ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

FACULITY OF LANGUAGE STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

EXPLORING VOCABULARY LEARNING PROBLEMS SECONDARY LEVEL EFL

LEARNERS ENCOUNTER IN THEIR DICTIONARY USE
(Gelemso Secondary and Preparatory School Grade 11 Students in Focus)

BY
HUSSEN KEDIRO

May 2011
Addis Ababa

EXPLORING VOCABULARY LEARNING PROBLEMS SECONDARY LEVEL EFL

LEARNERS ENCOUNTER IN THEIR DICTIONARY USE
(Gelemso Secondary and Preparatory School Grade 11 Students in Focus)

BY
HUSSEN KEDIRO

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH IN PARTIAL

FULFILMENT TO THE DEGREE OF MASRTER OF ARTS IN TEACHING
ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (TEFL)

May 2011
Addis Ababa

EXPLORING VOCABULARY LEARNING PROBLEMS SECONDARY EFL

LEARNERS ENCOUNTER IN THEIR DICTIONARY USE
(Gelemso Secondary and Preparatory School Grade 11 Students in Focus)

By
HUSSEN KEDIRO

Approved by Board of Examiners

---------------------------------------Advisor

------------------------------Signature

--------------------------------------Examiner

---------------------------------Signature

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and for most, I would like to express my deep and heartfelt gratitude to my advisor,
Dr. Gessese Tadesse for his knowledgeable advice, proper guidance and constructive
comments throughout my work. Without his support and advice, the completion of the
study would have been impossible.
Second, I would like to express my gratitude to Gelemso Secondary and Preparatory
School Community, teachers and grade 11 students for their cooperation during data
collection.
I am deeply indebted to my mother Sitty Libargachew, my sisters: Fetiha Kediro, Amina
Kediro, Keria Kediro, Makia Kediro, Meliha Kediro, Radi Kediro and my brothers
Abdurahman Finkila and Nasr Kediro and all my family members who have been
offering me an enduring moral and financial support throughout my academic careers
and research work at all times.
It is also my pleasure to offer my deep gratitude to Abdusselam Awal, Uli Mahammed,
Fayka Abdushikur and Muluka Mahammed who have been kindly facilitating conditions
for the data collection.
I would like to extend my gratitude to Tekalign Teshome, Yodit Hailu, Adnan
Mohammed, Hussen Ebrahim, Sultan Mahammed, Seifu Bogale, Jafer Ababor and Gadaa
Mohammed for their help in commenting and typing this thesis.
I am also thankful to all my colleagues who have contributed by suggesting, commenting
and editing the paper.

Table of Contents
Title
Page
Acknowledgements----------------------------------------------------------------------------------i
Table of Contents------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ii
List of Tables-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------vi
Abstract----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------vii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study-----------------------------------------------------------------------1
1. 2 Statement of the Problem----------------------------------------------------------------------3
1. 3 Research Questions-----------------------------------------------------------------------------4
1. 4 Objective of the Study--------------------------------------------------------------------------4
1.4.1 General Objective-----------------------------------------------------------------------------4
1.4.2 Specific Objectives----------------------------------------------------------------------------4
1. 5 Significance of the Study----------------------------------------------------------------------5
1.6 Scope of the Study-------------------------------------------------------------------------------5
1.7 Definition of Operational Terms---------------------------------------------------------------5
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
2.2 The Nature of Vocabulary----------------------------------------------------------------------6
2.3 Current Trends in Vocabulary Learning and Teaching------------------------------------ 9
2.4 The Dictionary in Vocabulary Learning----------------------------------------------------10
2.5 Which Dictionary should Learners use? ----------------------------------------------------10
2.6 Dictionary Use Research----------------------------------------------------------------------12
2.6.1 EFL Learners Reference Skills------------------------------------------------------------14
2.6.2 EFL Learners Reference Needs-----------------------------------------------------------15
ii

2.6.3 EFL Learners Dictionary Look-up Behavior-------------------------------------------- 16

2.7 Lexical Processing Strategies and Dictionary Consultation------------------------------17
2.8 Effective Dictionary Use and Vocabulary Learning---------------------------------------18
2. 9Training EFL Learners in Dictionary Use--------------------------------------------------19
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Study Area---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------23
3.2 Participants--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------23
3.3 Samples and Sampling Methods ------------------------------------------------------------ 23
3.4 Data Collection Methods----------------------------------------------------------------------24
3.4.1 Questionnaire---------------------------------------------------------------------------------24
3.4.2 Dictionary Reference Skill Test------------------------------------------------------------24
3.4.3 Interview--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------24
3.5 Data Collection Procedures-------------------------------------------------------------------25
3.6 Instruments------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------26
4.2 Results-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------26
4.2.1 Questionnaire Results-----------------------------------------------------------------------26
4.2.2 Dictionary Reference Skill Test Results -------------------------------------------------33
4.2.2.1 Problems Encountered in Applying Meaning of Words------------------------------33
4.2.2.2 Problems Encountered in Word Search-------------------------------------------------34
4.2.3 Interview Results ----------------------------------------------------------------------------34
4.3 Findings------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------36

iii

4.3.1 Vocabulary Learning Problems as Related to Learners Practices in

Dictionary Use--------------------------------------------------------------------------------36
4.3.2 Vocabulary Learning Problems of as Related to Learners lack of
Reference Skills------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
4.3.3 Vocabulary Learning Problems as Related to Learners Look up Behaviors--------38
4.4 Discussions--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------39
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusions-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------48
5.2. Recommendations-----------------------------------------------------------------------------50
Bibliography
Appendixes

List of Tables
Page
Table 1 Types of activities in which students use dictionaries-------------------------------27
Table 2 Learning settings in which students use dictionaries---------------------------------27
Table 3 Types of information students check most of the time in their dictionaries------28
Table 4 Dictionary information students check in the appendix of their dictionary-------28
Table 5 Strategies students use when processing unknown words while reading----------29
Table 6 Students difficult areas in the dictionary entries-------------------------------------30
Table 7 Problems students encounter when searching words in dictionary------------30
Table 8 Alternative strategies students use to clarify meanings in dictionary--------------31
Table 9 Students frequency of look up when consulting dictionary------------------------31
Table 10 Students look up behaviors when consulting dictionary--------------------------32

iv

Abstract
This study examines vocabulary learning problems secondary level EFL learners encounter in
their dictionary use. The study specifically focuses on dictionary use practices, reference skills
and look up behaviors. To this end, thirty-six grade 11 students at Gelemso Secondary and
Preparatory School participated in the study. A questionnaire and dictionary reference skills test
was designed and administered to thirty-two subjects.. As a complementary method, unstructured
interviews were conducted with four subjects. Qualitative and quantitative methods have been
employed in the analysis of the data. The analysis revealed that students had basic vocabulary
learning problems and difficulties in their dictionary use practices, reference skills and look up
behaviors. Though subjects hold high opinion of their dictionary use practices and skills,
questionnaire and dictionary reference skills test data indicated that they had problematic
practices and behaviors that affect the ease at which they acquire vocabulary from dictionaries.
The basic vocabulary learning problems associated with the students dictionary use practices
include: lack of dictionary use practice to the solution of lexical problems encountered in basic
language activities such as in writing, in translating and in composing oral tasks, lack of
dictionary use practice in classrooms, which is an important vocabulary learning setting, lack of
integrating bilingual and monolingual dictionary types and reluctance to use dictionary for
looking up a variety of information that is helpful for vocabulary learning. The reference skill
level of the students, as the dictionary reference skill test data indicates, is characterized by
difficulties in identifying correct meanings, entries, parts of speech of words and dictionary
codes used in entries. Students look up behaviors such as not paying attention to all definitions
of a word while looking up in dictionary, writing down unfamiliar words to refer in dictionary at
the end of reading, focusing on other entries while looking up another word and browsing
through dictionary without having search purposes were also found to be the source of
vocabulary learning problems. Therefore, it is concluded that students dictionary use exhibits
fundamental vocabulary learning problems and hence, a dictionary reference skills training
program aimed at creating dictionary awareness and improving reference skills of the students
may be essentially important.

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Research and practices in second language acquisition generally confirm that vocabulary
takes the central position in language learning and teaching. Theorists and researchers in
the field have recently recognized the role of vocabulary in language education and
introduced a number of approaches, techniques, exercises and practices into the field
(Hatch & Brown, 1995). It is thus evident from various empirical grounds that language
learners confront with the difficulty of acquiring a sufficient lexical knowledge in order
to learn and use the language. In support of this view (Singleton, 1999, p.4) states, the
major challenge of learning and using a language-whether as L1 or as L2, lies not in the
area of broad syntactic principles, but in the `nitty-gritty` of the lexicon. Lewis (2000 in
Sanchez and Rosa, 2007) states that acquiring a sufficient amount of vocabulary is the
single most challenging task that learners face.

Laufers (1998 cited in Laufer &

Levitzky-Aviad, 2006) view emphasizes the distinction between foreign learners and
native speakers in terms of the quantity of words each possesses.

Successive developments in the approaches, techniques and materials of vocabulary

learning and teaching in the past few decades have helped a great deal for the
development of vocabulary learning and teaching. This progress has significantly
contributed to the development of the field of lexicography, which brought the creation
different learners dictionaries. Along with these developments and increased interest in
vocabulary issues, important learning strategies have been identified and classified into
categories by scholars and teachers. These vocabulary-learning strategies are, of course,
part of language learning strategies imbedded in the general learning strategies (Nation,
2001). In their attempt to acquire second language vocabulary, learners particularly favor
the most important strategies (Schmitt, 1997). This suggests that learners make use of
some of the basic strategies that suits to their learning styles and levels. One of the most
popular vocabulary learning strategies frequently used by learners is the use of
dictionaries. Since their emergence in the language education, English learners

dictionaries have accomplished a remarkable level of sophistication and are the most
important dictionaries dominated the field of EFL owing to the widespread influence of
the English language.

Such being the case, there has been controversy among experts and teachers over the use
of dictionaries. This controversy is concerning the dictionary type that learners should
use in order to obtain greater benefit (Ellis & Beaton, 1993). Another claim is that
excessive reliance on dictionaries hinders learners from using other working strategies for
vocabulary learning. Evidently, many studies stress the advantage of providing
instructions that can foster guessing strategies to enable learners tackle problems of
understanding the meanings of words, which in turn reduces their reliance on
dictionaries. Though it had been assumed that word learning occures incidentally through
the process of inferring word meaning, recent studies suggest that learners who are left on
their own tend to ignore unfamiliar words, use consulting dictionary rarely and
selectively as they also differ in their use of strategies (Fraser, 1999). Fraser adds that
consulting slows task completion; however, if used in combination with inferring brings
about positive effect on learners performance in reading and vocabulary learning in L2
settings. The importance of training learners in lexical processing strategies to enable
them develop their L2 comprehension and vocabulary learning effectively and accurately
is therefore one of the pedagogical implications of studies as to Fraser.
Research indicates that learners use of dictionaries and the required skills to access
dictionary information determine the advantage learners can gain. Using and making
dictionaries hence, should consider what research has shown and that future studies will
hopefully continue to explore problems of vocabulary learning attached to dictionary use.
This study examines secondary level EFL vocabulary learning problems specifically
focusing on dictionary use. The study focuses only on problems of vocabulary learning
related to dictionary use. The research therefore concentrates on the problems of
vocabulary learning among secondary EFL learners who use dictionaries as a means of
vocabulary increment.

1. 2 Statement of the Problem

It is admitted that dictionaries can help learners a great deal. However, their advantage
depends on how learners use them and the skills available to access, process and use the
information provided in them. Surveys of dictionary use indicate the relative efficiency
and usefulness of various types of dictionaries in enhancing production, reading
comprehension and vocabulary acquisition. Laufer & Levitzky-Aviad (2006) found that
bilingualized dictionaries that combine the features of monolingual and bilingual
dictionaries are effective for production in foreign language while they are prone to
certain limitations for second language writing. They also criticize bilingual dictionaries
as being a matter of one-to-one word translation, which reflects a narrow view of
language. Prince (1996) indicates that learners with poor proficiency rely on translation
and are therefore restricted from accurately transferring L1 information to L2 contexts.
Neubach & Cohen (1988) observed fundamental problems of six university students with
various proficiency levels by having them complete comprehension tasks requiring
dictionary use. These and other findings indicate that learners have problems with the use
of dictionaries as a strategy for developing their vocabulary knowledge.

Many secondary level EFL learners use dictionaries as a primary tool and as a strategy
for tackling problems of words and their understanding. Many of the studies on this issue
focused on university students. Contrary to this, scholars such as Kernerman (2000 cited
in Dziemianko & Lew, 2006) point out that the majority of dictionary users are not
university students, but high school students. Therefore, using advanced students, as
subjects, may not show the actual dictionary use and studies need to take secondary level
students into consideration.

The motivation for this particular study came from my observation on secondary level
EFL learners in Western Hararghe. I noticed that students consult bilingual (translation)
and monolingual dictionaries while reading. It was also my own experience as a high
school student in the school that there has been a practice of using dictionaries. I thought
that this practice, as an activity fostering reading comprehension and vocabulary learning,
must be considered and its problems must be identified in order to aid learners. This, as a

language student and as a researcher, attracted my attention and evoked questions in my

mind. I had also made an assumption that learners dictionary use and their knowledge of
dictionary information may have their own limitations on their vocabulary development.
I reviewed the literature on the subject and came across many publications and studies
from other countries. Relatively there are few studies done in our country. Therefore, I
conducted a study on the problem considering its contribution to the field.

1. 3 Research Questions
This study tried to provide answers to the following fundamental questions:1. What are the problems of vocabulary learning that learners face because of their
practice in dictionary use?
2. What vocabulary learning problems do learners have because of their level of skill
in accessing and using dictionary information?
3. What problems do learners encounter because of their look up behaviors?

1. 4 Objective of the Study

1.4.1 General Objective
The general objective of this study was to identify problems of vocabulary learning that
can be associated to learners dictionary use.
1.4.2 Specific Objectives
The specific objectives of this study are to:

identify problems of vocabulary learning related to secondary EFL learners

practices in dictionary use

identify learners vocabulary problems that can be attributed to their level of

dictionary reference skills

find out dictionary look up behaviors of learners that are problematic to

vocabulary learning

1. 5 Significance of the Study

Though a number of studies have been conducted on second language vocabulary
acquisition in relation to dictionary use in many other countries, studies that address the
issue seem limited in our country. Therefore, the significance of this study is to add
useful insight into the literature surrounding the topic. The study will also serve as a
source of information for further research conducted in the area. Moreover, it will
motivate other researchers to make further investigations and direct their interest towards
vocabulary issues related to the use of dictionaries. Above all, the study will have
theoretical as well as practical implications for language teaching and learning in general
and for vocabulary teaching and learning in particular.

1.6 Scope of the Study

This study examines vocabulary learning problems students encounter in dictionary use
at Gelemso Secondary and Preparatory School specifically focusing on grade eleven
students. The issues explored in the study are the dictionary use practices, dictionary
reference skills level and look up behaviors of students as related to their English
language vocabulary learning problems.

1.7 Operational Definition of Terms

Throughout this paper the following terms have been used according to the definition
given below.
1. Problems: difficulties, undesirable behaviors and practices in the use of dictionaries
that negatively affect vocabulary learning
2. Reference skill: the ability of a student to search and locate information in dictionary.
3. Look up behaviors: particular actions or habits students perform while looking up
words and information in a dictionary.
4. Lexical Processing Strategies: the cognitive and meta-cognitive processes involved in
the users mind when encountering unfamiliar words while reading.

CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction
This chapter reviews the relevant literature on vocabulary and dictionary use. The major
contents of the chapter deal with vocabulary and dictionary use. The first three topics are
concerned with the nature of vocabulary, current developments and roles of vcabulary in
language learning. The rest topics present issues related to dictionary and dictionary use.
The topics cover a brief review of general literature on dictionary preference of learners,
dictionary use studies with special emphasis on reference needs, reference skills and
dictionary look up behaviors, lexical processing strategies in dictionary use and training
of EFL learners in dictionary use.

2.2 The Nature of Vocabulary

Any study dealing with vocabulary must be based on a due consideration and
understanding of, among other things, the nature of vocabulary. Hence, research on
vocabulary learning and teaching provides us with key understanding on the nature of
word knowledge.

A clear and sufficient understanding of the nature of vocabulary

knowledge is an essential first step when discussing vocabulary issues. In a summary of

the extensive vocabulary research, Harmon and Wood (2008) present six key concepts of
the nature of vocabulary. They put that for learning to occur word knowledge is
important, word knowledge is complex, meta-cognition is essential to vocabulary
learning, effective vocabulary instruction is more than the teaching of word definitions,
vocabulary knowledge is acquired incidentally in classrooms across disciplines, and
vocabulary learning occurs through explicit classroom instruction. Hence emphasis
should be placed on these and other characteristics of vocabulary in dealing with
vocabulary issues.

Early second language acquisition research evidenced that vocabulary size predicts level
of comprehension ability though it is difficult to determine one causes the other. There is
a positive and reciprocal relationship between vocabulary knowledge and comprehension
ability (National Reading Panel, 2000; RAND Reading Study Group, 2002). This means
that higher vocabulary knowledge helps for better comprehension in reading and reading
in turn is a source of new vocabulary added to the existing. This again implies that small
vocabulary limits learners reading amount and thereby lessens the chance of exposure to
unknown words (Stanovich, 1986).

Acquiring vocabulary involves a serious of stages and complex processes. Nagy & Scott
(2000) cited in Harmon & Wood (2008), describe five components of vocabulary
knowledge: first, word meaning is incremental which means that word meanings are
retained in memory through repeated exposures in different context and sustained
practices using the words in language production. Second, word meanings vary
depending on the contexts and content areas in which they appear. Third, knowing words
involves the use of different types of knowledge such as written and oral usage of words,
grammatical function of words, semantic and morphological structures of words. The
fourth component of word knowledge Nagy and Scott described is that knowing word
meaning requires knowledge of other words related to the word and therefore, words
cannot be learnt in the absence of other related words and concepts. The fifth point that
Nagy and Scott stated is that word knowledge differs based on the type of a word;
knowledge of part of speech of a word differs from the knowledge of technical words
used in specific situations or professions.

In learning words, learners should engage in metacognitive strategies to determine words

they need to learn for comprehension. Learners should go beyond encounters with
unknown words and expand their knowledge to understand the various aspects of words
since this awareness is part of the comprehensive vocabulary program which consists
generative

learning

involving

word

consciousness and

independent

strategy

development for word learning in readings and across content areas (Stahl & Nagy, 2006
cited in Harmon & Wood, 2008).

One of the independent vocabulary learning strategies dictionary use provides is

definitions of words. Using definition as a sole means of learning word meaning has its
own limitation. Harmon & Wood (2008, p.1) state, because definitions provide only a
superficial level of word knowledge and rarely show how students use the words,
vocabulary instruction must move beyond the definitional level of word meanings.
Upper level students acquire words incidentally through reading and listening, words
representing known concepts are more easily learnt during independent reading than
words that are conceptually difficult (Nagy & Herman, 1987 cited in Harmon & Wood,
2008). Finally, instruction on targeted words is also an important component of
vocabulary program.

A qualitative view of vocabulary which, according to James Baxter (1980), corresponds

to the everyday notion of vocabulary a poor vocabulary is synonymous to a small
vocabulary holds that students lack of words is because the meaning they need to
communicate is beyond the capacity of their lexical resources (p.326). However, this
view does not take into account the fundamental differences between the spoken and
written languages as to Baxter. He stresses that the notion of vocabulary must be
understood in light of the distinction between spoken and written English, the full range
of devices available to the speaker and, the norms of speaker addressee interaction.

Stahl (2005 cited in Diamond & Gutlohn, 2006) argues that vocabulary knowledge
doesnt imply definition, but how the word is used in different contexts. Diamond and
Gutlohn (2006) note that it is impossible to master vocabulary knowledge rather it is
expanded and consolidated over ones life time. They also state that vocabulary teaching
is more than checking words meaning in dictionary and using it in sentence. This means
that knowing a word means knowing its various aspects such as from (pronunciation
spelling, inflections, derivation, meaning (basic and literal, derived and figurative
semantic

relations

and

connotation),

usages

(sub-categorization,

sociolinguistics and stylistics restrictions, slang and idioms) and so on.

collocation,

2.3 Current Trends in Vocabulary Learning and Teaching

The extensive research base on vocabulary learning and teaching provides a
comprehensive framework for vocabulary instruction and learning. At present, there are
significant, extensive and empirically supported approaches and principles of vocabulary
teaching. Hunt and Beglar (1998) present a systematic and general summary of research
in vocabulary teaching and practices. They introduced seven principles of vocabulary
teaching and learning that are included in three approaches incidental learning explicit
instruction and independent strategy development.

In incidental learning approach, the underlying principle is that teachers should provide
opportunities for incidental vocabulary learning by increasing the amount of exposure to
words before students learn their meanings. This is achieved through promoting extensive
reading using graded readers in classrooms and outside classrooms to create wide
exposure of high frequency vocabulary.

Under explicit instruction approach, Hunt and Beglar list four principles. The first
principle is diagnosing which of the 3000 most common words learners need to know.
The second principle is providing opportunities for intentional learning through
instruction to particularly beginning students lacking sufficient word knowledge for
extensive reading. The third principle focuses on elaborating word knowledge since
knowing the translated meaning is not guarantee for word knowledge (Prince, 1996). The
fourth principle holds providing opportunities for fluency development with known
vocabulary by engaging the learners in activities helping them develop language skills
using the already known words.

Experimenting with guessing from context, which require knowing the most frequent
words (Liu & Nation, 1985 cited in Hunt & Beglar, 1998) and regular practice with these
words are principles included under independent strategy development approach. The
other principle is examining different kinds of dictionaries and teaching students how to
use them.

The two principles of independent strategy development approach are interdependent

since guessing from context heavily relies on the use of dictionaries. Determining the
final meaning of a word requires checking that guess in the dictionary.

2.4 The Dictionary in Vocabulary Learning

In learning a foreign or second language, classroom instruction alone does not provide
the opportunity of acquiring all the words one wants to know. In this respect, dictionaries
play a great role by supporting learners everyday language related activities. There are
many studies conducted to see the role of dictionaries in second language vocabulary
learning. Among these, Summers (1988) found that L2 English learners using a
dictionary showed significant improvements in their post reading comprehension and
vocabulary tests. The experimental group in Luppescu and Days (1993) study, scored
significantly better than the control group on vocabulary post-test. In Knights (1994)
study, learners using dictionary scored higher on post reading compensation and
vocabulary test, though there was no significant differences in the comprehension scores
of most proficient learners.

The use of various kinds of dictionaries by learners has been influenced by the perception
of both teachers and students. Teachers discourage their students use of dictionaries in
classrooms because it affects learners skills such as guessing from context (Pousi, 2010).
Many students are also reluctant to consult dictionary because they assume it as
disrupting activity. It is however, important to understand that explicit vocabulary
learning requires explicit attention towards and their use. This brings the need for
dictionary use. Moreover, students perception of dictionaries and their roles can only be
reshaped when they are given early training on dictionary use to enhance their dictionary
awareness and dictionary reference skills.

10

2.5 Which Dictionary Should Learners Use?

The question of choosing the right type of dictionary is the primary concern of
intermediate and advanced level students as they progress in the course of their study and
require sufficient amount of language to comprehend what they read and hear in foreign
language. The question has also been a subject of heated debate among researchers and
language teachers. They have been reasoning out their preference of one type of
dictionary over the other. Studies indicate that most students prefer a bilingual to
monolingua l dictionary. In terms of format, they prefer the electronic format to the
printed format. They prefer this way because bilingual dictionaries enable them find
meanings quickly and effortlessly and the electronic format enables them to search words
quickly compared to the paper format (Koren, 1997, p.2).

Teachers and language experts on the other hand, recommend students to use the
monolingual dictionary. The principal reason for their preference is that bilingual
dictionaries create the erroneous assumption that there is a one-to-one correspondence
between the words in two languages (Aust, Kelly & Roby, 1993). Contrary to students,
again teachers prefer the paper format (Sharpe, 1995). Some researchers such as Baxter
(1980) prefer not only the monolingual but learners monolingual dictionary. They
recommend both types whereas Piotrowski (1989) cited in Dziemianko & Lew (2006)
recommends students of all levels to use bilingual dictionaries and advanced students to
use both types.

Summarizing the literature on the choice of dictionary type, Koren (1997, p.4) provides
five possible solutions. The first solution he suggested is using many kinds of dictionaries
together. Koren has pointed out that this suggestion does not consider the difficulty of
using two types of dictionaries at a time. The second solution focuses on the use of
learners monolingual dictionary. Stein (1989 cited in Koren, 1997) mentions three major
components as a basis for his preference; explanation of meanings, specification of
grammatical behaviors of words and illustration, syntactical use and sentence examples
of words which indicates pragmatic use of the words. The third solution Koren suggested
is the use of two path bilingual dictionary. This suggestion, as to Koren, is likely to

11

benefit foreign language majors, as they need new words for production. The fourth
solution is using marginal glosses that provide students with specific words in context by
solving their problem in associating word meaning in texts with dictionary definitions.
However, glossary limits the number of words to be learnt. Finally, Koren indicates the
use of hyper-reference texts with monolingual or bilingual dictionaries. But it is difficult
for students to sit in front of computer screen for long period of time reading hyperreferenced text. In addition to the five listed solutions, a combination of monolingual and
bilingual dictionaries, which Laufer and Malamed (1994 cited in Koren,1997) termed as
Bilingualized and the electronic dictionaries are also another solution suggested by
Koren. The bilingualized dictionary offers L 1 equivalents and L2 definitions with L2
sentence examples.

Regarding dictionary form, EFL dictionaries are available in paper (traditional) and
electronic (portable digital dictionaries and web-based online dictionaries) formats. The
two forms have their own advantages and disadvantages. Perhaps vocabulary learning
processed through dictionary use such as speed of search amount of information;
processing time and retention rates are affected by dictionary form. Several studies
support the advantages of electronic dictionaries. Electronic dictionaries make
consultation less time-consuming and encourage exploratory browsing which results in
larger number of look up (Dziemianko, 2010, p.257).

Users also prefer electronic dictionaries because they are suitable for quick and effortless
consultation with quality information. Dziemianko found that online CDBULD
dictionary significantly enhanced retention of meaning and collection. On the other hand,
critical questions have been raised on the relative superiority of electronic dictionaries.
Sharpe (1995) indicated that short time needed to retrieve information might affect the
depth of processing which may contribute to the retention of words.

12

2.6 Research on Dictionary Use

Research on dictionary use has grown significantly in the past few decades though it is a
relatively little explored issue in relation to its urgency. According to Dziemianko and
Lew (2006), Barnharts

(1962) study is a pioneering contribution to research on

dictionary use and Quirks (1974) study was also the first scholarly attempt to study the
attitude of university students towards dictionaries. Early research on dictionary use was
not much comprehensive until Tomasckzyk (1979 cited in Dziemianko & Lew, 2006)
paved the way. In the 1980s studies on dictionaries grew international.

Growth in lexicographic research and continuous innovation in features of dictionaries

has been influenced by the growing commercial market competition. The basis for
modifications and new designs in dictionaries, as suspected by Tono (2001) cited in
Dzieminanko & Lew (2006), seems intuitive rather than empirical evidence.
Dzieminanko and Lew (2006) argue that the sophestication of dictionaries, as a result of
market competition, poses a real threat of a mismatch between the intended functions of
dictionaries and the actual use of the dictionaries, hence empirical research on dictionary
use can serve the purpose of bridging the gap between works of reference and their uses
(p.1). In addition to this, Hartmann (1987, p.11) provides three reasons for the need to
research dictionary use: 1) erratic demands of dictionary reviewers, 2) the quandary of
dictionary users, who do not know what to expect from dictionaries, and 3) the quandary
of teachers, who do not know which one(s) to recommend. Hulstijn and Atkins (1998)
suggest that the need for research on dictionary use should take the views of the users
themselves and also should consider their general reluctance to consult dictionaries, their
ignorance of the know how of dictionary use as well as the difficulty of consulting
dictionaries and its disruptive effect.

Currently it has become apparent that dictionary research need to pay attention to specific
user group as there is no single undifferentiated user, information categories, contexts of
dictionary consultation and look up strategies, the base of research being the type of user,
the type of dictionary, the type of needs and the type of skill (Hartmann, 1987, p.12) The
relevant literature concerning dictionary use focuses on vocabulary learning and reading

13

compression (Knight, 1994). As a result, studies reviewed below concentrate on these

two categories. Most dictionary use studies have shown that dictionary use has
advantages for vocabulary learning and reading comprehension.

Studies in first and second language acquisition have examined the relationship between
learners language proficiency and reference skills. For instance, children with strong
reading skill in their first language look up words more accurately and quickly in their
dictionaries (Beech, 2004). However, studies indicate that reliance on dictionaries, as a
primary strategy, has not been supported by L1 research. Because findings in the L1 were
based on comparison of contextual guessing and dictionary definitions, they showed the
superiority of contextual guessing (Knight, 1994, p.286). This was because the texts used
in the study provided definitions and examples for the targeted words according to
Knight.

In the case of L2 vocabulary acquisition, dictionary use seems to help language learners
largely though little is known about the specific strategies they use when consulting
dictionaries (Okuyoma & Igarashi, 2007). In this respect, recent studies focused on
methods such as the think aloud protocol to investigate the actual strategies learners
use while consulting. Early lexicographic researchers were concerned with surveying of
dictionary use. Contemporary studies witnessed not only a shift in methodology, but also
in themes of dictionary use (Dieminanko & Lew, 2006). They largely focus on the
relationship between dictionary use and reading comprehension and vocabulary learning.
More specifically, variables such as reference skills and look up behaviors as these
variables tend to affect the ease at which learners might comprehend a text and acquire
new vocabulary. The following review considers these and other variables as they are
going to be dealt within the analysis section of this study.

14

2.6.1 EFL Learners Reference Skills

One area of research on dictionary use that has been investigated widely is the reference
skills. References skill is defined as the ability of the dictionary user to find the
information being sought (Santos, 2006). Findings indicate that EFL learners dictionary
use has a reciprocal relationship to their language proficiency. Dictionary use decrease as
learners language proficiency increases (Tomaszczyk, 1979 in Santos, 2006) and
linguistically most proficient users make effective and efficient dictionary use (Tono,
1991 in Santos, 2006). Hulstijn, (1993) found that advanced learners were somewhat less
likely to consult a dictionary if they easily infer the meanings of words.

The process of picking up the right meaning form dictionary search requires users
certain degree of linguistic proficiency, experience with dictionaries, prior knowledge,
and appropriate search strategies (Scholfield, 1982). Therefore, to find the sought word
and its appropriate meaning in the context it is used and understood, the user is expected
to have at least a certain level of language proficiency that can help him or her understand
and relate the meaning in the dictionary with the meaning in the context. Experience with
dictionaries can also make the user familiar with the dictionary features and uses, which
in turn enables him or her to create and develop effective search strategies. Moreover, the
users prior knowledge of the context and grammatical category of the word being sought
helps him or her partly in locating the right choice.

Researchers identified two general stages of word search that pose a member of
challenges on the dictionary users: macro stage-before locating the sought word and
micro stage-after locating the sought word. Problems at macro and micro stages occur
due to wrong decisions during the early stages of the dictionary search. The problems can
also show that many of the problems the user faces are the result of poor or limited
reference skill, rather than the shortcomings of the references works (Santos, 2006).
While developing these values is essential on the part of learners, scholars claim that
empirical evidences have not influenced learners to use dictionaries in the way intended
by dictionary compliers (Bejoint, 1989) in Dziemianko & Lew (2006).

15

Hrehorcik and Oscuhowska (2006, p.165) suggest that dictionary users need to take two
important considerations: understanding of the value as well as limitations of dictionaries
(dictionary awareness), and specific skills enabling them to find information sought and
once found extensive knowledge of the lexicographic conventions used in order interpret
it properly and integrate it into the context which prompted the search (reference skill).
Hence, several researchers suggest further actions to be taken to increase dictionary
awareness of foreign language teachers in the future.

2.6.2 EFL Learners Reference Needs

In learning a foreign or second language, using dictionary provides the learner with
various reference needs. However, the foreign language students primary need,
according to Bejoint (1981), must not be to have full information about a language, but to
seek and obtain information that will enable them to communicate effectively in the
language both in classrooms and outside. Bejoint further indicates that foreign students
needs in using dictionaries starts from the entries they need to refer and next is the sort of
information they wish to find in each entry. Lexicographers problem lies in determining
what categories of words to include in the dictionary for foreign students. Translation
from L1 to L2 and form L2 to L1 should be included in the reference needs of foreign
language students though these needs vary according to learners level.

Frequent,

common, ordinary words that are sometimes referred to as encyclopedic and

grammatical words should be distinguished by lexicographers since they are commonly
needed by foreign learners (p.209). Culture specific words should also be distinguished
and included in dictionary because they are difficult to the foreign students. Idioms, slang
words, proper names and abbreviations are other areas of words suggested by Bejoint.

2.6.3 EFL Learners Dictionary Look up Behavior

Dictionary lookup behavior of users is determined by the frequency of their use or
consultation for various types of information. Studying look up behavior seems
challenging since it requires observation of unique behavior of each user during
dictionary consultation. The emergence of computer aided observation method has

16

recently gained acceptance among researchers. Laufer and Levitzky-Aviad (2006) justify
the benefit of using this instrument:
The use of an electronic dictionary together with built in log files as an
obtrusive research instrument introduced a regorous methodology in
investigating learners look up behavior and its effect on the
comprehension, production and acquisition of the looked up words. Log
files keep track of words which have been looked up, type of dictionary
information (defininition, translation, example, etc.) that has been
selected, the number of times each word look up and the time necessary
for task completion (p.7 ).
Hulstijn (1993) made a study on learners look up behavior with computer-aided
observation. The reading text provided for students was available in paper and on the
screen of personal computer. When readers wanted to know the meanings of difficult
words, they click on the desired word and look up the meaning on a new window
displayed. The computer registered the subjects lookup actions by composing log files.
Such methodology seems advantageous since it provides an accurate picture of each
participants unique look-up behavior. The method could be considered artificial but it is
a valid means of observing dictionary look up behavior which otherwise could be
difficult to investigate as to Hulstijn. He observed look up behavior from two
perspectives: the influence of task variables on FL readers look up behavior and the
relationship between word look up behavior and two learner variables, i.e. readers
vocabulary knowledge and their ability to infer the meaning of unfamiliar words form the
text (p.139). The result of his observation and experiment is that task and learner
variables have considerable influence on readers look up behavior. Words considered
relevant for reaching the goal of reading were looked up more frequently than irrelevant
words and students with greater vocabulary knowledge generally looked up fewer words.

2.7 Lexical Processing Strategies and Dictionary Consultation

The body of research on second language vocabulary acquisition has also dealt with
psycholinguistic processes involved in acquiring world during reading. Researchers
generally agree on three types of lexical processing strategies (here in after LPS) that L2
learners use while reading for comprehension; ignore the world and continue reading,
consult a dictionary and infer world meaning based on context cues (Fraser, 1999, p.225).

17

Learners who have varying language proficiency use these strategies in varying degrees.
Fraser noted that learners who have not the support or training in LPSs, most of the
time, ignore unfamiliar words, infer only when there is specific need and consult very
selectively and sparingly. Therefore, he claims that high rate of ignoring would largely
limit the potential amount of vocabulary to be learnt since attention to words is a
determinant factor in learning vocabulary. In Frasers study subjects, who have
intermediate level proficiency and who have received metcognitive LPS training, use
consulting and [inferencing] frequently and in combination. The results have also
demonstrated that LPS instruction has a potential advantage for vocabulary learning.
Moreover, the use of inferring and consulting in combination indicated that inferring, if
supported by consulting, brings about effective learning outcomes. Hence ignoring a
word, as a strategy in reading comprehension, neither enables comprehension of text nor
result in vocabulary learning. As a result, ignoring seems ineffective as a strategy.

A study conducted by Santos (2006) focused on dictionary related strategies EFL writers
use during dictionary consultation for writing and the relationship between proficiency
level and successfulness of dictionary use to solve lexical problems encountered in
writing. Regarding dictionary related strategies EFL writers use, Santos (2006, p.251)
depicted several strategies diagrammatically and classified based on the two general
stages of dictionary search. The primary stage involves the writers effort in identifying
the lexical problem and interruption of their writing. The writers then start to employ
macrostructure strategies. These strategies include two stages. The pre-dictionary use
stage consists of dictionary selection, deciding which word to use in the search (in the
case of compound forms), recovering of canonical form, and creating mental picture of
the spelling of the word used in the search. The entry search stage consists of alphabetical
search with reference to the initial letter of the sought word and the internal spelling.
Within the microstructure strategies, the stages include surface search stages like reading
only the first or all translation (in the case of bilingual dictionary), reading the first or all
definition (in the case of monolingual dictionary) and deep search stages like taking the
context into consideration and cross-referencing. In the final stage of dictionary search,
the writers pick the target word and recover inflected form.

18

This prompts the re-start of the interrupted writing. As to Santos, the strategies essentially
do not show a hierarchical order by which dictionary users should go through every time
they consult dictionary. It depends on the nature of the problem and the circumstances of
the search. In terms of the relationship between proficiency level and successfulness in
dictionary use for the solution of lexical problems, Santos found that more proficient
subjects are successful than less proficient subjects.

2.8 Effective Dictionary Use and Vocabulary Learning

A conclusion that can be drawn from the research on dictionary reference skills is that
those FL learners that are skillful in dictionary use and proficient in the foreign language
can make an effective dictionary use. If learners have the required reference skills, their
dictionary use will often be successful.

Learners use dictionaries in two ways: in receptive and productive ways (Nation, 2001).
In the receptive use, monolingual dictionaries are helpful since learners find familiar L2
vocabulary information. For searching unknown words in L2, bilingual dictionaries are
preferable. Each of these is used with certain skills. Using dictionaries for receptive
purpose involves analyzing the context of unknown word, finding the correct entry and
sub-entry and using the context that prompted the search (Nation, 2001, p. 285-288). In
the productive use, according to Nation, finding a word, its constraints in use and its
grammar and collocations are essential steps.

Research has also examined problems of learners in dictionary use for writing.
Christiansons (1997), in Santos (2006), study focused on unsuccessful dictionary use in
which he analyzed dictionary use in writing by identifying and classifying words that had
been looked up in a dictionary and subsequently used in writing. The analysis also
involved interviewing participants about dictionary use behaviors and strategies. The
findings of Christianson indicated that participants errors attributed to their lack of
reference skills, the dictionaries lack of collocational information and sentence examples.

19

Besides failure to pay attention to sentence examples, inability to understand the

grammar information coded in the dictionaries were major sources of the problems.
Christensons finding is that successful strategy use depends on factors such as the
writing context and the given word or phrase that has been looked up. However, it did not
support the role of proficiency for successful dictionary use.

2.9 Training EFL Learners in Dictionary Use

Almost all researchers on dictionary use underline the importance of training language
learners in strategies that help them for independent vocabulary learning. As part of this
strategy training, training in dictionary use should also be considered as far as it is one of
vocabulary learning strategies. Thornbury (2002) in Pousi, 2010) suggests that instruction
in dictionary use is one way of promoting learner autonomy, since it provides a
possibility to continue word acquisition outside the formal study of the language. This
reminds us that training in dictionary use is a way by which we can facilitate our students
overall learning in every academic reading due to the fact that vocabulary learning and
comprehension of text meaning occur across disciplines. In some studies, dictionary use
was found to be the number one strategy of vocabulary learning. In Schmitts (1997)
survey on Japanese EFL learners, 85% of the respondents claimed that they use bilingual
dictionary.

Though empirical evidences are showing the importance of skills training for
independent vocabulary acquisition and the growing popularity of dictionaries among
foreign language learners, it is still apparent that there is little or no training in dictionary
use. Atkins and Varantola (1998) conducted a large survey in seven European countries
and discovered that 60% of the respondents had not received instruction in dictionary use.
Santos (2006), after studying dictionary use of 31 Mexican undergraduate students
dictionary use in L2 writing, found that dictionaries are valuable aids in solving lexical
problems in writing. He further recommended the need for a dictionary use training
aimed

at

promoting

dictionary

awareness,

dictionary

option

(monolinguals,

bulingualized, electronic, online, etc), with the advantages and disadvantages using one
or the other and internal design, types of information contained and codes used in

20

dictionaries. Frasers (1999) finding also implied that instruction that focuses on
developing strategies for acquiring vocabulary through reading will be beneficial to L2
learners. He insisted on that direct strategy training that creates awareness on the impact
of lexical processing strategies, activities that facilitate the development of higher
memory for words should make learners to exploit the potential amount of vocabulary
that reading provides.

Despite the recommendations of researchers for the inclusion of dictionary skills training
in school curricula (e.g. Atkins and Varantola, 1998, Scholfield, 1982), very few studies
examined the effectiveness of training on reference skills of EFL learners (Lew and
Galas, 2002). They suggested the possible effectiveness of dictionary skill training for
primary-school-level students though different skill levels benefit them to different
degrees.

Dictionary skill training has also been examined in the context of writing. Worthwhile
works in this respect include that of Santos and Saldana (2007), Ard (1982), Harvey
andYuill (1997) and Christianson (1997 in Santos, 2006). Santos and Saldana (2007)
designed a reference skill training to see its effectiveness in improving EFL students
ability to use the dictionary in written production.

As part of training learners in dictionary use, Hunt (2009) lists a set of guidelines that can
help teachers to promote effective dictionary use. The primary stage is to introduce the
most important features of dictionary for decoding meaning. This included searching
alphabetically, identifying parts of speech, examining the original context and several
sentences before deciding on the correct one. The second stage is the need to provide on
ongoing training through the learners progress from primary to higher education. This is
because the learners have to upgrade their reference skills since dictionaries are modified
and designed with new features included in the existing ones. So dictionaries use
becomes complex and sophisticated from time to time. Therefore, sustained training
helps to update learners skill along with the introduction of new features and
modifications in dictionaries. Thirdly, activities that employ the use of dictionary

21

information should be language oriented i.e. real word language tasks. Because
dictionaries are designed to meet learners language needs, they also provide pragmatic
function of the language in them.

Fourth, guidance from teachers should focus on the words should students consult.
Teachers should identify words that are important to the topic content to be learnt. The
last guideline stated by hunt is the need for awareness creation in learners on context and
the importance of training them in making inferences about unknown words before
consulting dictionary (Nation, 2001, Scholfield, 1999). The basic claim of most language
expert and researchers is that dictionaries should be used as a last resort in the processing
of words for vocabulary learning and inference must be checked for accuracy of
meanings inferred from contexts.

It is obvious that beginners and elementary level students can not sufficiently access the
mass of information in dictionaries. When we come to the monolingual dictionaries we
find it very difficult for these students to use and process the information because they
have limited language resource at their disposal. Another underlining factor for their
inability to access the information in dictionaries is that dictionaries contain too much
technical information (Harmer 1991). As students progress from elementary level to the
intermediate level their English starts to improve and teachers should encourage them to
use monolingual dictionaries as a complementary to their bilingual dictionaries according
to Harmer. He further suggests three things to be achieved in training students;
removing the frustration learners might experience when they encounter the vast amount
of information in the bilingual dictionary, training them to understand that information
and making dictionary use a normal and comfortable part of the language learning and
practice (p.176). To bring about effective changes in learners dictionary use skills,
Atkins and Varantola (1998) suggest two ways- improving both the dictionary and the
users radically.

22

CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
In this section, methodological aspects of the study; area, samples, sampling methods
data collection methods and data collection procedures and the instruments are covered.

3.1 Study Area

The study was conducted in Gelemso Secondary and Preparatory School, which is
located in Gelemso Town, Western Hararghe.

3.2 Participants
Participants of this study are grade 11 students of Gelemso Secondary and Preparatory
School. Grade 11 students were selected because of their upper-intermediate level in
secondary level education and they have had at least two years of instruction in English.
These students are believed to have the experience and exposure to wide areas of
interdisciplinary readings in English.

3.3 Samples and Sampling Methods

The total number of population in grade 11 of Gelemso Secondary and Preparatory
School was 336. From four classes, 36 students were selected. Nine subjects were
selected from each class. Accordingly, simple random sampling was employed to select
representative samples. From the samples four of them were purposively selected for
interview.

3.4 Data Collection Methods

3.4.1 Questionnaire
A questionnaire containing eighteen items was used in the study. Most items were
designed in a way that allow subjects to respond by ticking boxes except for few
questions requiring short written responses. The questions covered issues related to
dictionary use practices and dictionary use behaviors of students. There were also few
questions related to reference skills. Some of the questions were constructed based on

23

Bejoints (1981) questions phrased differently and and expanded to cover more
alternatives for responses making them fit into the context of the present study.

3.4.2 Dictionary Reference Skill Test

In order to answer the research question conncerning learners vocabulary learning
problems attributed to lack of reference skills dictionary skill test was designed and
administered to the same group of subjects who had completed the questionnaire. The test
was designed by the researcher because standard tests to be adapted were not easily
found.

Part one of the test contained six words some of which are polysemous (multiple entry)
words and which subjects had to look up in dictionary and write their meanings after
reading a three paragraph short text containing these words. This part also consisted of
items containing two of these words for which subjects had to identify their parts of
speech in the context of the text. Part two consisted of nine abbreviations taken from a
monolingual dictionary. Subjects were requested to write the full word or phrase for the
abbreviations. This part also consisted of four phrasal words for which subjects had to
identify the headwords under which the words would be looked up and two sets of four
words which subjects had to order them alphabetically in a dictionary.

3.4.3 Interview
To support the questionnaire and dictionary skill test data, four subjects were
interviewed. Questions having similar contents were covered in the interviews. From the
students, three of the interviews were recorded. The recorded responses were transcribed
and summarized.

24

3.5 Data Collection Procedures

Subjects were informed a day before to be ready for the dictionary use questionnaire and
dictionary skill test and to bring their dictionaries in to the session. The next day all the
subjects were available but only fourteen of them brought their dictionaries. In order to
minimize the effect of this shortage two copies of dictionaries were added from the
school library and subjects were made to sit in pair to use one dictionary for two.

First, the necessary explanations for procedures were given for both the questionnaire and
the test. Next questionnaires were distributed to subjects and assistances were offered by
clarifying points of difficulty. After subjects had completed the questionnaies dictionary
skill test papers were distributed. There was no time limit put on the test and subjects
were allowed to work on using their dictionary at any stages in their progress in the test.

3.6 Instruments
Though few subjects indicated that they use only bilingual dictionaries, all of them were
using monolingual dictionaries in the test. Two types of monolingual dictionaries were
used in the test,

Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (6th edition) and Oxford

Dictionary of Current English and Collins COBUILD (5th edition).

25

CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the overall analysis results, major findings and discussion of
findings. In the analysis, questionnaire responses were tallied for each item. Frequency
and percentages were calculated and results were presented in tables. The decimal points
in percentages have been rounded to the nearest tenth for simplicity. For some short
items, a verbal description has been made. Dictionary skill test data was analysed by
tracking errors and identifying the types of the errors. Dominant errors were identified
and thematically catagorized into two groups and presented in lists. Interview transcripts
were summarized based on research questions. The major findings identified from the
result section are presented based on the research questions introduced in the first chapter
of this study. A discussion of these findings follows focusing on the most important
areas. The discussion part finally indicates some limitations of this study.

4.2 Results
4.2.1 Questionnaire Results
The first question asked subjectes to indicate their first semester English total score
range. This question was included in to know the performance level of the respondents to
see the distribution of various achievement levels in the samples. Accordingly, the result
showed that the largest proportions of the respondents are students who have total score
between 65 and 84. This group consisted of 21(66%) students. Eight (28%) respondents
total scores between 85 and 100 and respondents who have total scores between 50 and
64 were two (6%).

Question two and three asked students to indicate whether they have their own
dictionaries and to write the name or title of their dictionary respectively. Based on the
responses 28(88%) of subjects possess their own dictionary. Form the names of
dictionaries mentioned it was possible to classify the dictionaries as monolingual,
bilingual and both types. Fourteen (44%) respondents indicated that they use one or two

26

of the following dictionaries: - Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (OALD) Collins

COBUILD and the Oxford Dictionary of Current English (ODCE).

Six (19%)

respondents indicated that they use the bilingual or local dictionaries namely, Merit
(English-Amharic), Hirkoo (English-Afan-Oromo) and Ilillie (English-Afan Oromo). The
rest 12 (38%) indicated that they use a combination of the the afformentioned bilingual
and monolingual dictionaries.

Table 1 Types of activities in which students use dictionaries

Types of activities

Reading (studying)

32

100

Translation activities

22

Oral composition

13

Written composition

F= frequency

%=percentage

The figure in the above table reveals that all the subjects use dictionaries in their reading
activities. However, the rest activities are not significant in eliciting dictionary use. Only
seven (22%) subjects use dictionaries while doing translation tasks. Four (13%)
respondents use dictionary while composing oral tasks. Contrary to expectations, the
subjects who use dictionary in written activities are only three (9%).

Table 2 Learning settings in which students use dictionaries

Settings

Home

32

100

Library

14

44

Classrooms

Everywhere

F= frequency

%=percentage

27

It can be seen from the above table that all subjects use dictionary at home and 14(44%)
subjects use dictionary in library. Only one subject indicated to use dictionary in
classroom and everywhere.

Table 3 Types of information students check most of the time in their dictionaries
Types of dictionary information

Meaning /definition

30

94

Synonyms

22

69

Spelling

28

Pronunciation

25

Parts of speech

Sentence examples

Usage

Syntax /structure/

F=frequency

%=percentage

Table 3 indicates that 30(94%) of respondents check meaning in the dictionary. The next
dictionary information many students, 22(69%) check is synonym. The subjects have not
significantly indicated dictionary information other than the above two. Spelling and
pronunciation are somewhat checked than the others. Sentence examples, parts of speech,
syntactic information and usage are poorly considered.

Table 4 Types information students check in the appendix of their dictionary

Dictionary information in the appendix section

Grammar points

15

47

List of abbreviation

14

44

List of irregular verbs

14

44

Geographical information

11

34

Units of measurements

22

Proper names

13

F=frequency

%=percentage
28

The figure in the above table indicates the type of dictionary information mostly checked
by relatively significant number of students is grammar point. Fifteen (47%) subjects
check grammar information from the appendix of their dictionary. The next are lists of
abbreviations and irregular verbs. Fourteen (44%) respondents check each of them.
Geographical information and units of measurements are checked by 11(34%) and seven
(22%) respectively while only four (12%) respondents see proper names.

Question 9 in the questionnaire asked respondents whether they have the practice of
studying the introductory section of their dictionary. Accordingly, an overwhelming
majority of subjects, 28(88%) indicated that they study the introductory section and few,
4(12%) indicated that they do not have the practice at all.

Table 5 Strategies students use when processing unknown words while reading
Word processing strategies

Look up meaning directly

19

59

Try guessing from context

17

53

Guess the meaning then look up

11

34

Ignore the word-continue reading

F=frequency

%=percentage

The figure in the above table indicates that direct look up of the meaning of unfamiliar
words is a processing strategy applied by 19(59%) of subjects whereas experimenting
with guessing is used by 17(53%) of the subjects. Only 11(34%) respondents use
guessing and looking up dictionary in combination. Surprisingly, respondents have not
indicated ignoring the world and continuing reading as a processing strategy. However, in
the previous studies of Fraser (1999), ignoring has been indicated to be one of the lexical
processing strategy learners use.

29

Table 6 Students difficult areas in the dictionary entries

Sections of dictionary entry

Idioms

22

69

Phrasal words (lexical phrases)

17

53

Technical terms

11

34

16

Symbols and labels

F=frequency

%=percentage

Based on the above table, idioms section of the entries are difficult to 22(67%) of the
respondents. Phrasal words are difficult to 17(53%) of the respondents. Technical terms
are difficult to 11(34%) of the respondents. Symbols and labeled are not significantly
mentioned as difficult sections of the dictionary features. Only five (16%) respondents
mentioned them.

Table 7 Problems students encounter when searching words in dictionary

Difficulties in word look up

Understanding the right meaning

24

75

Understanding words in definitions

20

62

Being uncertain about the correct meaning

14

44

Finding the correct entry /sub-entry

19

Identifying the part of speech

16

F=frequency

%=percentage

The figure in the above table shows that 24 (75%) respondents have indicated
understanding the right meaning of words as a difficulty in the dictionary search.
Difficulty of identifying the right meaning of words has been indicated by 20(62%) of the
respondents. Forteen (44%) respondents also relatively mentioned being uncertain about
the correct meaning of words as their difficulty. Difficulty of identifying part of speech
of a word is a least encountered problem, which is contrary to what the test data has
shown.

30

Question 13 asked students whether there were occasions in which they were unable to
find what they were searching. In 22(69%) respondents experience there were such
occasions and in 10(31%) respondents experience there were no such occasions.

Table 8 Alternative strategies students use to clarify meanings in dictionary

Word processing, strategies

Looking for sentence examples

15

47

Looking for synonyms

13

41

Looking for other kinds of dictionaries

12

38

13

Looking for pictures (if available)

F=frequency

%=percentage

Table 8 shows that 15 (47%) respondents relatively use sentence examples. The use of
synonyms has also been indicated by 13(41%) of the respondents. Looking for alternative
dictionary types is also used by 12(38%) of the respondents. Looking for pictures has
been indicated by the least number of respondents (13%) as an alternative strategy to
clarify the understanding of words meanings.

Table 9 Students frequency of look up when consulting dictionary

Look up frequency

Frequently

12

38

Very frequently

11

34

Sometimes

22

Rarely

F=frequency

%=percentage

Responses in the table 9 indicate that 12 (38%) respondents rated their look up as
frequently and 11 (34%) respondents rated their look up as sometimes. Eight (22%)
respondents rated their look up frequency as very frequent and only two (6%)
respondents rated their look up frequency as rarely.

31

Table 10 Students look up behaviors when consulting dictionary

Dictionary look up behaviors

Taking a note about each word looked up

21

66

Keeping unknown words for later reference

13

41

Scanning all definitions of a word before deciding on the correct one

12

38

11

34

Browsing through dictionary without having anything to look for

16

Looking up words that has not been intended for look up

Forgetting the word being sought and focusing on other words and
dictionary information

F=frequency

%=percentage

The figure in the table 10 indicates that a significant number of respondents 21(66%)
indicated that they have the habit of taking notes about the words they look up. In relative
terms, 13 (41%) subjects have indicated keeping a word for later reference as a habit.
Twelve (37%) of respondents indicated the habit or practice of scanning the definitions of
words before deciding on the correct one. Forgetting the word being sought and focusing
attention on dictionary information has been indicated as a dictionary behavior by 11
(34%) of the respondents. Five (16%) respondents have indicated to have the habit of
browsing dictionary without having search purposes and three (9%) respondents
indicated to have the habit of looking up words that are not intended for look up.

Question 17 asked respondents whether they had received any kind of training or
instruction on how to use dictionary. Contrary to expectations, the majority of
respondents, 21(66%) indicated as they have received training while the rest 11(34%)
indicated as they have not received training.

One possible explanation for this

contradiction might be that learners might have taken their teachers recommendations to
use dictionaries.
The 18th and the last question asked respondents about their belief toward the use of
dictionary. An overwhelming majoring of subjects believes that dictionary use can help
develop vocabulary knowledge.

32

4.2.3 Dictionary Reference Skill Test Results

The skills measured by the dictionary skill test were those skills that, according to the
existing literature, considered being basic to the average dictionary user. These are:
analyzing context and applying the right meaning, choosing the appropriate entry or sub
entry, deciding about the correct word class, understanding the codes and abbreviations
used in the entries, identifying headwords under which phrasal words are looked up and
alphabetical ordering (Thornbury, 2002; Natoin, 2001). The marking procedure used for
the dictionary test is manual tracking of errors in the written responses of subjects.
Accordingly, dominant and significant errors are identified and classified into categories.
The results are presented in two general thematic categories: - problems encountered in
applying meanings of words, and problems encountered in word search.

4.2.3.1 Problems Encountered in Applying Meaning of Words

Using contextually incorrect or unrelated meanings

Applying incomplete and incorrect meaning

Taking and applying the first definition in the entries without checking its relation
to the context in which the target word has been used

Combining or taking sentence examples and explanations of the meanings as part

of the definitions

Applying multiple meanings that are contextually unrelated for a single word

Applying self-constructed meaning by using the information in the dictionary

definition

Using the synonym of a word as a meaning rather than using it to understand the
meaning

33

4.2.3.2 Problems Encountered in Word Search

Failure to identify the appropriate entry or sub entry

problem of understanding codes and abbreviations used in the entries

problems in choosing headwords under which phrasal words are looked up

forgoing to consider the importance of the words part of speech for making
decision about the right entry and the right meaning

alphabetical ordering problems/difficulties

failure to arrive at the sought word and quitting the search

forgoing to make consideration regarding British and American English spelling

usage

failure to use clues indicating the right entry for a word

4.2.1 Interview Results

Analysis of the transcribed interview responses has yielded the following results, which
are helpful to support questionnaire and test data. The interviewed students were found to
be experienced dictionary users. All of them use monolingual dictionary and two even
indicated that they use bilingual dictionary as a complementary to their monolingual
dictionary. All respondents indicated that they use dictionary in their daily readings to
check the meanings of unfamiliar words.
Interviewees indicated that the main reason for their preference of monolingual
dictionary is that it provides them with several alternative meanings for words. One
interviewee told that she use the monolingual (Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary)
because it gives her a variety of information about a word and language.

34

The interviewees who use bilingual dictionary stated that they use two types of
dictionaries in order to clarify their understanding of the monolingual dictionary
meaning. One of the interviewee indicated that he usually needs bilingual dictionary in
order to understand the meanings of words used in the monolingual dictionary.
Otherwise, he has problem of understanding monolingual dictionary definition.
Interviewees indicated the following problems in their dictionary use:

taking much time looking up other dictionary information and interrupting

reading

difficulty of making connection between the original context of a word and the
dictionary meaning

being unable to find words (in some rare cases)

using the bilingual translation equivalence of words to understand the

monolingua l dictionary definition

In terms of look up behavior, interviewees indicated some of their habits:

diverting attention to other words after looking up the target word

Giving up the search if the word can be easily guessed and not looking it up to
confirm guess

Studying the dictionary leaving reading activity interrupted

Browsing through dictionary without having specific search purpose

35

4.3 Findings
From the results obtained in the analysis of questionnaire and dictionary skill test data,
major findings have been distinguished. The findings are presented based on basic
research questions.

4.3.1 Vocabulary Learning Problems as Related to Learners Practices in

Dictionary Use
Analysis of the overall data revealed a number of problems that emerge from the general
practice of dictionary use which, hinder students vocabulary leaning. The following are
the major problems inherent in the practice of dictionary use as identified from the
questionnaire and interview data.

The practice of dictionary use is restricted to reading activity while dictionary use in
many other activities can contribute a lot to vocabulary learning. Therefore, vocabulary
learning is restricted to reading activity. Students seem do not have the practice of
learning and consolidating vocabulary knowledge from the use of dictionary in activities
such as writing, translation and speaking. It is also restricted to specific learning
environments such as home and library while classroom setting is a very determinant
learning environment that provides the chance to learn a very significant amount of
vocabulary.
Very few dictionary information is utilized for word learning while knowing a word from
dictionary requires attention to the various aspects of words and checking these from
dictionary. Students may not gain adequate vocabulary knowledge if they restrict
dictionary use to few aspects of information. The majority of learners use dictionary to
check definition (meaning) and synonym. The problem of focusing much on definitions
and synonyms is that they provide a superficial level knowledge about words (Harmon
and Wood, 2008). Acquiring vocabulary knowledge from dictionary requires the use of
much information about words such as spelling, pronunciation, usage, syntax, parts of
speech, sentence example etc.

36

Learners make limited practices in using the appendix section of the dictionary, which
provides important elements of word and other knowledge. Learners also reflected
reluctance to use the dictionary and the introductory guidelines on dictionary use. While
significant number of respondents reported to study the guidelines, the dictionary skill
test did not prove their claim. A great deal of errors occurred due to their reluctance to
use guidelines.
4.3.2 Vocabulary Learning Problems as Related to Learners Lack of
Reference Skills
The reference skill of learners, as the dictionary skill test and some questions in the
questionnaire and interviews revealed, is surprisingly poor and exhibits the following
deficiency even in those basic dictionary skills.

Problem or difficulty of getting the right meaning that contextually fits to the
original context in which words are used. Most of the subjects gave incorrect
definitions to the words in the reading text on the dictionary skill test.

Taking or reading only part of the definitions that, in most cases, do not give a
complete meaning to the word. Many of such fragment sentences clearly observed
in the students responses. This is what Scoot and Nagy (1997) referred to as
fragment selection error while applying dictionary meaning to a word.

Forgoing to make decision regarding the part of speech before searching meaning.
This is a similar finding to that of Neubach and Cohen (1988).

Taking the first definition in the entry this was observed largely among low and
medium groups. This was also similar to Neubach and Cohens (1988) finding.

Providing multiple definitions that are contextually different to the original

context of a word without considering that a word can have only a single meaning
in a single context environment

37

4.3.3 Vocabulary Learning Problems as Related to Learners Look Up Behaviors

A variety of behaviors that pose problems for vocabulary learning have been identified in
the data. The following are the major dictionary behaviors respondents indicated to have:

Respondents do not go through all definitions and scan all the alternative
definitions of word until they get the right meaning. Only few 12(38) of subjects
indicated that they have the habit of scanning definitions of words before
choosing the correct one.

Significant number of respondents have the habit of writing down unfamiliar

words that appear in reading texts and looking up their meanings later after their
reading. Students do this because they consider that consulting dictionary each
time a new word appear may be disruptive and would take them out of the context
of their reading.

Subjects focus on other words entries and dictionary information after they have
looked up and take much time to go back to the reading thereby forgetting the
target word. Besides subjects look up words more frequently when consulting
dictionary.

Thought not significantly reflected in the study, few subjects mentioned browsing
through dictionary without having specific search purposes as their dictionary
behavior.

High proportions of direct look up in the dictionary without experimenting with

guessing from context.

38

4.4 Discussions
Recent developments in the field of lexicography have led to an increasing interest of
researchers in foreign language learners dictionary use. Second language vocabulary
acquisition research in the past few decades had paid attention to the significant role
dictionary plays in language learning. Language learners dictionary use attracted the
interest of researchers largely because dictionary use has been viewed as both a strategy
and a tool for vocabulary learning in particular and language learning in general. Hence,
it is becoming increasingly difficult to ignore learners dictionary use in several ways.

Previous research has much more focused on the general survey of dictionary use of
relatively advanced learners (Dziemianko & Lew, 2006).

Very few studies have

examined the actual dictionary use and difficulties or problems in connection to

vocabulary learning.

The present study examines vocabulary learning problems encountered by secondary

level learners who use dictionary as a reference material in their learning. The issues
discussed in this paper focus on the practice of dictionary use, the skills level of learners
and dictionary look up behaviors as relating to vocabulary learning problems. This study
produced results that are consistent to a great deal of previous findings such as that of
Neubach and Cohen (1988), Scott and Nagy (1997) and Nesi and Meara (1994).

On the question of learners dictionary use practices, this study has raised a number of
issues and the finings revealed important problems related with the practices. The major
findings will now be discussed.

It is widely agreed that dictionary use in reading is the chief source of effective word
learning as reading provides a very significant amount of unfamiliar vocabulary items.
Moreover, reading provides a variety of context in which words can be learnt. This
practice alone however is not a guarantee for the full possibility of learning and
consolidating vocabulary since it enhances only receptive or passives reading vocabulary.
Other activities such as writing and speaking may play a significant role in making the

39

learners use this passive vocabulary productively. Hence, the use of dictionary in
activities other than reading is a practice that fosters the learning potential of learners.
This study found that learners dictionary use is confined to reading activity and very
limited practice of dictionary use in other activities like writing, speaking and translation.
Lack of practice in using dictionary in a variety of language activities affects the extent to
which learners acquire vocabulary in content areas and also their success in completing
tasks and assignments.

In connection with the practice of avoiding dictionary use in productive language

activities, it has been found that learners tend to focus much on meaning or definition
when consulting dictionary in their reading. This seems to be a practice emerged from
learners total reliance on reading as a primary source of vocabulary increment. Learners
do not just look up unknown words but for the sake of understanding the retaining their
meanings and their various aspects but for the sake of understanding the general
contextual meaning of text (Aust, Kelley, and Robby, 1993). When learners encounter
unfamiliar word in a text, the very first information they would need to solve their
immediate problem (Problem created by the existence of unknown word in the text) is
looking up its meaning in the dictionary. Therefore, it is important to consider here the
type of dictionary information, which learners would give more emphasis in reading
situation.

Learners lack of practice in using dictionary in several other activities limits the chance
to learn the words different aspects. For instance, learners dictionary use in writing can
elicit the need for checking the words spelling, usage, grammatical category, level of
formality etc. Reluctance to use the dictionary in writing therefore affects the learning of
these and other aspects of word knowledge. A similar problem occurs when learners
have not the practice of using dictionary in composing speaking activities. In speaking
activity, learners may need information to learn pronunciation, level of formality,
collocation and the like. In this respect, the dictionary can easily be the solution.

40

Another problematic practice the study identified is the use of dictionary in only few
learning environments. Large number of subjects in the study use dictionary at home and
to some extent in their library reading. Of course, there is nothing wrong in using
dictionary in these learning settings. The limitation is that these are not the only settings
where word learning occurs.

A very important and perhaps the chief source of vocabulary learning, classroom teacherstudent interaction, has not been indicated by learners as a setting in which dictionary is
used. However, large amount of vocabulary can be learnt in classrooms. The problem is
that the use of dictionary in classroom is not considered as a pedagogic practice among
both students and teachers. One interviewee said during the interview that he doesnt
think of bringing dictionary into classrooms because it is not a familiar practice and
moreover the dictionaries are not portable.

Because of the fact that the current practice of teaching of vocabulary concentrated on
implicit learning and explicit instruction, the use of dictionary in classrooms has been
discouraged and is viewed as a hindering factor for the development of important skills
such guessing from context (Pousi, 2010). Thornbury (2002), also warns that careless
dictionary use is prone to grave errors. Therefore, reluctance to use the dictionary
carefully on the part of the students might influence teachers perception of the use of
dictionary in classrooms. However, there are empirical evidences for the importance of
integrating explicit strategies like dictionary use with implicit strategies in the classroom.
The existing literature supports the use of dictionaries in classrooms. It is also evident
from the existing dictionary types that there are dictionaries designed for school use
(Pocket School Dictionary) and there are classroom language activities that require the
use of dictionary. Therefore, dictionary use in classrooms is a productive and pedagogic
activity as opposed to the prevailing assumption.

41

Another important finding is that there is limited practice of using several types of
dictionaries in combination. In this study subjects who use both monolingual and
bilingual dictionaries were 12(38%. this finding is contrary to what researchers such as
Piotrowski (1989 in Koren, 1997) recommend: learners need to integrate monolingual
and bilingual dictionary types in order to get the advantages of both. The use of both
monolingual and bilingual dictionaries gives students the benefits of word learning from
decoding and encoding activities.

Reluctance to pay attention to the introductory guidelines of dictionary is an issue that

was explicitly observed in the dictionary skill test responses though significant number of
subjects responded positively in the questionnaire. The test results proved that learners do
not carefully check these items in the dictionary even when the dictionary was in their
hand during the test. Though these results are consistent with that of Bejoint (1981) in
terms of subjects responses to questionnaire, in actual situations learners seem to be
reluctant to such sections.

It seems possible that these findings can well suggest that the dictionary use practices
exhibit leaners lack of dictionary awareness. Learners need to develop basic knowledge
of general function and internal contents of the dictionary. The fact that subjects in the
study focus on few dictionary information might be due to their limited dictionary
awareness and their general reluctance to utilize dictionary information to the extent of
their language demand. A general introduction of the theory and practice of lexicography
should be incorporated into language courses as a starting point for creating good
dictionary use practice (Hrehorcik and Osuchowska, 2006).

A more prominent problem of word learning has been observed in the dictionary skills
test results. Errors of subjects indicate fundamental shortcomings of different levels in
their reference skills. It has been reported frequently in the literature, that the majority of
problems that occur in the students dictionary use are the result of poor reference skills
than the shortcomings in dictionaries.

42

One of the dominant problems found in the subjects written responses to the meanings of
words in the reading text is the use of incomplete definition partly taken from the
dictionary definition. Most subjects provided a fragment of the dictionary definition,
which do not fully define a word. It is encouraging to compare this finding with that of
Scott and Nagy (1997). They call this type of sentence fragment selection sentence and
label this error as fragment selection error. When learners construct such sentences they
choose key but inappropriate word for the target word and write the sentence using that
word. In some cases, learners take only few phrases from the definition and put as it is.
This problem occurs usually among monolingual dictionary users. Those who use
bilingual dictionaries usually put the translated definition or synonym of a word. A
similar finding was reported by Nesi and Meara (1994) who relate the problem of
misinterpreting monolingual dictionary entry with two factors. (a) dictionary users latch
on to a part of the dictionary definition, without really understanding how it relates to the
word they are looking up. (b) the dictionary entries were actually misleading given the
starting point of the users (p. 14). Miller and his colleagues also indicated that students
problems with definitions are not simply the result of incorrect sense selection, rather it is
the problem of focusing only on a fragment of the definition and considering this as a
definition by ignoring the rest of the definition which has great role in the overall
structure.

Using the dictionary for understanding the meaning of words in specific text is difficult to
students because of a number of metacognitive processes it requires. These processes, for
example, include keeping the meaning of text while searching for a word and selecting
from a number of alternative meanings, generating sentences on the basis of a definition.
Moreover definitions use exteme versions of literate language which is more tense and
decontextualized. Scott and Nagy (1997) conclude that fragment selection errors indicate
a fundamental problem arising from lack of attention to the structure of the sentence and
definition when mapping information to a new word. But the limitation of their work is
that they studied specifically focusing on verbs.

43

Another problem of difficulty dominantly observed in the study is the use of incorrect
meanings to the context in which target words are used. This is also a problem mostly
encountered in the use of monolingual dictionary. Learners have difficulty in identifying
the dictionary meaning that fits to the original context in which the word appears. It is
also observed that learners do not seem to pay attention to the mismatch between text
context and dictionary meaning. Beyond this, learners also use several incorrect
meanings for a single word. This might seem to emerge from being doubtful about the
correct meaning. These are very consistent problems across the majority of responses.
Another possible explanation for this is that students do not always consider text context
in determining the correct dictionary definition. In many cases, learners take the first
definition in the entry and they expect this definition to correlate with the context
assuming a lexicographic practice of putting the most common or frequently used
contextual meaning first. Learners are likely to solve their problem with multiple entries
if they receive training. Researchers warn that students may experience dictionary
fatigue if they encounter problems associated with multiple entry (polysemic) word
search, which is time-consuming and distracting.

An important problem learners commonly encounter during word search include forgoing
to make decision regarding the part of speech before search begins. In this study,
significant meaning errors were encountered because of this flaw. As part of word search
strategy, the need to identify and decide parts of speech should be considered carefully
because failure to do so leads to unsuccessful search results since words have different
meanings in different parts of speech. Scott and Nagy (1997) note, when students do not
recognize the appropriate part of speach for a word, they often draw faulty conclusion
about the meaning (p.188). They further hypothesised that integrating information in a
definition with the context sentence is a difficult process involving complex mapping of
elements in definitions onto the structure of the sentence because it requires manipulating
each elements at the same time.

44

Similarly, inflected and uninflected forms of words cause difficulties, as learners need to
decide which form they should look up in the dictionary. Nation (1990) warns, teachers
should avoid directinng students to use word form cues untill they have inferred on the
basis of sentence context.

In the present study, some subjects provided the following meaning for the word
Trespass: a person who goes on to somebodys land without their permission. It is
obvious that the students gave this meaning because they looked up the inflected form of
the word trespasser. The meaning given for the above word does not match to that of the
uninflected form of the word. This finding confirms what Neubach and Cohen (1988)
found in their study using reading tasks that require the use of dictionary.

Problem of getting the right entry for a word has also been found in the study. In most of
such encounters students left spaces blank and some tried to put the synonyms. A very
frequently missed word, for example, was mold. It seems that this problem occurred
with most students because of their failure to distinguish between British and American
English spellings. The word mold is American English and it is spelt as mould in
British English. Therefore, it is likely that students will not easily get the words entry if
they look for the American English mold. Even if they get it, this entry merely directs
them to see under the headword mould. However, another hindrance is that they were
not able to understand what see mould indicates and simply wrote it as a synonym.

The study revealed that students dictionary use is problematic because their awareness
about the symbols and abbreviations and their functions is limited to only those symbols
and abbreviations that are familiar. Subjects were not able to recognize those dictionary
codes and abbreviations that do not occur in their day-to-day leaning activities.
Abbreviations such as fml, vt and fig were not correctly written by the greatest number of
respondents while it was possible to check them in the dictionaries available in their
hands during the dictionary skill test. Hence, researchers often comment that learners do
not use dictionaries in the way intended by lexicographers (Bejoint, 1981).

45

In terms of dictionary behaviors, this study was able to identify some dictionary use
behaviors that can be considered problematic to vocabulary learning. These behaviors
directly or indirectly affect the learning potential of the students. Learners often consider
dictionary consultation as a time-consuming activity and looking up words each time they
occur in reading text as disruptive to them. Therefore, they develop some habits as a
result of these strains.

In this study, students have mentioned the habit of postponing word look up. They write
in a notebook or diary the unknown words they encounter and keep it to refer at a specific
time after reading. This is surely a bad behavior which is not productive or which cannot
bring about word learning since words are likely to be learnt or retained in context
environments than independent of context. A noteworthy dictionary look-up behavior
identified during the study included the habit of paying attention to words that were not
meant for look up. A significant number of students mentioned that they focus on the rest
words or divert their attention to other entries while looking up unknown words.
Arguably, this is one of the problematic look up behavior that adversely affect vocabulary
development of learners as learners encounter problem of word retention due to frequent
interference of other dictionary information every time they look-up unknown words.

With regard to look up frequency, relatively the subjects indicated high frequency of look
up. More than half of the subjects use their dictionary and frequently consult it in their
reading. Look up frequency has been considered as an undesirable dictionary behavior.
High frequency of look up implies much reliance on dictionary which in turn reduces the
chance to experiment with guessing. The assumption here is that substantial amount of
reading time and consistency of understanding is saved by reducing the frequency of
direct look up and trying to employ guessing from context.

46

A number of earlier studies confirm that high frequency of look up does not help for
word learning and better comprehension. Harmer (1991) comments:
whilst we wish to encourage sensible dictionary use, we do not want this
to interfer with other methodological concerns. We do not want students
to be checking every word of a reading text in their dictionaries when
they should be reading for general understanding (p.175).
This study has been subjected to some potential limitations in the course of its progress.
The study employed methodological triangulation due to the complexity of dictionary
consultation. However, the inclusion of experimental methods would have been a better
approach especially interms of investigating reference skills and observational and
introspective techniques could have been more effective in examining dictionary use
behaviors of students.

Another limitation is that the study used small number of samples as a result of multiple
data collection used and resource constraints. Moreover, the dictionary skill test designed
for students consisted few items covering only basic dictionary skills. The inclusion of
several dictionary skill items would have been important to explore the problem in depth.
Therefore, the resource needed to administer extensive tests and the difficulty of handling
the analysis of large amount of data have been taken into consideration when designing
this study.

47

CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusions
The purpose of the current study was to identify problems of vocabulary learning
encountered in the use of dictionaries among secondary level EFL learners, focusing
mainly on the general practices of dictionary use, reference skills and look up behaviors.
The findings suggest that the dictionary use of the learners is characterized by the
presence of a number of problems or difficulties that in turn affect the learning advantage
students can gain from the dictionary.

The study employed questionnaire and dictionary reference skill test as primary
instrument of data collection and interview as a complementary method to explore the
problem. A combination of qualitative and quantitative data analysis was performed and
based on the analysis of results the major set of conclusions has been drawn.

Subjects in the study use their dictionary mostly in reading activity and do not
satisfactorily use it for other activities. This affects the chance to learn significant amount
of vocabulary using dictionaries in receptive and productive activities.
The study also found that relatively few learning settings and situations are supported by
the use of dictionaries. Those learning settings that provide a significant amount of
vocabulary items are in need of dictionary use.
The study again revealed that the use of dictionaries for various kinds of information is
limited. Meaning (definition) and synonyms are the only dictionary information that the
majority of the subjects use.
The study has also found that problems attributed to subjects reference skills. Many
subjects apply incorrect meanings that are contextually unrelated to the text in which a
word has been used and take a fragment of the dictionary definition that do not give
complete and clear meaning.

48

Subjects had also made unsuccessful search for multiple entry (polysemous) words. They
had also difficulty of understanding codes and abbreviations used in the entries and
failure to identify headwords under which phrasal words are looked up. Difficulty in
making connection between dictionary meaning and text context, forgoing to make
consideration and decision regarding the part of speech for a word before search and
failure to recognize the distinction between British and American English Spelling are
also problems identified in the study.
The dictionary behaviors students identified in the study include, focusing on other
entries and dictionary information while looking up the target word, keeping a word in a
note to refer it back after reading and high rate of look up frequency.

Students make relatively limited use of guessing from context with limited checking to
confirm successfulness of search. Some subjects also mentioned browsing through
dictionary without having specific search purposes as their habit.

Though the majority of subjects indicated that they had received dictionary reference
skills training in their response for questionnaire item, the dictionary reference skills test
proved that they lack even the basic skills of dictionary use and they need further training
in those essential dictionary reference skills.

49

5.2. Recommendations
The findings of this study have a number of important implications for future research
and practice or policy.

Regarding further areas to be covered by future researches, there are several domains of
the subject still awaiting studies of deferent designs and levels. Experimental studies
either replicating or supplementing this study using control and experimental group
subjects would be essential. The use of verbal protocols technique is also advisable in
studying the processes involved in the users word look up.

More broadly, research also needed to determine the effect of dictionary use in various
receptive and productive language activities on vocabulary development and solving
lexical problems associated to these activities.

Another important area requiring further study is difference between proficient and nonproficient users in terms of dictionary reference skills and reference needs to determine
whether proficiency level is a factor for successful dictionary use.

With regard to practice, it is recommended that dictionary use skill training that can
create dictionary awareness and dictionary use skill need to be given to students as a
teaching intervention at the beginning grades of the secondary level education as far as
their progress to advanced level is concerned. The training need not be a long session that
consumes much of classroom time, but it may be given for few minutes before or after
regular classroom teaching in little but often way.

50

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Appendix- A
Students Questionnaire
No: ______

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
FACULITY OF LANGUAGE STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

A questionnaire to be completed by grade 11 students

Dear Students,
The purpose of this questionnaire is to collect information regarding your dictionary use
and difficulties you encounter in using dictionaries. The information you provide in this
questionnaire will be used only for research purpose. I assure you that personal details are
kept strictly confidential. Therefore, your genuine, neat and complete responses are
highly required to make this study successful.
Thank You in Advance!
Hussen Kediro
Please do not write your name!
Read the following items carefully and give your responses by marking () on boxes or
by writing short answers in the spaces provided. Do not leave spaces blank. Provide
any answer you think appropriate.
NB. You can mark more than one box for some of the items.
1. In which of the following ranges is your first semester English total score?
50-64

65-74

75-84

2. Do you have a dictionary of your own?

Yes

No
1

85-100

3. If your response for question number 2 is Yes, what is the name or title of your
dictionary? If you use more than one dictionary, please indicate.
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.
4. If your response for question number 2 is No, where do you get a dictionary?
________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
5. In which of the following activities do you most often use your dictionary?
in reading (studying)

in translating

in oral composition

in writing

6. Where do you most often use your dictionary?

at home

in classroom

in library

everywhere I go

7. Which of the following do you check most of the time in your dictionary?
meaning (definition)

synonyms

spelling

syntax / structure/

pronunciation

parts of speech

usage

sentence examples

8. Which of the following do you use in the appendix of your dictionary?

lists of abbreviations

grammar points

lists of irregular verbs

units of measurements

proper names

geographical information

If others, please indicate: _____________________________________________

2

9. Do you study the introductory part of your dictionary?

Yes

No

10. What do you do when you come across unknown words while you are reading?
I try to guess the meaning from the context
I look-up the meaning in the dictionary
I ignore the word and continue reading
I guess the meaning and then look up
11. Which features or areas of the dictionary are difficult to you?
Phrasal words

idioms

Technical terms

symbols and labels

12. Which of the following problems do you encounter while you search a word in your
dictionary?
difficulty in finding the correct entry or sub-entry
difficulty in understanding words in definitions
difficulty in identifying the right meaning of a word
being uncertain about the correct meaning of words
difficulty in identifying the part of speech of a word
13. Are there occasions in which you were unable to find what you were searching for?
Yes

No

14. What do you do to clearly understand the definition of a word in your dictionary?
I look for some other kinds of dictionary
I look for the synonyms
I look for pictures if available
I look for sentence example
15. How do you rate your look up frequency when you consult your dictionary?
very frequently

sometimes

frequently

rarely

16. Mark () on any of the following habit you have developed when using dictionary?
browsing through your dictionary without actually having anything to look for
looking up words that your have not intended to look up
scanning all the definitions of a word before deciding on the correct one
taking a note about the word you have looked up
forgetting the word you want to search and focusing on other information
putting a word aside and keeping it for later reference
17. Have you ever received any kind of training or instruction on how to use dictionary?
Yes

No

18. Do you think that using dictionary can help to increase vocabulary knowledge?
Yes

No

Appendix- B

Dictionary Reference Skills Test

Part One
A. First, read the following passage carefully. Then, by looking up the words in
bold in your dictionary, write their meanings on the spaces provided.
The President of the United States
The President of the United States is often considered the most powerful elected official in the
world. The President leads a nation of great wealth and military strength. Presidents have often
provided decisive leadership in times of crisis, and they have shaped many important events in
history.
The constitution of the United States gives the President enormous power. However, it also
limits that power. The authors of the constitution wanted a strong leader as President, but they
did not want an all-powerful king. As a result, they divided the powers of the United States
government among three branchesexecutive, legislative and judicial. The President, who is
often called the chief executive, heads the executive branch. Congress represents the legislative
branch. The supreme court of the United States and other federal courts make up the judicial
branch. Congress and the Supreme Court may prevent or end any presidential action that
exceeds the limits of the Presidents powers and trespasses on their authority.
The President has many roles and performs many duties. As chief executive, the President
makes sure that federal laws are enforced. As commander in chief of the nations armed forces,
the President is responsible for national defense. As foreign policy director, the President
determines United States relation with other nations. As legislative leader, the President
recommends new laws and works to win their passage. As head of political party, the President
helps mold the partys positions on national and foreign issues. As popular leader, the
President tries to inspire the American people to work together to meet the nations goals.
Finally, as chief of state, the President performs a large variety of ceremonial duties.
(excerpted from The World Book)

1) decisive (paragraph 1, line 3)

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2) heads (paragraph 2, line 9)
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3) exceeds (paragraph 2, line 12)
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
4) trespasses (paragraph 2, line 12)
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
5) passage (paragraph 3,line17)
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
6) mold(paragraph 3, line 18)
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

B) Identify and write the parts of speech of the following words used in the
passage. If necessary, you can use your dictionary to check your answers.
1) enormous (paragraph 2, line 5)____________________
2) passage (paragraph 3, line 17)_____________________

Part Two
A) Attempt each of the following items according to the instructions.
1) Different codes and abbreviations are used in different monolingual (English-English)
dictionaries to indicate the grammatical and social functions of words. What does each of the
following abbreviations indicate in a dictionary?
V._________________

IDM. ________________

Adj.__________________

Adv.________________

Pl.___________________

Vt.___________________

N. _________________

fml.__________________

fig.___________________

2) Under which head word would you look up the following words? Tick a () mark in one of
the following boxes for each item.
a) artificial respiration: under artificial

under respiration

b) alarm clock:

under alarm

under clock

c) global warming:

under global

under warm

d) get along with:

under get

under along

under with

3) Arrange the following words in the order they are placed in a dictionary.

a) quiz, quite, quiet, queen

_______________, _______________, _______________, _________________

b) browse, bruise, brown, broad

_______________, _______________, ________________, _______________

Appendix-C
Interview Questions for Students
1. What type of dictionary do you prefer to use?
2. Why did you chose the one (s) you use?
3. In what activities do you most of the time use your dictionary?
4. Where do you most of the times use your dictionary?
5. What specific difficulties do you have in using your dictionary?
6. What strategies or techniques do you use to deal with the problems?
7. Do you think that you need extra skills to use your dictionary effectively?
8. What specific habits do you have when you consult your dictionary?
9. Do you think that dictionary use helps for developing vocabulary knowledge?
10. Have you ever received training on how to use dictionary? or did your teacher tell
you how to use a dictionary?

DECLARATION
I, the undersigned, declare that this thesis is my original work and has not been presented for
the degree in any other university. All sources used in this thesis have been duly
acknowledged.
Submitted by: Hussen Kediro
Signature: _______________
Place: Department of English, Addis Ababa University
Date of Submission: 13th May 2011