Finding and fixing leakage within combined HP-IP steam

turbines
Most preventive and predictive maintenance practices for steam turbines focus on keeping lube
oil pure, vibration levels under control, and all inlet and non-return valves ready to stroke at a
moments notice. Internal leaks of steam cannot be identified easily or measured directly, but they
can be detected by performance engineers with calibrated eyeballs and instruments.
Southern Companys team of plant maintenance, central office technical/maintenance, and
performance testing/steam path audit personnel has an excellent track record for spotting steam
path problems. By closely monitoring turbine performance trends, the team can catch, diagnose,
and resolve many problems earlyoften during the next unit outage.
How are internal leaks identified, and which parts of a steam turbine are most prone to leakage?
This two-part series answers those questions, beginning with an overview of the symptoms and
causes of the most serious and unmanageable leaksof excessive steam from a turbines highpressure (HP) to intermediate-pressure (IP) section. Part I concludes with three case studies of GE
turbines (Figure 1) that illustrate how the concepts apply in practice to these specific machines. In
next months POWER, well scrutinize Westinghouse (Figure 2) and Allis-Chalmers turbines.

1. Smooth operator. Southern Companys Plant Branch Unit 2 is a 320-MW GE steam turbine.
The unit began commercial operation in 1967. Courtesy: Southern Company Generation

2. Making power. Unit 4 at Southern Companys Plant Branch is a 500-MW Westinghouse steam
turbine that began operation in 1969. Courtesy: Southern Company Generation
Say aah
The symptoms experienced by a turbine suspected of internal leakage must be inferred from tests
and indirect observations. Medical doctors diagnose patients that way every day. But whereas
humans can verbalize their complaints, steam turbines can only speak in the language of lost
performance and efficiency. Its a lot easier to detect blood bypassing a cardiac valve than to
diagnose HP to IP seal leakage.
The diagnosis begins with the understanding that increased HP to IP leakage can have several
causes. Seals damaged or weakened by misalignment, poor start-ups, or multiple temperature
excursions will increase leakage, for example. For utility-grade turbines, age is definitely a factor,
especially with HP inner shell distortion or loose/overstretched bolting causing leakage at the
horizontal joint. A water induction incident will cause seal rubs and HP inner shell distortion.
The typical time between turbine overhauls has increased from four years in the past to as much
as eight to10 years today. Lack of thoroughness and poor quality of turbine inspections also may
be an issue. In particular, its important to insist that the inspection include the main steam inlet
expansion rings in the turbines lower inner shell.
Losing load
A turbines output and reliability can be affected by high internal leakage. An enlarging internal
leak will initially increase the units capacity in a manner similar to reheat spray. The cycle flow

restriction in the first few stages of the HP turbine will be bypassed. Eventually, the effects of
reduced boiler reheater flow will cause overheating of the reheater tubes and more tube leaks.
Load may have to be curtailed to avoid overheating the reheater.
Other problems could occur, too. On the mechanical side, loose nuts on the HP inner shell could
"liberate" their washers. If they enter the IP turbine inlet, they could cause severe damage to
buckets. In some turbine designs, the washers could just as easily enter the LP turbine.
Nuts and bolts aside, the thrust balance of the HP-IP turbine also can be affected by a change in
internal flow distribution. It may not be possible to achieve full load following such a change if it
triggers a thrust bearing alarm.
Other clues that you may have an excessive internal leakage problem include those that follow.
Trouble controlling reheat temperature. If fuel and boiler conditions havent changed but
reheat spray flow has been increasing with time, this could be a sign that internal leakage has
increased and is bypassing the reheater. The situation could evolve into one where the flow
capacity of the reheat spray is "topped out." At this point, the only alternatives for control would
be to reduce load or to lower superheat temperature.
Apparent (measured) IP efficiency changes. Very high (>94%) values of measured IP
efficiency (from the hot reheat to the LP crossover) are good signs for all GE units. But for
Westinghouse turbines, the same values are indicative of high leakage to the IP turbine inlet, and
extremely low values are symptomatic of high leakage to the LP crossover (bypassing most of, or
the entire, IP turbine).
Turbine pressure changes at valves wide open. Decreasing first-stage pressure, coupled with
increasing downstream pressures, could indicate flow bypassing the HP turbine. (The effects of
reheat spray should be accounted for on the downstream pressures.) The main steam flow
calculated from the first-stage pressure curve will decrease, whereas the main steam flow
determined by the feedwater flow (plus superheat spray flow, if applicable) will increase. Some
older units with main steam and hot reheat flow nozzles will show a trend of decreasing hot
reheat flow (after accounting for reheat spray differences, and assuming the performance of the
cold reheat HP feedwater heater has not changed).
Turbine thrust bearing changes. Although the phenomenon has been rarely reported at
Southern Company Generation (SCG) plants, at several other plants the position of a steam
turbine thrust bearing has been changed by abnormal flow distribution in the HP and IP sections
of opposed-flow turbines (there was less steam flow in the HP turbine than in the IP turbine).

Turbine shell temperature differences. Verified differences of over 100 degrees F between the
upper and lower shell metal and steam temperatures could be a sign that an internal leak is
cooling an upper or lower section.
Quick reaction required
Excessive leakage entering the IP turbine reheat bowl can be (but is not always) marked by a
noticeable increase in measured IP efficiency across the load range. Likewise, excessive leakage
entering the LP crossover pipe will normally lower measured IP efficiency.
Determining the amount of internal leakage requires conducting a relatively inexpensive HP-IP
enthalpy drop test with test-quality instruments. The main steam and hot reheat temperatures are
varied to observe the change in measured IP efficiency. This is called the Booth-Kautzmann test
(see box, p. 33, #1). SCG calls it the "temperature split test." A large (>1%) change in efficiency
from one test to the next is a sure sign of high internal leakage. Ideally, these routine tests should
be conducted at least once per year with either calibrated plant or test-quality instruments. Tests
conducted with other kinds of instruments can produce inconclusive results. Remember to
account for miscellaneous items, such as water legs, when making measurements of static
pressure.
As part of its testing procedures, SCG tries to maintain at least a 30- to 40-degree F spread
between temperatures, at stable conditions. It is very important to have at least three testing
conditionsnormal superheat/reheat, normal superheat/lower reheat, and low superheat/higher
reheatat the same load. For boilers that have trouble generating reheat steam that is hotter than
main steam, another option is to use various amounts of reheat spray to achieve two conditions:
low reheat and lower reheat.
The level of difficulty in achieving the temperature variance depends on the boilers design and
fuel as well as the patience of the unit operator and test engineer. Variables and equipment that
the operator can control include superheat spray, reheat spray, boiler O2, burner tilts, gas
recirculation fan operation, selective sootblowing, top-firing pulverizers, and convection zone gas
bypass dampers. Some units achieve the variance at full load, others only at lower load.
Its a good idea (for sanitys sake) to maintain the difference between the assumed level of
leakage enthalpy and that of main steam enthalpy constant for each test calculation. For GE units,
SCG usually assumes that the leakage is the average of the test main steam and cold reheat
enthalpies. If main steam inlet snout rings are suspected of contributing to excessive internal
leakage, its reasonable to assume that its enthalpy is identical to main steam inlet enthalpy.

For Westinghouse and Allis-Chalmers units, which have more variations in arrangement, the
leakage enthalpy should be more carefully selected. Using the average of the main steam and cold
reheat enthalpies has proved sufficient for calculating the leakage enthalpys effect on the LP
crossover. For later Westinghouse units, which have bell seals that can leak to the crossover, SCG
assumes the leakage is that of main steam if a bell seal is suspected to be the major culprit.
SCG engineers use a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet with a Steam Tables add-in to calculate and
plot test results. Our simple method does not require any measured flowsonly test pressures and
temperatures. The three derived lines should intersect at approximately the same point (Figure 3).
From our experience, it is relatively easy to achieve good intersection with a high leakage rate,
due to the influence of the leakage enthalpy and flow. For a low leakage rate, the lines do not
intersect as well, because the leakage has less effect on the apparent IP efficiency. If a high
leakage rate is indicated, you should first look for clues, such as those you might find in a review
of the last turbine outage report work and any recent operational excursions.

Issues specific to GE turbines

For a General Electric combined HP-IP steam turbine, the design (heat balance) leakage from the
HP to IP turbine, through the N2 packing, is typically 2% of hot reheat flow. When the turbine is
new, this is usually the only significant HP to IP leakage. But as it ages, components other than
N2 packing can become contributors, including:

Upper and lower main steam inlet snout rings. A clearance of 0 to 2 mils is standard for
conventional rings, and gaps over 10 mils can produce large amounts of leakage (Figure 4).
The N2 packing heads horizontal joint, and how it fits into the inner shell (if separate)
(Figure 5).
The HP inner shell horizontal joint (if the shell distorts or the joint develops a loose bolt)
(Figure 6).
The turbine blowdown pipes snout/piston rings (the pipe is horizontal on smaller units and
vertical on larger ones)
The first-stage pressure-flanged probe, and how it fits in the lower inner cylinder.

4. First contact. Some main steam inlet snout rings for a 250-MW General Electric steam turbine.
Note in the top photo the good contact between the inner ring and the snout pipes. The bottom
photo shows the inner and outer snout ring stacks after removal. Courtesy: Southern Company
Generation

5. Packing heat. A typical N2 packing seal, packing head, and horizontal joint for a 250-MW GE
steam turbine. Courtesy: Southern Company Generation

6. Nuts to that. Loose stud nuts caused this leakage around the HP inner shell horizontal joint of a
125-MW GE steam turbine. Courtesy: Southern Company Generation

Any or all of these leakages, along with those through the N2 packing, flow to the IP turbine inlet
(or reheat bowl). Increased leakage will cause a rise in the measured (or apparent) IP efficiency
(from the hot reheat to the LP crossover). The increase is not due to a gain in blading efficiency
but, rather, to lower-enthalpy HP turbine steam mixing with higher-enthalpy hot reheat steam.
The heat rate penalty is caused by the leakage of steam around the HP turbine and boiler reheater.
Ruling out abnormalities
The Booth-Kautzmann test defines two methods for determining HP to IP leakage. The first
method, for measuring total leakage requires the temperature split test. This method will
determine the total HP to IP leakage and is the more important test to conduct. SCG abandoned
the temperature split test in the early 1990s on GE turbines because we assumed any other
abnormal HP to IP leakages were taken care of in turbine overhauls; we were wrong. We resumed
this testing in 1996 after we could not resolve some performance issues; this proved to be a
blessing, as we found many problems with excessive HP to IP leakage resulting from HP inner
shell joint and snout ring leakages.
The second method, which determines only leakage through the N2 packing and any through the
blowdown pipe snout rings, involves opening the turbine blowdown valve and measuring the
change in apparent IP efficiency that results from diverting the N2 packing steam to the
condenser. (Some GE units do not have this valve, and on others it is not large enough to pass all
the N2 packing flow.)
If there are no other leakages to the IP turbine, this method will provide a true measure of the IP
blade path efficiency. The value can be converted to units of leakage using Figure 3 in Booths
paper (see box). As shown by numerous comparisons of the blowdown test to steam path audit
clearance measurements, it is quite accurate at calculating N2 packing leakage.
If there is no significant difference between total leakage and N2 packing leakage, then there are
no other abnormal internal leakages. A significant difference between the two numbers indicates
the existence of an abnormal leak, most likely either in the HP inner shell horizontal joint or in
the main steam snout rings.
Where and how to inspect
A visual inspection of the ring contact area on the HP inner shell pipe only indicates the condition
of the inner main steam inlet snout rings. The condition of the alternating outer rings can only be
assessed by unstacking the rings and carefully measuring the clearances. The outer rings may
carry telltale signs of steam erosion of the shell, but the signs remain invisible unless the rings are
unstacked.
GE turbines larger than 300 MW have three sets of snout rings. Leakage through the outer shell
and inner shell rings of each set goes to the IP reheat bowl, where it contributes to overall HP to
IP leakage and affects the apparent efficiency of the IP turbine. Because leakage through the
nozzle box set rings bypasses the first stage, it would affect only the HP turbine. Although this
leakage has a minor effect on efficiency, it could have a major impact on flow capacity.

For GE steam turbines built in the mid-1960s and later, there is a mid-span balance port flanged
connection that can be used to inspect for loose HP inner shell nuts. The balance port may not be
shown on the turbine cross-section diagram if it is not exactly top dead center. In any case, the
turbine instruction book will contain a page describing the balance port access.
Use a borescope to check for loose nuts (Figure 7). One turbine vendor offers a high-temperature
borescope service, so the procedure can be performed during short outages while the turbine is
still hot. Using the balance port also allows inspection of the IP inlet stationary blading, which
typically erodes after many years of service. Another inspection approach that may work on older
units is to remove an intercept valve and use a long borescope.

7. Scope of work. This loose nut atop an HP inner shell washer was found with a borescope
inserted into the mid-span balancing port of a 250-MW General Electric steam turbine. Courtesy:
Southern Company Generation
If excessive leakage is detected, reducing it will require taking these steps:

Replacing the N2 packing seals if they have excessive clearance or broken teeth. Proper
alignment and a controlled start-up after the turbine outage are critical to maintaining the
seal clearances.
Replacing snout rings (for main steam and the N2 packing blowdown pipe) that have
excessive clearance, taper, or erosion. The snout pipes themselves may be worn or eroded
enough to require refurbishment (Figure 8).
Weld build-up and machining the HP inner shell horizontal joint surface, including an
evaluation of its studs and shell threads (Figure 9). Leakage can actually flow up through
shell holes, eroding the studs. The stud nuts should be "sounded" with a hammer to
determine if any are loose prior to disassembling the unit. One possible retrofit, which SCG

has used very successfully on one unit, is to switch to a through-bolt stud arrangement.
Whatever the arrangement, it is very important to know both the stud material and the nut
tightening specs.

8. Triple play. The main steam inlet snout pipes of a 320-MW GE steam turbine with three sets of
snout rings. Courtesy: Southern Company Generation

9. Fixing the fix. Weld build-up on the HP inner shell joint of a 75-MW GE steam turbine
required machining and the replacement of studs. Courtesy: Southern Company Generation
Outage inspections to correct an internal leakage problem may create the need for some
unexpected IP turbine repair. On two occasions, a stud nut washer came loose from the HP inner
shell nut, broke into pieces, and was propelled into the IP turbine, damaging its buckets and
covers (Figures 10 and 11).

10. Nice catch. This broken stud nut washer from the HP inner shell of a 350-MW GE steam
turbine was found lodged in the stationary blading of the IP section. Courtesy: Southern Company
Generation

11. Nut on the loose. Here are the IP turbine buckets damaged by broken pieces of the stud nut
washer. Courtesy: Southern Company Generation
After an outage to fix excessive HP to IP leakage, the turbine should be thoroughly tested to
ensure that the work was successful. In SCGs experience with GE turbines, total internal leakage
can be reduced to less than 3% of hot reheat flow leakage.
The remainder of this article presents three case studies of successful evaluation and repair of GE
turbines suffering excessive internal leakage. Remember to consult the August 2007 issue
of POWER for similar stories concerning Westinghouse and Allis-Chalmers turbines.
Case study #1: Excessive HP to IP leakage in a 250-MW turbine
At this plant, a high level of turbine internal leakage was having an "invisible" impact on unit heat
rate. The rise in heat rate, in 1999, would not have been diagnosed if the leakage test had not been
conducted, because the turbine was running smoothly, with normal levels of noise and vibration.
At the time, 10 years had passed since the turbine had had its total HP to IP leakage measured
using the temperature split test. The test had indicated that both total leakage and N2 packing
leakage were both relatively low: 3.5% of hot reheat flow.
However, in 1996, a routine HP-IP test pointed to some type of damage (pressure changes) in the
initial stages of the IP turbine. Just prior to the units scheduled 1997 major outage for turbine
maintenance, an open reheat spray block valve caused a turbine water induction event that

affected the turbines HP exhaust stages and inner shell. The outage inspection found the HP
inner shell horizontal joint open near the HP inlet and detected several loose inner shell stud bolts.
SCG engineers didnt believe that the bolts had been loosened by the water induction. Rather,
they concluded this had occurred prior to the 1996 test, as a loose washer had disintegrated,
entered the IP turbine, and caused damage the prior year. The HP inner shell required stress relief
to correct distortion and some older cracks that had been weld-repaired. All new studs were
installed on the inner shell. As the last outage in 1995 had indicated possible leakage, alternative
main steam inlet snout rings were installed as part of the outage work.
Post-outage 1997 temperature split testing measured total HP to IP leakage at 7.5% of hot reheat
flow, while blowdown testing indicated that N2 packing leakage was only 1%. The big
differential pointed to a significant HP to IP leak. Because the snout rings had been replaced, they
became prime suspects. As part of the investigation, discussions were initiated with the snout ring
supplier.
In 1998 both tests were repeated. This time, measured total HP to IP leakage was 8.8% of hot
reheat flow, and N2 packing leakage was 2.1%. Significantly, both percentages were increases.
In 1999 the tests were repeated a third time. Now, total HP to IP leakage was 16.6% of the hot
reheat flow (nearly twice the previous level), while N2 packing leakage remained constant at
2.0%. By this time, the units rolling-average heat rate had increased significantly, so an outage
for inspecting the turbine was scheduled for early 2000.
The 2000 inspection revealed loose nuts on the HP inner cylinder, some with three to four turns
open. The original nuts had been replaced by pinned nuts and washers that had been incorrectly
installed. A measurement of the open joint area read 40 mils. The pinned nuts and washers then
were installed properly. Although the inner snout rings appeared to be fine, there were signs of
incipient problems with outer rings that led to a decision to replace all rings with conventional
rings.
The post-outage HP-IP test to confirm the "fix" was delayed due to budget constraints. So the
units heat rate continued to rise throughout 2001, and plant personnel attributed the gains to "a
boiler problem."
The post-outage test was finally conducted in January 2001. Discouragingly, it found total HP to
IP leakage practically unchanged, at 17%, and N2 packing leakage at 3.5%.

In February 2001, SCG engineers arrived at the plant to perform a borescope inspection of the
nuts of the turbines HP inner shell, using the midspan balance flange hole. Once again, there was
evidence of loose nuts andpossiblystretched studs.
GE was consulted for an alternative "fix." The company proposed installing Inconel through-bolts
to replace the stud arrangement, and that was what was done prior to the major scheduled unit
outage of 2002. For a few months preceding the outage, the leakage problem got bad enough to
force a unit derate, because of excessive overfiring.
Inspection during the 2002 outage confirmed that nuts were loose on both sides of the HP inner
shell and that the threads had been damaged by overstretching the studs (Figure 12). The throughbolt arrangement was installed.

12. Lets tighten up. Loose nuts in the HP inner shell can increase internal steam bypass leakage.
Shown is a 250-MW GE steam turbine. Courtesy: Southern Company Generation
The post-outage HP-IP test was conducted in June 2002. Total HP to IP leakage had significantly
decreased to 4.5%, with N2 packing leakage at 2.0%. Although the numbers were not back at
design, they were a tremendous improvement. The improvement was also reflected in the units
rolling-average heat rate (Figure 13). Although the correction of some boiler economizer
performance problems during the prior outage also lowered the heat rate a bit, there was no doubt
that decreasing HP to IP leakage was a much bigger contributor. To this day, the heat rate of the
unit remains under 10,000 Btu/kWh.

13. Rolling average net unit heat rate. Unit heat rate improved significantly after the successful
2002 repair outage. Courtesy: Southern Company Generation
Case study #2: Excessive HP to IP leakage in a 250-MW cross-compound turbine
A 250-MW cross-compound turbine also was experiencing higher-than-normal heat rates in 1997,
due to an unknown HP to IP leakage. As in the first case study, eight years had passed since the
last temperature split and blowdown tests, which found the levels of total HP to IP internal
leakage and N2 packing leakage fairly close, at 1.8% and 1.5%, respectively.
In 1995, as part of a major unit overhaul, the turbines main steam inlet snout rings were replaced
with those of an alternative design. The subsequent performance test did not include a
temperature split test; a blowdown test measured N2 packing leakage as "low."
A temperature split test was finally conducted on the unit in 1997; it measured total HP to IP
leakage at 4.5%, with N2 packing still low at 1.5%. The disparity pointed to an undetected HP to
IP leak.
In 1998, prior to the units major annual overhaul, another temperature split test measured total
leakage at 5.7% and N2 packing leakage at 2.7%both increases. During the 1999 outage, when
technicians unstacked the snout rings, they bore signs of leakage along the outer ring to shell bore
fits as well as leakage across the ring stack flat surfaces. The main problem, engineers decided,
was that the outer seal rings had expanded too much into the shell bore, mushrooming the softer
shell material and causing "blue-blush" to exfoliate and migrate to the ring-to-ring flat surfaces.

Additionally, the snout ring material did not match the snout bore material on two of the four
snouts. This caused those inner rings to not seal due to identical thermal expansion coefficients.
The main steam inlet snout rings were replaced with conventional rings. The HP inner shell joint
closure was found to be tight. The worn N2 packing was replaced.
Following the repairs, the two diagnostic tests were performed in 1999. They measured total
leakage at 2.8% and N2 packing leakage at 2.0%both decreases. The closeness of the two
values indicated the presence of very little other leakage. Three more performance tests conducted
in 2000, 2001, and 2005 verified that both leakage types remain low. However, both tests were
again conducted earlier this year, and they measured total leakage at 7.0%, with a large
contribution coming from the N2 packing leakage (3.7%). During this years scheduled outage of
the unit, SCG expects to replace the N2 packing and check the condition of the snout rings and
HP inner shell joint.
Case study #3: Excessive HP to IP leakage in a 500-MW supercritical turbine
Post-outage tests of a 500-MW supercritical turbine in 2003 measured total HP to IP leakage at
4.2%, with a 1% contribution from N2 packing. Routine testing in late 2005 indicated that total
leakage had increased to 8.5%. At that time, N2 packing leakage could not be measured because
the turbine blowdown valve would not open.
The units outage records revealed that the bolting of the turbines HP inner shell had been
replaced, but there were some misunderstandings because the bolt material was also changed,
which could affect stretch requirements. The decision was made to open up the HP-IP turbine,
with the expectation of finding loose HP inner shell bolting.
Unexpectedly, however, the source of the leakage problem was found to be broken N2 packing
teeth (Figure 14). The HP inner shell joint was found to be tight. There was also one broken stud
on the N2 packing head. It was determined that the N2 packing teeth broke because of looseness
in the tooth slot; the packing had been re-toothed twice.

14. Needs dental work. These broken N2 packing teeth were found on a 500-MW GE
supercritical steam turbine. Courtesy: Southern Company Generation
After replacing the N2 packing, the unit was retested in early 2006. Total HP to IP leakage was
found to be 4.2%, with a 2% contribution from N2 packing leakage (as measured by a turbine
blowdown test). If the turbine blowdown valve had worked properly in 2005, it would have been
clear then that all of the prior increase in total leakage was due to leakage through the N2
packing.

For Westinghouse (Figure 1) and Allis-Chalmers combined high-pressure/intermediate-pressure

(HP-IP) turbines, there are more design (and potential nondesign) leakages to the IP turbine than
in General Electric machines. Thats because the former units require balancing the thrust loading
of the reaction blading. Leakage can enter the IP turbine inlet, IP turbine exhaust, low-pressure
(LP) crossover pipes, and occur between split IP1/IP2 turbines. Its result can be an apparent
increase or decrease of IP turbine efficiency, depending on the source.

1. In the spotlight. A typical Westinghouse 500-MW BB44 HP-IP steam turbine. Courtesy:
Southern Company Generation
Southern Company Generation (SCG) has found that trending of the apparent IP efficiency using
the Booth-Kautzmann temperature split tests (discussed last issue in Part I) is very useful for
resolving internal leakage problems on our Westinghouse and Allis-Chalmers turbines. It should
be noted that the true IP blade path efficiency of these units is difficult to measure.
For later (BB44) Westinghouse turbines, the sources of design leakage (Figure 2) include:

Main steam inlet bell seals (the leakage bypasses the HP-IP turbine; more recent units
indicate zero leakage on the design heat balance).
HP-IP-LP dummy balance seals (Figure 3).
HP exhaust piston seal rings.

IP inlet (hot reheat) piston seal rings.

2. Go to the source. Design and nondesign leakage areas on the lower inner shell of a
Westinghouse BB44. Courtesy: Southern Company Generation

3. To be smart, test these. The HP, IP, and LP dummy seals of a typical Westinghouse BB44.
Courtesy: Southern Company Generation
Depending on the unit design, HP dummy seal leakage can affect HP turbine efficiency as it
flows through the equilibrium pipes to the HP exhaust. If the IP dummy ring is severely distorted,
it is possible for the IP dummy leakage to be a mix of HP dummy leakage and HP exhaust steam
flowing in the reverse direction through the equilibrium pipes.
Among the sources of nondesign leakage are:

The HP inner shell horizontal joint (distorted shell or loose bolting).

Broken internal equilibrium balancing pipes.
A broken first-stage drain or pressure-sensing line between the inner and outer shell.
Piston seal rings on the IP turbine mid-point extraction pipe.
A missing mid-span balancing port plug in the inner shell.
Cracks in the main steam inlet pipes at the trepan radius.

Relating efficiency to leakage

For the BB44 design, two values of apparent IP efficiency should be measured. The IP efficiency
measured from the hot reheat to the IP exhaust at the blading only takes into account the leakage

effect of the IP dummy. The IP efficiency measured from the hot reheat to the LP crossover
includes the effects of all HP to IP leakages. The temperature split tests are also used to estimate
the IP dummy leakage and the total HP to IP leakage.
Although the test wells provided by the turbine manufacturer at the IP blading exhaust on the
upper and lower (difficult-to-access) shells are in stratified locations, they are still useful for
trending. Because the deaerator and boiler feedpump usually extract at these points, the
temperature of the extraction line also should be measured. On one Southern Company unit that
had been retrofitted with a new design IP dummy ring, we also installed two new test wells in the
upper outer cylinder just upstream of the hot reheat inlet pipes. The results of testing using these
wells still indicated some stratification of IP exhaust temperature.
A broken or cracked bell seal on a BB44 turbine can be diagnosed by trending the difference
between the deaerator/boiler feedpump turbine extraction temperature and the LP crossover pipe
temperature. If the former is several degrees lower than the latter and the two crossover pipes are
at a different temperature, a bell seal or inlet pipe could be cracked.
For units with electrohydraulically controlled governor valves that are individually operated, the
manufacturers bell seal diagnostic test is useful to perform. Each of the eight governor valves is
closed (and re-opened) and the above temperatures are trended. (Exercise caution when doing so
on the normal initial opening governor valve, including temporarily disabling the unit trip
function.) A change in the temperature differences will be observed on a leaking bell seal when
the corresponding governor valve is closed; this reduces but does not eliminate the leakage, which
is reverse flow from the first stage, rather than main steam. If the testing indicates that an upper
bell seal is the problem, it can be fixed relatively quickly because only the upper half of the outer
cylinder must be removed. But if the testing indicates a problem with a lower bell seal, fixing it
will not be easy because it will require removing all HP-IP turbine components.
Diagnosing other models
For Westinghouse turbines with an IP1-HP-IP2 arrangement (Figure 4), there are also two values
of measurable IP apparent efficiency. The IP1 efficiency is measured from the hot reheat to the
IP1 exhaust using vendor-supplied casing pressure and temperature connections in the lower test
wells that are somewhat difficult to access on-line. (On some units, there is an extraction location
on the IP1 exhaust that can be used for pressure/temperature measurements.)

4. Horse of a different color. A Westinghouse 180-MW IP1-HP-IP2 turbine. Courtesy: Southern

Company Generation

IP1 efficiency values account for the effect of leakage of HP exhaust steam leakage to the IP1
inlet through the IP dummy seals. The total IP efficiency, measured from the hot reheat to the LP
crossover pipe, includes the effects of leakage through the IP and LP dummies, the bell seals, the
HP exhaust piston rings, the hot reheat inlet piston rings, the governor valve stems, and the seal at
the end of the governor shaft. Possible sources of nondesign leakage include broken equilibrium
pipes, a leaking HP-IP1 inner shell horizontal joint, broken first-stage drain and pressure-sensing
lines, and cracks in main steam inlet pipes.
Until recently, the only unusual problem that SCG has experienced on the IP1-HP-IP2 type of
turbine was a very high IP dummy leakage on one unit, but not on a sister unit. The problem was
diagnosed as "extra" cooling holes found in the IP dummy ring, and it was fixed by reducing in
size (welding up) the holes, as the existing IP dummy seals would provide sufficient IP inlet
bucket cooling steam. A post-outage test revealed that taking this action substantially reduced
both IP dummy leakage and total HP to IP leakage. Including the effect of reduced reheat spray
flow, the unit heat rate improvement was about 40 Btu/kWh.
Smaller (100-MW and less) Westinghouse turbines have piston seal rings on the main steam inlet
pipes. On these units, excessive leakage will reduce HP turbine efficiency as some or all of the
HP blading is bypassed. Total HP-to-IP leakage is not affected by this leakage through the piston
seal rings.
On SCGs 100-MW Westinghouse turbines, the LP dummy flow (external pipes) to the IP
exhaust can be measured using the vendor-supplied flow measurement/restriction orifice plates.
On one occasion, the rotor of one unit was visibly thrusting, causing measured LP dummy flow to
cycle. The results of temperature split testing were inconclusive due to the swings in leakage.
Eventually, the turbine required an inspection to check for wear of its thrust bearing. The root
cause of the thrusting was determined to be worn-out IP dummy seals, which were no longer in a
hi-lo configuration (Figure 5).

5. Seals dont lie. A 100-MW Westinghouse turbine with severely worn IP dummy seals that
caused noticeable thrusting of its rotor. Courtesy: Southern Company Generation
Later Westinghouse units have a mid-span balance port that can be used for borescope inspections
to check for loose HP inner shell bolts and broken equilibrium pipes. On BB44 units, this can also
be accomplished by removing an LP crossover pipe.
Allis-Chalmers reheat turbines also are susceptible to several sources of design and nondesign
internal leakages. Figure 6 highlights these sources for 75-MW Allis-Chalmers units, of which
SCG has three. The sources of design leakage to the IP turbine include the IP dummy, the reheat
diaphragm packing, and the LP dummy. Excessive leakage through the IP dummy and reheat
diaphragm packing into the IP turbine inlet would produce an increase in measured IP efficiency.
By contrast, excessive leakage through the LP dummy into the LP cross-around pipes would
cause a decrease in measured IP efficiency. Sources of nondesign leakage include the reheat
diaphragm packing housing joint and the horizontal joint.

6. Other sources of internal leakage. The HP, IP, LP, and reheat diaphragm packing of an AllisChalmers 75-MW turbine (L) and the HP-IP-LP dummy seals location (R). Courtesy: Southern
Company Generation
Nondesign leakagesthrough the two sets of main steam inlet piston seal rings or the HP inner
shell horizontal joint, or due to a broken first-stage pressure-sensing line/drain on the inner
cylinderaffect the performance/efficiency of the HP turbine, but not leakage into the IP turbine.
SCG has used the Booth-Kautzmann temperature split test to trend the leakage rate before and
after a turbine outage on Allis-Chalmers units. We also have temporarily opened the reheat
diaphragm (similar to the GE N2 packing blowdown test) and balance piston unloading valves to
calculate the reheat diaphragm packing leakage and IP dummy leakage, respectively, based on the
change in measured IP efficiency.
Recipe for repairs
Reducing excessive internal leakage in Westinghouse and Allis-Chalmers turbines may require
taking any or all of the following steps:

Replacing any HP-IP-LP dummy and reheat diaphragm packing seals with excessive
clearance or broken teeth.
Replacing bell seals or piston seal rings that are cracked or broken (Figure 7) or have
excessive clearance/taper or erosion. The inner cylinder nozzle chambers or inlet pipes may
require refurbishment if they are eroded or worn. Any unused bell seal retainer nut lock
screw holes should be welded up as they can be a source of main steam leakage. Some
piston seal ring designs (Figure 8) can produce excessive leakage if installed improperly,
upside-down (one side is flat, and the other has alternating high and low sides).
Checking inlet sleeves for cracks in the trepan radius using the turbine manufacturers test
method. In Westinghouse BB44s that are routinely found to have cracked bell seals,
distorted inlet sleeves could be the problem (a consequence of age); the manufacturer offers
a method for straightening the inlet sleeve that SCG has used successfully.

Changing the usually distorted IP dummy ring on BB44s to an improved design offered by
the manufacturer. Theres another good reason to do this: BB44 IP dummy ring bolts broken
by the distortion can enter the IP turbine and damage its blading.
Repairing any broken equilibrium pipes or first-stage drain/pressure sensing lines.
Sometimes, a equilibrium pipe can be eroded by a broken bell seal steam jet.
Closing up or reducing in size any "extra" IP dummy ring cooling holes on IP1-HP-IP2
turbines. (Before doing this, consult with the manufacturer.)
Inspecting the studs/shell threads of the HP inner shell horizontal joint for possible weld
build-up caused by machining of the joint surface. The resulting leakage can actually flow
up through the shell holes (Figure 9). The stud nuts should be "sounded" with a hammer to
determine if any are loose prior to disassembly. For both studs and through-bolts, it is very
important to know what they are made of because the material determines how much they
can be tightened.

7. Yet another source. Cracked and broken main steam inlet bell seals on a Westinghouse BB44.
Courtesy: Southern Company Generation

8. One-way street. The alternating (high- and low-side) piston seal rings of a 50-MW
Westinghouse reheat turbine. Note that the rings are installed correctly, with the hi-lo side
opposite the outer shell. Courtesy: Southern Company Generation

9. Loosey-goosey. Loose HP inner cylinder bolting on both sides of this BB44 turbine caused
excessive HP to IP leakage, severely penalizing the units heat rate. Courtesy: Southern Company
Generation
After a repair outage, the turbine must be retested to ensure that the work was successful. In
SCGs experience with Westinghouse turbines, less than 6% of hot reheat flow leakage (the
design level is 4%) can be achieved with good overall work. Although SCGs experience with
Allis-Chalmers turbines is limited to three units, results indicate that less than 6% of hot reheat
flow leakage (design is 3%) can be achieved.
Case study #1: Excessive HP to IP leakage in a 500-MW Westinghouse combined HP-IP
drum turbine
In this extreme case, a bad bell seal was determined to be the cause of excessive leakage that
raised the units heat rate. The turbine began producing an unusually loud noise following a
temperature excursion. A temperature split test indicated that the measured IP efficiency to the LP
crossover had decreased 5%, with a significant increase in the LP crossover pressure. Main steam
flow had increased 6% although corrected load had only increased 3.2%. The test also revealed
that total HP to IP leakage had increased from 6% of hot reheat flow to 13.5%. The temperature
rise from the IP exhaust (deaerator/boiler feedpump turbine extraction) to the LP crossover
suggested a possible leak through the bell seal or equilibrium pipe.

SCG engineers then decided to conduct the manufacturers bell seal leakage performance test.
Analysis of that data indicated that closing the No. 7 and 8 valves, which feed a common nozzle
block, produced the biggest change in temperature.
Since the No. 7 and 8 valves on this unit are upper inlet valves (narrowing the scope of the
problem), the decision was made to remove the upper half of the outer cylinder. Doing so
revealed a broken bell seal on the No. 8 governor valve inlet sleeve (Figure 10). Fortunately, the
broken portion of the seal could be extracted from the inner shell, minimizing the duration of the
outage.

10. Untrained seal. A broken bell seal on the sleeve of the No. 8 governor valve of a 500-MW
Westinghouse BB44 steam turbine. Courtesy: Southern Company Generation
Case study #2: Excessive HP to IP leakage in a 500-MW supercritical Westinghouse
combined HP-IP turbine
This case is more typical of excessive leakage that goes undetected. Pre-outage temperature split
testing of this unit in 1992 indicated a very high level of IP dummy leakage (7.6% of hot reheat
flow) and similarly high total HP to IP leakage of 7.4% of hot reheat flow (design is 5.4%). Since
it is impossible for the IP dummy leakage to be higher than the total leakage, the absolute
accuracy of the IP dummy leakage was called into question. A steam path audit calculated IP

dummy leakage of 3% through a distorted ring. Distorted IP dummy rings are a generic aging
problem for the BB44 design.
The distortion of the IP dummy ring was "fixed" during the 1992 outage by installing new seals
and boring them out off-center. Outage inspections also revealed that a broken first-stage drain
pipe and worn HP dummy seals were contributing to the high leakage. The bell seals were in
good condition.
Unfortunately, post-outage testing, in 1993, produced worse numbers for IP dummy leakage
(13.4%) and total HP to IP leakage (14%). The unit experienced some thrust balance problems
after start-up that may have contributed to the higher leakage. Computer models indicated that the
leakage raised the units heat rate by anywhere from 32 Btu/kWh to 109 Btu/kWh, depending on
its source (first stage or cold reheat). The unit was retested in late 1993 and then again in late
1996. Both tests indicated that both the IP dummy leakage and total HP to IP leakage had
decreased somewhat over time, which could not be explained.
Since the distorted IP dummy ring was a known problem, the plant purchased a "modernized"
BB44M IP dummy ring from Westinghouse and installed it during a 1999 outage.
Inspections during the 1999 outage revealed some severely worn IP dummy seals (Figure 11) and
some with rows missing. The HP dummy seals were also in poor condition, with numerous teeth
broken off by axial movement. The LP dummy seals also were worn, and two leaking bell seals
were found as well. However, a pre-outage test had not been conducted. If it had been, the total
HP to IP leakage would have been much higher than reported by the last readings, in 1996. The
dummy seals and worn bell seals were replaced when the IP dummy ring was upgraded.

11. Age takes its toll. A 500-MW supercritical Westinghouse BB44 turbine with a distorted and
damaged IP dummy ring seal. Courtesy: Southern Company Generation
The 1999 post-outage test revealed tremendous improvements in IP dummy leakage (1%) and
total HP to IP leakage (5.4%) to values near design. A test repeated one year later indicated that

both leakage rates had remained near design. Without a doubt, the new IP dummy ring had
worked as advertised. The apparent values of IP efficiency, which had been high due to the IP
dummy leakage, returned to more normal values. Unfortunately, during the 2004 outage, the
replacement IP dummy ring was found to be distorted. Recent testing indicated that the IP dummy
leakage rate (4.4%) and total leakage level (7.0%), though not quite as good as the 1999 results,
are overwhelmingly better than those found by the 1993 tests.
Case study #3: Excessive HP to IP leakage in a 180-MW Westinghouse combined IP1-HPIP2 turbine
This case also is typical of excessive IP dummy leakage that goes undetected. For many years,
temperature split testing of this unit indicated very high levels of IP dummy leakage (5% of hot
reheat flow) and total HP to IP leakage (8.6% of hot reheat flow). Measured values of IP1 and
total IP efficiency were always higher than design, indicating significant leakage into the IP1
turbine inlet. The seal clearances of the IP dummy and the horizontal joint of the IP dummy ring,
and the fit of the IP dummy ring into the outer cylinder had always been found acceptable.
Finally, the mystery was resolved during a 2005 outage inspection. Three 1.25-inch holes were
unexpectedly found in the IP dummy ring: one on top and two in the lower quadrants (Figure 12).

12. Size matters. "Extra" IP dummy ring holes (arrows) for cooling steam on a 180-MW
Westinghouse IP1-HP-IP2 turbine. Narrowing them reduced HP to IP leakage rates. Courtesy:
Southern Company Generation
A review of the turbine cross section and of detailed IP dummy drawings revealed that the holes
were supposed to be there. Flow calculations indicated that these holes for cooling steam were the
source of the excess IP dummy leakage (a significant 40,000 lb/hr). After discussions with
Westinghouse, SCG decided to reduce the size of the holes to 0.4375 inch by welding and
drilling. Post-outage testing confirmed that the work lowered the measured IP turbine efficiency
by lowering its HP to IP leakage rates (to 1% for the IP dummy, and to 5.4% for total leakage).

On a similar, smaller unit at this plant, the holes in the IP dummy ring were completely welded up
in the 2007 outage because a sister unit at another plant did not have the extra cooling holes.
For more information:
1. Booth, J.A., and Kautzmann, D.E., "Estimating the Leakage from HP to IP Turbine Sections,"
1984 EPRI Power Plant Performance Monitoring Conference.
2. Blachy, S.R., and M.E. Foley, "Testing for Turbine Degradation and Improving Performance
with Seal Optimization," 2005 Power-Gen Conference.
3. Cotton, K.C., Evaluating and Improving Steam Turbine Performance, 2nd ed. (Rexford, N.Y.:
Cotton Fact Inc., 1998). 4. Hopson, W.H., "Practical Field Experience with Steam Turbine
Performance Testing," 2003 EPRI Heat Rate Improvement Conference.
5. Svensen, L.M.E., "Internal Leakage Study Winyah Generating Station Unit #3," 2003
Scientech PEPSE Users Group Meeting.
6. Tirone, G., L. Arrighi, and L. Bonifacino, "Diagnostics Based on Thermodynamic Analysis of
Performance of Steam Turbines: Case Histories," ASME PWR, vol. 30, 1996 Joint Power
Generation Conference, vol. 2.
The author wishes to recognize the outstanding turbine maintenance performed by James Carlson
and Bill Broos of Southern Company Generations Mechanical Field Services department. The
enlightening test results and discussions in this article are due to their efforts and the hard work
of SCGs Generating Plant Performance department.

Warren Hopson, PE, is a Southern Company Generation principal engineer for Generating
Plant Performance. He can be reached at whhopson@southernco.com.
Authors note: At press time, SCG was investigating a sudden rise in thrust bearing temperature
in a 125-MW IP1-HP-IP2 turbine. Further review of the incident indicated sudden increases in
measured IP2 efficiencies (one to a heater extraction and one to the LP crossover), along with
lower reheat pressures and higher pressures in the IP2 turbine. The problem was determined to
be a broken equilibrium pipe between the IP1 exhaust and the IP2 inlet. Unit full load is
restricted until an outage can be taken to correct the problem.