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MACHINERY LABORATORY
STUDENTS REFERENCE MANUAL
K.L.UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Compiled By
P.SUNDARA KUMAR, M.Tech (PhD)
Associate Professor
Preface
The objective of this manual is to familiarize the students with practical skills,
measurement techniques and interpretation of results. It is intended to make this manual
self contained in all respects, so that it can be used as a laboratory manual. In all the
experiments, the relevant theory and general guidelines for the procedure to be followed
have been given. Tabular sheets for entering the observations have also been provided in
each experiment while graph sheets have been included wherever necessary.
Author
Read the lab manual and any background material needed before you come to the
lab. You must be prepared for your experiments before coming to the lab. In
many cases you may have to go back to your fluid mechanics textbooks to review
the principles dealt with in the experiment.
Actively participate in class and dont hesitate to ask questions. Utilize the
teaching assistants. You should be well prepared before coming to the laboratory,
unannounced questions may be asked at any time during the lab.
Students must follow the proper dress code inside the laboratory. To protect
clothing from dirt, wear a lab apron. Long hair should be tied back.
Make your workplace clean before leaving the laboratory. Maintain silence, order
and discipline inside the lab.
Any injury no matter how small must be reported to the instructor immediately.
RECTANGULAR NOTCH
Date:
Experiment No. 1
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this experiment, the student will be able to:
Determine the co-efficient of discharge of a rectangular notch.
Aim: To determine the co-efficient of discharge of a rectangular notch.
Tools required: Rectangular notch fixed in a tank, collecting tank, stop watch and hook
gauge.
Procedure:
1. Check the experimental setup for leaks. Measure the dimensions of collecting tank and
the notch.
2. Observe the initial reading of the hook gauge and make sure there is no discharge.
Note down the sill level position of the hook gauge.
3. Open the inlet valve of the supply pipe for a slightly increased discharge. Wait for
sometime till the flow become steady.
4. Adjust the hook gauge to touch the new water level and note down the reading.
Difference of this hook gauge reading with initial still level reading is the head over the
notch (h).
5. Collect the water in the collecting tank and observe the time t to collect R Raise/Height
of water.
6. Repeat the above procedure for different flow rates by adjusting the inlet valve
opening and tabulate the readings.
7. Complete the tabulation and find the mean value of CD.
8. Draw the necessary graphs and calibrate the notch.
Observations:
Initial Hook gauge reading =
mm
Model Calculations:
Q a = A.R/t where A = 6400 cm2
Q a = C d Q th
Q t h = (2/3) L (2g) h3/2
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec2
C d = Q a/Q t h
Observation Table:
Sl.No.
Sill level
reading
mm
Reading
of head
over the
sill
Mm
Head
over
the sill
h
cm
Graphs:
The following graphs are drawn.
Q a Vs h5/2 ,
Rise
cm
Time
taken
t
sec.
Q act
Q th
m3/s
Coefficient
of
discharge
m3/s
Cd
Q a Vs h , and
Result:
Coefficient of discharge of the given triangular notch from
1. Observations ___________
2. Graph
___________
Review Questions:
1. Comment on the location of pointer gauge
2. What is a broad crested weir? Bring out the points of difference vis--vis or sharp
crested weir
3. What are the advantages of a triangular notch or weir over a rectangular notch?
4. What is the effect on computed discharge over a weir or notch due to error in the
measurement of head?
5. How is discharge affected by the followings:
(a) Submerged weirs, and (b) Spillway and Siphon Spillway
6. What do you mean by a PROPORTIONAL or SUTRO weir? Is it possible to
design a weir of such a shape for which Q x H, i.e., discharge Q varies linearly
with the head H over the weir crest?
7. What is special about CIPOLLETTI weir (or Notch)?
TRIANGULAR NOTCH
Date:
Experiment No.2
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this experiment, the student will be able to:
Determine the co-efficient of discharge of a triangular notch.
Aim: To determine the co-efficient of discharge of a triangular notch
Tools required: Triangular Notch fixed to channel, collecting tank, stop watch, pointer
gauge.
Procedure:
1. Check the experimental setup for leaks. Measure the dimensions of collecting tank and
the notch.
2. Observe the initial reading of the hook gauge and make sure there is no discharge.
Note down the sill level position of the hook gauge.
3. Open the inlet valve of the supply pipe for a slightly increased discharge. Wait for
sometime till the flow become steady.
4. Adjust the hook gauge to touch the new water level and note down the reading.
Difference of this hook gauge reading with initial still level reading is the head over the
notch (h).
5. Collect the water in the collecting tank and observe the time t to collect H Raise/Height
of water.
6. Repeat the above procedure for different flow rates by adjusting the inlet valve
opening and tabulate the readings.
7. Complete the tabulation and find the mean value of CD.
8. Draw the necessary graphs and calibrate the notch.
.
Observations:
Initial Hook gauge reading =
mm
Model Calculations:
Q a = C d . Q th
Q a = A. H /t
A = Area of collecting tank in Sq. cm
H = Rise of water in collecting tank in cm
T = Time taken for H cm rise of water in sec.
Q t h = (8/15) (2g). Tan (/2). h5/2
Where
Observation Table:
Sl.
No.
Sill
level
reading
Mm
Reading
of head
over the
sill mm
Head
over
the sill
h
cm
Rise
(cm)
Time
taken
(t)
(sec)
Q th
Q a ct
(m3/s)
(m3/s)
Graphs:
The following graphs are drawn.
Q a Vs h5/2 ,
Q a Vs h , and
log Q a Vs. log h
Cd from Graph:
Slope n = dy / dx
Q a = K hn
Log Q a = log K + n log h
Log K = Log Q a n log h
Therefore k = Antilog (log Q a n log h)
Q t h = (8/15) 2g. Tan (/2) h5/2
Therefore K = (8/15) C d 2g. Tan/2
Or
K
C d = ________________
(8/15) 2g. Tan (/2)
Result:
Coefficient of discharge of the given triangular notch from
1. observations
2. graph
10
Coefficient of
discharge
Cd
Review Questions:
1. Why should the geometrical shape of a notch be well defined and regular
2. What is meant by end contractions? Do they occur in all types of notches?
3. Comment on the form of calibration curve.
4. Is the value of Cd universal? If not, what factors may it depend upon?
5. Explain the terms suppressed weir and Ventilation of the nape.
11
ORIFICE
Date:
Experiment No.3
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this experiment, the student will be able to:
Identify the orifice.
Calculate the value of coefficient of discharge for the given orifice
Know the applications of orifice.
Aim: To find the value of coefficient of discharge for the given orifice.
12
AR
(Q act) = -----t
Where
A = Cross-sectional area of measuring tank = (l m b m) = ------- m2
R= Rise of water column in measuring tank = --------- m
t = Time taken for R units rise of water column in measuring tank =
------- sec
Therefore
2. Theoretical discharge
(Q t h) = a o (2gh)
Where
a o = Cross-sectional area of the orifice = (/4)d2 = --------- m2
h = Constant head in the supply tank = ------------- m
Therefore
Q t h = -------------- m3/s
3. Coefficient of discharge
C d = Q act/Q t h = ------------.
13
Observation Table:
Sl.No.
Constant head
in supply tank
(H) in m
Actual
discharge
(Q act) in
m3/s
Theoretical
discharge
(Q t h) in
m3/s
Coefficient of
discharge
(C d)
act
act
as
Result:
Coefficient of discharge of the given orifice from
1. Calculations = -----------.
2. Graph = --------------.
Review Questions:
1. What is the difference between an orifice and a mouth piece?
2. Why the co-efficient of discharge for a mouth piece is is higher than that for an
orifice?
3. What is vena-contracta? How is it developed?
4. Relation between Cd ,Cv and Cc
5. How can you differentiate the small and large orifice?
14
MOUTHPIECE
Date:
Experiment No.4
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this experiment, the student will be able to:
Identify the Mouthpiece.
Calculate the value of coefficient of discharge for the given mouthpiece.
Know the applications of mouthpiece.
Aim: To find the value of coefficient of discharge for the given mouth piece.
Model:
15
To
To
To
To
To
To
H2 (m)
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
Observations:
1. Size of the supply tank = (l s b s h s) = -------------- m3
2. Diameter of the mouthpiece (d) = ------------- m
Model Calculations:
2A [H1 H2]
1. Coefficient of discharge (C d) = -------------------t a (2g)
Where
A = Cross-sectional area of supply tank (ls x bs) = ------------ m2
H1 = Initial head in the supply tank above the center of mouth piece = --------- m
H2 = Final head in the supply tank above the center of mouth piece = --------- m
t = Time taken for water level to fall from H1 to H2 = ---------- sec
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
a = Cross-sectional area of the given mouth piece = (/4)d2 = ----- m2
Therefore
C d = ----------------.
16
Observation Table:
Sl.
No.
Initial head in
the supply tank
H1
(m)
H1
(m)
[H1 H2]
(m)
H2
(m)
T (sec)
Result:
Coefficient of discharge of the given orifice from
1. Calculations = -----------.
2. Graph = --------------.
Review Questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
17
ORIFICE-METER
Date:
Experiment No.5
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this experiment, the student will be able to:
Identify the Orifice meter.
Calculate the value of coefficient of discharge for the given orifice meter.
Know the applications of orifice meter.
Aim: To determine the coefficient of discharge of a given Orifice-meter.
Model:
Q act =
Where
a1 = Cross-section area of the inlet section of Orifice meter
= (/4) d12
a2 = Cross-section area of the throat of Orifice meter = (/4) d22
H = Equivalent pressure head in meters of flowing liquid
Sm
= ( ---- - 1) (h1 h2)
Sf
S m = Specific gravity of manometric fluid = 13.6 for mercury
S f = Specific gravity of fluid flowing in pipe = 1 for water
H 1=Manometer reading in the right limb,H 2 =Manometer reading in the left limb
Therefore
Qth =
3. Coefficient of Discharge
C d = Qact / Qt h =
19
Observation Table:
S.
No
Manometric reading
Right
Left
limb
limb
(h1) in
(h2) in
m
m
Actual
discharge
(Q act)
in
m3/s
Theoretical
discharge
(Q t h)
in
m3/s
Coefficient
of
discharge
(C d)
h1 (m)
h2 (m)
H (m)
H (m)
Q act (m3/s)
Result:
Coefficient of discharge of the given orifice meter from
1. Calculations = -----------.
2. Graph = --------------.
Review Questions:
1. Why contraction occurs?
2. Why there is difference between the theoretical and the actual velocity of the jet at
vena-contracta?
3. What do you mean by the term coefficient of resistance? How can it be
determined by knowing the value of CV of the orifice?
4. For a large vertical orifice, can the discharge be computed by the same equation
as that for a small orifice?
5. When should an orifice be treated as a small orifice?
6. The coefficient of discharge for an orifice meter is much smaller than that for a
venturimeter, why?
20
VENTURIMETER
Date:
Experiment No.6
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this experiment, the student will be able to:
Identify the venturimeter.
Calculate the value of coefficient of discharge for the given venturimeter.
Know the applications of venturimeter.
Aim: To determine the coefficient of discharge for a given Venturimeter.
Model:
Fig.. Venturimeter
21
Observations:
4. Diameter of the pipe to which Venturimeter fitted, d1 =
5. Diameter of the throat of the Venturimeter,
d2 =
Note: d2/d1 = 0.62.
6. Size of the collecting tank = l c b c h c =
Model Calculations:
1. Actual discharge (Q act) = AR/t
Where
A = Cross-sectional area of the collecting tank = l c x b c =
R = Rise of water level in the collecting tank =
t = Time taken for R units of rise in water level
Therefore
Q act =
Qth =
3. Coefficient of Discharge
C d = Qact / Qt h =
22
Observation Table:
S.
No
Manometric reading
Right
Left
limb
limb
(h1) in
(h2) in
m
m
Actual
discharge
(Q act)
in
m3/s
Theoretical
discharge
(Q t h)
in
m3/s
Coefficient
of
discharge
(C d)
h1 (m)
h2 (m)
H (m)
Q act (m3/s)
Result:
Coefficient of discharge of the Venturimeter from
1. Calculations = -----------.
2. Graph = --------------.
Review Questions:
1. The meter discharge coefficient Cd is less than unity if the pressure head h is
measured across the converging piece. The value of Cd will be greater than one if
the measurements are taken across the diverging piece of venturimeter.
2. Can be the same calibration be used if the venturimeter is inclined?
3. Comment and discuss on the usefulness of this experiment based on the plots
prepared
4. How discharge coefficient varies as the area ratio is changed and with change in
manometer reading?
5. What are the relative advantages and limitations of a venturimeter versus other
flow meters?
23
PIPE FRICTION
Date:
Experiment No7
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this experiment, the student will be able to:
Calculate the value of coefficient of friction for the given pipe.
Calculate the Chezys constant and Mannings constant.
Aim: To determine for the given pipe, the following
a) Friction factor or coefficient of friction (f),
b) Chezys constant (C) and
c) Mannings constant (n)
Model:
Observations:
1. Diameter of the given pipe, D =
2. Length of the pipe, L =
3. Size of the collecting tank = (l c b c h c) =
Model Calculations:
1. Head loss due to friction (H f)
Sm
H f = ( ---- - 1) (h1 h2)
Sf
Where
S m = Specific gravity of manometric fluid = 13.6 for mercury
S f = Specific gravity of fluid flowing in pipe = 1 for water
H 1 = Manometer reading in the right limb
H 2 = Manometer reading in the left limb
Therefore H f =
2. Actual discharge, Q act = AR/t
Where
A = Cross-sectional area of the collecting tank = l c b c =
R = Rise of water level in the collecting tank =
t = Time taken for R units of rise in water level
Therefore Q act =
3.
V=
Where
V = Velocity of flow =
R = Hydraulic radius = D/4 =
S = Slope of hydraulic gradient = H f/L =
Therefore C =
6. Mannings Roughness Coefficient (n):
R2/3 . S1/2
n = ----------V
Where
R = Hydraulic radius =
S = Slope of hydraulic gradient =
V = Velocity of flow =
Therefore
n=
Principle: When a fluid flows through a pipe, there is a loss of energy (or pressure) in
the fluid. This is because energy is dissipated to overcome the viscous (frictional) forces
exerted by the walls of the pipe as well as the moving fluid layers itself. In addition to the
energy lost due to frictional forces, the flow also loses pressure as it goes through fittings,
such as valves, elbows, contractions and expansions. The pressure loss in pipe flows is
commonly referred to as head loss. The frictional losses are referred to as major losses
while losses through fittings etc, are called minor losses. Together they make up the total
head losses. The Reynolds number Re is a dimensionless number that gives a measure
of the ratio of inertial forces (Vr) to viscous forces (=L). It is a very useful quantity
and aids in classifying fluid flows. For flow through a pipe experimental observations
show that laminar flow occurs when Re < 2300 and turbulent flow occurs when Re >
4000. In the between 2300 and 4000, the flow is termed as transition flow where both
laminar and turbulent flows are possible
Observation Table:
Sl.
Manometer
Time
Head
reading
taken for
loss
No.
m rise of due to
(h1) (h2)
water
friction
in
in
level
(Hf) in
m m
(t) in
m
Actual
discharge
Velocit
y flow
(V)
Darcys
friction
factor
Chezys
coefficie
nt
(Q act)
in
in
(f)
(C)
m3/s
m/s
Manning
s
roughnes
s
coefficie
nt
(n)
Sec
Graph:
26
Plot a graph of log V against log H f taking log H f on the abscissa and log V as
ordinate. Using the graph, find the value of the Darcys friction factor f.
Graphical Table:
S.No.
Hf
Log H f
Log V
Result:
1. The value of Darcys friction factor from
a) calculations =
b) graph =
2. The value of Chezys coefficient =
3. The value of Mannings roughness coefficient =
Review Questions:
1. List different types of pipe flows?
2. Indicate the type and magnitude of possible errors occurring in this test.
3. Deduce the effect of the pipe diameter on friction coefficient of a pipe.
4. Discuss Moodys diagram.
5. Show that, for a laminar flow f = 64/Re. How do the results for laminar flow
compare with this equation and with Blasius equation?
6. What is the significance of upper and lower Reynolds number and what are
their values?
7. What is the effect of ageing of a pipe line on the friction factor aged pipe line?
27
Experiment No.8
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this experiment, the student will be able to:
Know the causes of minor losses in a pipe flow.
Calculate the minor losses.
Aim: To determine loss of head in pipes due to bend, elbows, sudden contractions and
sudden expansion.
Tools required: Stop watch and measuring scale etc.
Procedure:
1. Open the supply valve to allow the flow in the pipe line.
2. Close the gate values of pipe line so that only one pipe is in action.
3. Vent the cock of manometer to cock of elbow or bend or sudden expansion or
sudden contraction.
4. Note down the manometer readings.
5. Note the time taken (T) for R cm rise in collecting tank.
6. Repeat the experiment for different discharges.
7. Repeat the steps 1 to 6 for different pipes.
Model Calculations:
a) Loss of Energy due to sudden expansion =
(V1-V2)2
Hl = --------2g
28
Observation Table
Result:
Head loss due to sudden expansion =
Head loss due to sudden contraction =
Head loss due to elbow & bends =
Review Questions:
1. What are the minor losses? Under what circumstances will they be negligible?
2. What is entrance loss? Give the approximate values of loss coefficient for
different types of pipe entrances?
3. What are the causes of loss of energy in pipe bends?
4. What are the effects of formation of vena-contracts at the entrance to a pipe?
How it can be accounted for?
5. What do you mean by WATER HAMMER in pipes? Hence deduce the effect
of gradual and instantaneous closure of a valve.
29
BERNOULLIS EQUATION
Date:
Experiment No.9
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this experiment, the student will be able to
Know the Bernoullis principle.
Applications of Bernoullis principle.
Aim: To verify the Bernoullis equation experimentally.
Model:
2. Open the supply valve and adjust the flow so that the water level in the inlet tank
remains at a constant level (i.e., flow becomes steady).
3. Measure the height of water level in different Piezometers.
4. Measure the discharge.
5. Repeat setups 2 to 4 for two more readings.
Observation Table
Trail
Head
Time Dischar
Run Maintained for
ge Q
in Supply
20
m3/sec
Tank (m)
cm
rise
(sec)
Run
1
Run
2
Run
3
Piezometer
Distance from a
reference point
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11
Velocity, V=Q/A
V2/2g
(P/)+Z
E=(P/)+Z+(V2/2g)
Velocity, V=Q/A
V2/2g
(P/)+Z
E=(P/)+Z+(V2/2g)
Velocity, V=Q/A
V2/2g
(P/)+Z
E=(P/)+Z+(V2/2g)
Graphs:
1. Plot (P/) + Z Vs distance of Piezometer tubes for some reference ( on x-axis).
Join the points by a smooth curve. This is known as the hydraulic line.
2. E = (P/) + Z + (V2/2g) Vs distance of piezometer tubes.
smoothly. This is the total energy line.
Result:
Total energy line remains the same at different sections.
Review Questions:
1. Each term in the Bernoullis equation represents_______________________.
2. Is constant in Bernoullis equation same for all kinds of flow streamline flow
potential. If so, why? If not, Why?
3. Write Bernoullis equation for real fluid flow.
4. What are the assumptions made in Bernoullis equations derivation?
5. What are the applications of Bernoullis equation?
31
12
13
REYNOLDS APPARATUS
Date:
Experiment No.10
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this experiment, the student will be able to:
Know the importance of Reynolds number.
Know the difference among laminar, transition and turbulent flows.
Aim: To characterize Laminar and Turbulent flows by Reynolds apparatus.
Model:
32
Q = VA
Therefore Q act =
2. Reynolds Number R e = VD/
Where V = Velocity in m/s
D = Diameter of the tube in meters
= Kinematic viscosity of water = 1 x 10-6 m2/s at 20oC temp.
Therefore
Re =
3. Type of flow:
Observation Table
Sl.No. Time taken for
R cm rise
T sec.
Discharge
Q = AR/t
m3/s
Velocity (V) in
glass tube
(m/s)
Reynoldss
number
Type of
flow
Re = VD/
Result:
Review Questions:
1. How do you distinguish physically a laminar flow and turbulent flow?
2. What is Reynolds number?
3. How does Reynolds number helps in distinguish the nature of flow?
4. What is critical Reynolds number for a pipe flow
5. Under what circumstances the flow is expected to be laminar
6. What are responsible parameters flow to be turbulent?
7. What is effect of Reynolds number on friction factor?
8. What are basic equations required in the derivation of Darcy whish back
equation?
9. What do you mean by fully developed flow?
34
For a higher heads multi stage centrifugal pumps having two or more impellers in series
will have to be used. This single stage centrifugal pump of size (50mm x 50mm) is
coupled to 3 HP capacity Squirrel cage induction motor. The suction side is 50mm dia
and delivery side is 50mm dia.An energy meter is provided to measure the input to the
motor and collecting tank to measure the discharge. A pressure gauge and vacuum gauge
are fitted in delivery and suction sides to measure the head of water. The pump must be
full of water upto delivery valve before starting. For this reason it should not be allowed
water to drain and hence a foot valve is provided. But after the long run the leather valve
in the
foot valve becomes useless and so the foot valve becomes leaky.In this case the pump
should be primed by pouring water.
Tools required: Stop watch, measuring scale and Energy meter etc.
Procedure:
1. Check the pressure gauges. Make sure both of them show atmospheric pressure.
2. Observe the suction and delivery pipe diameters. Measure the dimensions of
collecting tank. Measure the difference in elevation between the suction and
delivery pressure tapings.
3. Prime the centrifugal pump. Keep the delivery valve fully closed.
4. Start the pump.
5. Open the delivery valve slightly. Observe the pressure gauge readings.
6. Measure the discharge using the collecting tank stopwatch setup.
7. Note the time for n revolutions of the energy meter disk.
8. Open the delivery valve gradually to maximum. Repeat the above observations
for different discharges.
9. Tabulate the readings. Draw the performance characteristics; H Vs. Q, Pbhp
10. Vs. Q and h Vs. Q.
Observations:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Model Calculations:
1. Actual discharge :
Q = AR/t (m3/s)
36
Where
A: Cross-sectional area of collecting tank = l b
R: Rise of water column in collecting tank in meters
t: Time taken for R units rise of water column in seconds
m3/s
Q=
Hg
Vd
(Vd2 / 2g)
Vs
(V2s / 2g) =
: Hg + Hv + X
.Q.H Watts
37
Graph:
H Vs Q at constant speed
Q/p Vs Q at constant speed
I/p Vs Q at constant speed
Vs Q at constant speed
Result:
Review Questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
38
39
4.
5.
Model Calculations:
1.
Q = AR/t (m3/s)
Where
A: Cross-sectional area of collecting tank = l b
R: Rise of water column in collecting tank in meters
t: Time taken for R units rise of water column in seconds
m3/s
Q=
2.
2.
Pg
Hg
3.
(Vd2 / 2g)
4.
(V2s / 2g) =
5.
6.
: Hg + Hv + X
.Q.H Watts
41
7.
8.
Observation Table
Result:
Review Questions:
1. What is priming? What is use of foot valve?
2. What is manometric head?
3. What is the function of the casing used in centrifugal pump?
4. What is NPSH?
5. What is the minimum starting speed of a centrifugal pump?
6. What precautions are to be taken while starting and closing the centrifugal pump?
7. Under what conditions would a reaction turbine work as pump?
42
Date:
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this experiment, the student will be able to:
Know the operation of reciprocating pump.
Draw the characteristic curves of reciprocating pump.
Aim: To determine the efficiency of reciprocating pump at a constant speed.
Model:
43
Reciprocating pumps are self priming and are suitable for very high heads at low flows.
They deliver reliable discharge flows and is often used for metering duties because of
constancy of flow rate. The flow rate is changed only by adjusting the rpm of the driver.
These pumps deliver a highly pulsed flow. If a smooth flow is required then the discharge
flow system has to include additional features such as accumulators. An automatic relief
valve set at a safe pressure is used on the discharge side of all positive displacement
pumps.
Procedure
1. Check the pressure gauges. Make sure both of them show atmospheric pressure.
2. Observe the suction and delivery pipe diameters.
3. Measure the dimensions of collecting tank.
4. Measure the difference in elevation between the suction and delivery pressure
tappings.
5. Open the delivery valve fully. Never close this valve below a critical level to reduce
the flow rate. The fluid has no place to go and something will break.
6. Start the pump.
7. Throttle the gate valve to get the required head.
8. Note
a) Pressure gauge (G) and Vacuum gauge (V) readings
b) Time taken for n (=10) revolutions of the energy meter (T) in sec.
c) Time taken for R(=0.2m) rise of water in the collecting tank (t) in sec
d). The position (X in meter) of pressure gauge above the vacuum gauge
9. Tabulate the readings. Draw the performance characteristics; H Vs. Q, Pbhp Vs. Q and
h Vs. Q.
Model Calculations:
1.
Actual discharge
Q = AR/t m3/s
Where
A: Cross-sectional area of collecting tank = 1c bc (0.30 m 0.30 m)
R: Rise of water column in collecting tank
t: Time taken for R units rise of water column
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Observation Table
Sl Press.Gauge
No
Readings
1
2
3
4
Graph:
Result:
Review Questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Experiment No.14
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this experiment, the student will be able to:
Know the performance characteristics of a gear oil pump.
Know the applications of gear oil pump.
Aim: To study the performance characteristics of a gear oil pump.
Model:
Tools required: Two pressure gauges, stop watch, tachometer and energy meter
Procedure:
1.
Fill the reservoir tank to about 3/4th capacity with any standard lube oil (SAE
40).
2.
Keep the delivery valve open partly and start the pump set.
3.
Run the pump at a particular head. This can be adjusted with the help of the
delivery valve.
47
4.
Note down time required to collect 10cc of oil and energy meter reading to
calculate discharge and input power respectively.
5.
6.
Before switching off the pump close the discharge valve and pressure gauge
fully. Now it is safe to turn off the motor.
Model Calculations:
1.
Efficiency
Output/Input 100 %
2.
Output
3.
Head
4.
Discharge
A H / T 60 1000 LPM
Where
A: Area of the measuring tank
H: Rise of water level (say 10 cm)
T: Time in seconds for rise of water level (say 10cm)
5.
Input
X / t 3600 1/C
Where
X = No of revolution of energy meter disc (say 5 rev.)
t = Time for energy meter revolution disc (Say 5 rev)
C = Energy meter constant
Observation Table
48
Graph:
The following graphs can be drawn.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Discharge Vs Efficiency
Result:
Review Questions:
1.
2.
3.
What will happen if I put Gear Oil instead of engine oil in a generator engine?
What are the applications of gear oil pump?
What are the types of gear pumps?
49
PELTON WHEEL
Date:
Experiment No.15
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this experiment, the student will be able to:
Know the working of a Pelton wheel.
Draw the characteristic curves of Pelton turbine under constant head and constant
speed.
Aim: To determine the characteristic curves of Peloton wheel under constant
head and constant speed.
Model: Stop watch and measured weights etc.
50
Keeps the nozzle opening at the required position i.e. full opening or 3/4 th
opening?
Start the pump
Allow water to the turbine, then the turbine rotates
Adjust the gate valve such that the required head is achieved.
Note the speed of the turbine
Take readings in manometer
Note down the pressure of water in the pressure gauge
Load the turbine by putting weights.
Note down the dead weight T1 and spring weight T2
Note down the head.
Repeat the experiment for different loadings
Tabulate the readings
Observations:
To find discharge the venturimeter and the manometer have been calibrated.
Venturimeter: d/D = 0.6, D = 0.065 m, Q a = 0.0055 H1
m3/s
The height of mercury column in left arm = h1 m
The height of mercury column in right arm = h2 m
Difference of levels = h1 h2 = h
Equivalent water column = (Sm/S 1)h = (13.6/1-1)h = 12.6h = H1
Model Calculations:
1.
Calculation of IP:
Discharge
= Q m3/s
Head
= H m
IP
= QH
51
2.
Calculation of BP:
Dead weight (T1)
Spring weight (T2)
Weight of hanger (To)
Resultant load (T) =T1-T2+To
Speed (N)
Dia. of brake drum
Thickness of rope
Resultant dia., D
=
=
=
=
=
= 0.40 m
= 0.015 m.
= 0.415 m
Kg
Kg
Kg
Kg
rpm
BP = 2NT/60
Efficiency of the turbine, = BP
IP
Observation Table
3.
Sl.No.
Head
(m)
Manometer
(h) m
Discharge
m3 /s
Speed
rpm
T1
T2
BP
IP
Efficiency
Result:
Review Questions:
1. What are main components of Pelton turbine?
2. Draw velocity diagrams (at inlet and outlet) for Pelton blade
3. Why is Pelton turbine suitable for high heads?
4. What is the function of spear mechanism?
5. What is the normal range of specific speed of a Pelton turbine
6. What are the characteristics of Pelton wheel? What are their uses?
7. After the nozzle water has atmospheric pressure through out, then why is a casing
provided to the wheel?
8. Why not Pelton wheels are suitable for low heads?
9. What are the methods available to govern the turbine?
52
FRANCIS TURBINE
Date:
Experiment No.16
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this experiment, the student will be able to:
Know the working of a Francis turbine.
Draw the characteristic curves of Francis turbine.
Aim: a) To study the constant head characteristics of Francis turbine
b) To study the operating characteristics of Francis turbine.
c) To determine the specific speed
Model:
Manometer
Model Calculations:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Output
QH
54
Efficiency (o) =
Output
Input
BHP
IHP
f)
N P
H5/4
Result:
Review Questions:
1. What is the function of draft tube?
2. What is the function of guide vanes?
3. Can you locate the portion in Francis turbine where cavitations likely to occur?
4. What is the advantage of draft tube divergent over a cylindrical of uniform
diameter along its length?
5. What are fast, medium by slow runners?
55
KAPLAN TURBINE
Date:
Experiment No.17
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this experiment, the student will be able to:
Know the working of a Kaplan turbine.
Draw the characteristic curves of Kaplan turbine.
Aim: To draw the performance characteristic curves and determine the overall
efficiency.
Model:
Observations:
Hanger weight (T0)
=
Brake drum resultant dia. =
Model Calculations:
1.
2.
Q= 0.082H1 m3/sec.
Head: H = G + V
Where G= Pressure gauge reading in meters
V= Vacuum gauge reading in meters.
3.
4.
Output:
5.
Observation Table:
Sl.
No
Guide
and
runner
vane
opening
Gauge reading of
venturimeter
G1
V1
(Kg/m2)
(Kg/m2)
Gauge reading of
kaplan turbine
G2
V2
(Kg/m2)
(Kg/m2)
1
2
3
4
5
57
Spring
weight
T1
Dead Speed
weight runner
T2
N
(rpm)
Graphs:
1) % of full load Vs o
2) N u Vs Q u or Pu or o
Result:
Review Questions:
1. What are suitable conditions for erection of Kaplan turbine
2. Why is the number of blades of Kaplan turbine restricted to 4 to 6?
3. Is this turbine axial flow or mixed flow?
4. Port load efficiency of Kaplan turbine is high, why?
5. What is the minimum pressure that can be maintained at the exit of the reaction
turbine?
58
IMPACT OF JET
Date:
Experiment No.18
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this experiment, the student will be able to:
Derive the expression for impact of jet on flat and hemispherical plates.
Calculate the co-efficient of impact.
Aim: To find the co-efficient of impact (C i) for flat and hemi spherical
plates.
Tools required: Experimental setup of impact of jet with flat and
Hemispherical plates set of weights, stop watch and scale.
Procedure:
1. The lever is kept horizontal by adjusting counter weight on the left hand side
weigh the plate is fixed opposite to the jet.
2. A weight of 100gm is placed on the right hand side pan.
3. Water is jet is allowed to strike plate and discharge is so adjusted
4. The lever retains equilibrium position.
5. The pressure gauge reading is noted and time taken for H cm rise in
6. The collecting tank is also noted.
7. The weight on the right hand side pan is increased and procedure
8. Repeated for five such different weights.
9. Then the plate is changed and another plate is fixed and the whole
10. Experiment is repeated.
Model Calculations:
Fact = W Y/X
Y=
X=
F t h = PQV
Q = AH/t m3/sec.
V = Velocity of jet
= 2g x (p/ z)
Where
C i = Fact /Ft h
59
Observation Table:
Graph:
Q a Vs. C i for flat and hemi spherical plates.
Result:
Co-efficient of impact for
Flat plate
=
Hemi spherical plate =
Review Questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
What
What
What
What
60
Experiment No.19
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this experiment, the student will be able to:
Determine the Chezys coefficient (C) and Mannings roughness
coefficient (n) for a given open channel.
Aim: To determine the values of Chezys coefficient (C) and Mannings roughness
coefficient (n) for a given open channel
Tools required: Open channel with measuring devices, Collecting Tank with scale, stop
watch etc.
Procedure:
1. Adjust the vertical prop near the head of the channel by operating wheel. The
longitudinal slope should be always positive, i.e., falling in the direction of flow.
Note down the reading on the vertical scale.
2. Fix the trolley at a particular position along the length of the channel and note
down the bed level reading with the pointer gauge.
3. Allow the water into the flume by operating the regulating valve.
4. Note down the water surface reading after the flow is stabilized.
5. Note down the time taken for 10 cm rise in the collecting tank.
6. Repeat the steps 2 to 5 for at least six sets of observations.
Observations:
A = Area of collecting tank
A1 = Area of water flowing in channel
Bed slope of channel = H/L
Where H = Rise of the bed above horizontal
L = The distance between the vertical prop and the liver arm over which
the flume is tilting
Bed level reading Y b =
m
Width of flume
B
=
m
Model Calculations:
Depth of water(Y)
Area of flow (A)
Wetted perimeter
Hydraulic radius
Discharge
Velocity
Bed slope of channel
Chezys coefficient
=
=
(P)
(R)
(Q)
(V)
(S)
(C)
Yb Y1
B*Y
=
B+2Y
=A/P
= (A*0.1)/t
=Q/A
=H/L
=V/RS
61
m
m2
m
m
m3/s
m/s
= (R2/3 S1/2)/V
Observation Table:
Sl.No.
Depth of water
(Y) = (Yb - Y1)
m
Area of flow
Ao=B*Y
m2
Wetted
perimeter
P = (B+2Y)
Hydraulic
radius
R = A o/P
M
6
Graphs:
1.
V
Vs.
2.
V
Vs.
Result:
Chezys coefficient
Discharge
Q =( A*0.1)/t
m3/s
Velocity
V=Q/A1
m/s
C = V/RS
10
RS
(R2/3 S1/2)
C=
Mannings coefficient n =
Review Questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
62
R2/3 S1/2
V=
n
11
HYDRAULIC RAM
Date:
Experiment No.20
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this experiment, the student will be able to:
Knew the working of hydraulic ram
Draw the characteristic curves of a hydraulic ram at constant valve lift and
constant supply head.
Aim: To draw the characteristic curves of a Hydraulic Ram at constant valve lift and
constant supply head.
Model:
8. Note down the time taken for 50 beasts and calculate per minute
9. Repeat the experiment for six different delivery heads at intervals of 3 to 4m
water.
Let Hs be the supply head in m. of water and H d the delivery head in m. of
water. Hs are the height of water surface in the reservoir above waste
valve.Hd is the pressure gauge reading and difference in level between the
center of the gauge and waste valve.
Model Calculations:
Wu (H d Hs)
----------------- choosing supply water surface as
W w Hs
(a)
Rankin Efficiency
datum
(b)
D Abuissons Efficiency =
WuHd
--------------(W w + W u) Hs
D Abuissons Efficiency
H d Vs
Waste Water/min = Ww
H d Vs
Beats/min.
H d Vs
Useful water/min = Wu
H d Vs
Rankine Efficiency
Result:
Review Questions:
1. What is the principle of hydraulic ram?
2. Applications of hydraulic ram.
3. What is the difference between hydraulic ram and pneumatic ram?
4. Define hydraulic accumulator
64