
determine the power dissipated in a resistor. Both these
instruments are guaranteed to be accurate within
1.5% at full scale deflection. Determine the limiting error
of the power.

45

Exercise:
Based on the circuit shown in figure below, find the total
resistance and its percentage error in the circuit. Given
that R1=12 k 5%, R2= 5 k 10%, R3= 10 k
20%.

46

Solution:

Error Propagation
1. Error in a sum
2. Error in a multiplication
3. Error in a power factor

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Error Propagation
1. Error in a sum
x=a+b+c
Percent error of x (% error x)
a da b db c dc
= + + 100%
x a x b x c
a

c
b
= (% error a ) + (% error b) + (% error c)

x
x
x

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Exercise:
Calculate the maximum percentage error in the sum of
three voltage measurements when V1 = 100V 1%, V2
= 80V 5% and V3 = 8V 2%. Express your answer in
percent error and absolute error. What is minimum and
maximum value of the sum of three voltage
measurements.

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Error Propagation
2. Error in a multiplication/division
x=axb
Percent error of x (% error x)
= [(% error A) + (% error B)]
x = a/b
Percent error of x (% error x)
= [(% error A) + (% error B)]
x = ab/cd
Percent error of x (% error x)
= [(% error A)+(% error B)+(% error B)+(% error B)]
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Exercise:
A voltmeter reading 70V on its 100V range and an
ammeter reading 80mA on its 150mA range are used to
determine the power dissipated in a resistor. Both these
instrument are guranteed to be accurate within 1.5% at
full scale deflection. Determine the limiting error of the
power.

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Error Propagation
3. Error in a sum
x = aB
Percent error of x (% error x)
= B x (% error A)]

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Exercise:
A 820 resistor with an accuracy of 10% carries a
current of 10mA. The current was measured by an analog
ammeter on a 25mA range with an accuracy of 2% of
full scale. Calculated the power dissipated in the resistor.

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Exercise (March 2005):

Using the circuit shown in figure below, calculate the
voltage across resistor R1, VR1 and its relative error.
Given R1 = 10k 0.5%, R2 = 5k 0.2%, R3 = 5k
0.1%, R4 = 1k 2%, VIN = 20V 0.2%.

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