Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Category:Scholars
Category:Muslims
Category:Muslim scholars
Category:Sunni imams
Category:Shi'a clerics
Category:Ayatollahs
Category:Muslim philosophers
Category:Muslim scholars of
Islam
Category:Hadith compilers
Subcategories
This category has the following 2 subcategories, out of 2 total.
Usama al-Abd
Abu Hanifa
Adnan Al-Qattan
Al ash-Sheikh
Al-Fakihi
Averroes
Dawud al-Zahiri
Ahmad al-Ghumari
Joel Hayward
Al-Humayd
Ibn al-Mughallis
Ibn Khuzaymah
Ibn Tufail
Ibn 'Ulayya
Ibn Zuhr
Ibn Kathir
Kisa'i
Mohammed Alkobaisi
Rashid Al Marikhi
Muhammad al-Shaybani
Muhammad Faizullah
Khurram Murad
Said Nurs
Ullal Thangal
Timothy Winter
Hamza Yusuf
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This is a subarticle of Islamic scholars, List of Muslim scholars and List of historians.
The following is a list of Muslim historians writing in the Islamic historiographical tradition,
which developed from hadith literature in the time of the first caliphs. This list is focused on premodern historians who wrote before the heavy European influence that occurred from the 19th
century onward.
Contents
[hide]
1 Chronological list
o
2 See also
3 Notes
4 References
5 See also
Chronological list[edit]
See also: Historiography of early Islam and List of biographies of Muhammad
Ibn Ishaq (d. 761) - Sirah Rasul Allah (The Life of the Apostle of God)
Al-Waqidi (d. 823) - Kitab al-Tarikh wa'l-Maghazi (Book of History and Battles).
Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838CE - 923CE) - History of the Prophets and Kings
[1]
Muhammad bin Ali Rawandi (c.1204) Rahat al-sudur, (a history of the Great Seljuq Empire
and its break-up into minor beys)
Al-Muqaddasi (d.1000)
[2]
[1]
Baha al-Din ibn Shaddad (d. 1235) - al-Nawdir al-Sultaniyya wa'l-Mah sin alYsufiyya (The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin)
Sibt ibn al-Jawzi (d. 1256) - Mir'at al-zaman (Mirror of the Time)
Ibn Kathir (d. 1373) - al-Bidaya wa'l-Nihaya (The Beginning and the End)
al-Maqrizi (d. 1442) - al-Suluk li-ma'firat duwwal al-muluk (Mamluk history of Egypt)
Ibn Taghribirdi (d. 1470) - Nujum al-zahira fi muluk Misr wa'l-Qahira (History of Egypt)
[3]
Abdelwahid al-Marrakushi
al-Brn (d. 1048) - Kitab fi Tahqiq ma li'l-Hind (Researches on India), The Remaining Signs
of Past Centuries
[4]
See also[edit]
Notes[edit]
1.
2.
3.
Jump up^ (1969): Livre des deux jardins ("The Book of Two Gardens"). See: Recueil des Historiens des Croisades
4.
References[edit]
Robinson, Chase F. (2003), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-62936-5 : XIV and XV
("Chase F. Robinson" in "Islamic Historiography" has mentioned the chronological list of
Islamic historians.)
Included are prominent authors who have made studies concerning Islam, the religion and its
civilization, and the culture of Muslim peoples. Not included are those studies of Islam produced by
Muslim authors meant primarily for a Muslim audience.
[1]
Herein most of the authors from the early centuries of Islam belonged to non-Muslim societies,
cultures, or religions. The primary intent of many early works was to inform non-Muslims about a
distant and/or unfamiliar Islam; some were clearly polemical in motivation and cannot be termed
objective. As time went on, academic standards were developed generally, and were increasingly
applied to studies of Islam. Many of the authors here are of Christian provenance, yet there are also
Jewish, Zoroastrian, Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Taoist, Confucian, Communist, and secular points of
view. The most recent entries are often sourced in universities, and include works by Muslim
professors whose publications address a worldwide audience.
[2]
Contents
[hide]
1.5 1960s-Present
4 Reference notes
5 See also
6 External links
Du Huan, captured at 751 Battle of Talas, traveled in Muslim lands for ten years,
his Jingxingji [Record of Travels] (c. 770) contains descriptions of Muslim life; book lost, but
quoted by his uncle Du You in his Tongdian (766-801), an encyclopedia of China.
Abd al-Masih ibn Ishaq al-Kindi, probably 8th/9th century Abbasid, pseudonym [Servant of
the Messiah...] of an Arab Christian, author of the Risalah, a dialogue with a Muslim; later
translated into Latin by Pedro de Toledo, this work became very influential in Europe.
Nicetas Byzantius, his 9th century polemic Anatrope tes para tou Arabos... (P.G., v.105)
picks at the Qur'an chapter by chapter.
Petrus Venerabilis (c. 1092-1156), Abbot of Cluny (France), while in Hispania circa 1240,
inspired a group led by Robert of Ketton (England), with Herman von Carinthia (Slovenia), Pierre
de Poitiers (France), and the mozarab Pedro de Toledo to translate the Qur'an into Latin, hence
the Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete(1143); it circulated only in manuscript copies until 1543.
Often only a tinted paraphrase, later George Sales would say it "deserves not the name of
translation" because of its inaccuracy.
Mose ben Maimon (11351204), major Jewish theologian and talmudist who fled AlAndalus for Morocco, then Cairo, his Dalalat al-Ha'rin [Guide of the Perplexed] (Fostat 1190) [in
Arabic] [t], reconciles the Bible and the Talmud with Aristotle, discusses Al-Farabi, Ibn
Sina (Avicenna), and the Muslim Kalam, especially the Mutakallimun, as well as the Mutazili;
influenced by Ibn Rushd (Averros).
Marco de Toledo (fl. 1193-1216) Castile, an improved Latin translation from Arabic of
the Qur'an.
Ibn Kammuna (c. 1215-c. 1285), Jewish scholar of Baghdad, his fair-minded though
controversial Tanqih al-abhat li-l-milal al-talat [Examination of the Inquiries into the Three Faiths]
(1280) [in Arabic] [t].
Toms d'Aquino (c. 1225-1274) Italian Dominican, Doctor of the Church ("Angelicus"),
his Summa contra Gentiles (c. 1261-64) [t], includes criticism of theAristotelianism of Ibn
Rushd (Averros); also De Unitate Intellectus Contra Averroistas (Paris 1270) [t].
Bar 'Ebraya [Abu-l-Farag] ((12261286), Catholicos of the Syriac Orthodox Church, learned
theologian, prolific author, his spiritual treatise in Syriac Kethabha dhe yauna [Book of the Dove],
as well as his Ethikon said by Wensinck to show influence by al-Ghazali.
Ramon Llull [Raimundo Lulio] (12321316) Catalan (Majorca) author and theologian,
"Doctor Illuminatus", proponent of the "Ars Magna", fluent in Arabic, three times missionary
to Tunis; his Llibre del Gentile e dels tres Savis (127476) [t], in which one learned in Hellenic
philosophy hears three scholars, Jewish, Christian, and Muslim, whose views are shared with
exquisite courtesy by reasoning over their mutual virtues, rather than by attack and defense. Lull
infers a heterodox continuum between the natural & the revealed supernatural.
Riccoldo di Monte Croce (12431320) Italian (Firenze) Dominican, a missionary during the
1290s, lived in Baghdad, his Propugnaculum Fidei soon translated into Greek, later into German
by Martin Luther; also polemic Contra Legum Serracenorum (Baghdad, c. 1290).
Nicolaus Cusanus (14011464) German Cardinal, at cusp of renaissance; following the fall
of Constantinople, his De pace fidei (1455) [t] sought common ground among the various
religions, presenting fictitious short dialogues involving an Arab, an Indian, an Assyrian, a Jew,
a Scythian, a Persian, a Syrian, aTurk, a Tartar, and various Christians; also his Cribratio
Alcorani (1460).
Nanak (14691539) India, influenced by Muslim sufis and Hindu bhakti, became a teacher
who traveled far to preach the unity of God; Sikhs revere him as their first Guru; opposed to
caste divisions, and opposed to Hindu-Muslim rivalry/conflict.
Leo Africanus (c.1488-1554), originally Al Hassan, Muslim of Fez; traveled with his diplomat
uncle to Timbuktu; later captured by Christian pirates & sold into slavery; freed by Pope Leo
X and baptised; wrote Cosmographia Dell'Africa of his travels; returned to Islam.
=> The [t] following a title indicates books translated into English.
1500 to 1800[edit]
Luis de Marmol Carvajal (c. 1520-c. 1600), Spanish soldier in Africa twenty years, captured
and enslaved seven years, travels in Guinea, North Africa, Egypt, and
perhaps Ethiopia: Descripcin general de frica (1573, 1599).
Alonso del Castillo (1520s-c.1607), Spain, formative work in Arabic archives and
inscriptions (his father once a Morisco of Granada).
Andre du Ryer (c. 1580-c. 1660) France, translation of the Qur'an: L'Alcoran de
Mahomet translat d'arabe en franois (Paris 1647) [t].
Alexander Ross (15911654), Scotland, chaplain to Charles I, first English translation of the
Qur'an (1649) from the French of du Ryer.
Ludovico Marracci (16121700) Italian priest, professor of Arabic, Latin translation of the
Qur'an, Alcorani textus universus... (Padova 1698), publication delayed by Church censors, in
two volumes: Prodromus contains a biography of Mohammad and summary of Islamic
doctrine; Refutatio Alcorani contains the Qur'an in Arabic text, with Latin translation, annotated
per partisan purposes (cf., Ottoman military proximity); cited by Edward Gibbon. Also, his earlier
contributions translating the Bible into Arabic (1671).
Dara Shikuh (16151659), Mughal, elder brother of Aurangzeb; Muslim but included here
because of his syncretism in the tradition of his great-grandfatherAkbar; his Majma-ulBahrain [Mingling of Two Oceans] (1655) [t] finds parallels between Sufism and the
monotheistic Vedanta of Hinduism, it was later translated into Sanskrit; also his own translation
into Persian of the Upanishads.
Henry Stubbe (16321676) English author, his An Account of the rise and progress of
Mahometanism: with the life of Mahomet and a vindication of him and his religion from the
calumnies of the Christians, which evidently lay in manuscript several hundred years until edited
by Mahmud Khan Shairani and published (London: Luzac 1911).
Antoine Galland (16461715) France, first in the West to translate the Arabian Nights, Les
Mille et Une Nuits (17041717).
Humphrey Prideaux (16481724) Anglican Dean, traditional partisan, The True Nature of
Imposture fully display'd in the Life of Mahomet (London 1697), reprint 1798, Fairhaven,
Vermont; this work follows earlier polemics, & also refutes European deists.
Abraham Hinckelmann (16521692), edited an Arabic text of the Qur'an, later published
in Hamburg, Germany, in 1694.
Henri Comte de Boulainviller (16581722) French historian, his Vie de Mahomet (2nd ed.,
Amsterdam 1731) [t], praises what he saw as the instrumental rationalism of the prophet,
portraying Islam in terms of a natural religion.
Liu Zhi (c.1660-c.1730) Chinese Muslim scholar writing in Chinese (Arabic "Han
Kitab", Chinese books); during early Qing, presented Islam to Manchus as consonant
with Confucianism, e.g., his Tianfang Dianli dealing with ritual, comparing li with Muslim practice.
Jean Gagnier (c. 1670-1740) Oxford Univ., De vita et rebus Mohammedis (1723), annotated
Latin translation of chapters on Muhammad from Mukhtasar Ta'rikh a-Bashar by Abu 'l-Fida
(12731331); also La Vie de Mahomet (Amsterdam 1748), biography in French.
Liu Chih (16wx-17yz) China, T'ien-fang Chih-sheng shi-lu ([1721-1724], 1779), ["True
Annals of the Prophet of Arabia"]; I. Mason [t], The Arabian Prophet; A life of Mohammed from
Chinese sources (Shanghai 1921).
[3]
Simon Ochley (1678-1720) England, Cambridge Univ., his History of the Saracens (1708,
1718) praises Islam at arm's length.
Voltaire [Francois-Marie Arouet] (16941778) French author, critic, anti-cleric, deist, wealthy
speculator; his play Mahomet le prophete ou le fanatisme (1741) [t], invents scurrilous legends &
attacks hypocrisy, (also being a hidden attack on the French ancien rgime).
George Sale (16971736), English lawyer, using Hinckelmann and Marracci, annotated and
translated into English a well regarded The Koran (1734); member of the "Society for Promotion
of Christian Knowledge", proofread its Arabic New Testament (S.P.C.K. 1726).
Silvestre de Sacy (17581838) Jewish French, his Grammaire arabe (2v., 1810); teacher
of Champollion who read the Rosetta Stone.
Ram Mohan Roy [Raja Ram Mohun Roy] (17721833), India (Kolkata, Bengal), early
journalist, influential religious and social reformer, founder of Brahmo Samaj, his Tuhfat-ul-
Muwahhidin [Gift of the Unitarians] (18031804), a book in Persian on, e.g., the unity of
religions.
Washington Irving (17831859) U.S., author, Minister to Spain 1842-1846, Chronicle of the
Conquest of Granada (1829); Tales of the Alhambra (1832, 1851) where he lived several
years; Mahomet and His Successors (New York: Putnam 1849) a popular, fair-minded biography
based on translations from Arabic and on western authors, since edited (Univ.of Wisconsin
1970).
Charles Mills (17881826) England, History of Mohammedanism (1818).
Garcin de Tassy (17941878) France, L'Islamisme d'apre le Coran (Paris 1874), the religion
based on a reading of the Qur'an.
Yusuf Ma Dexin (17941874) Chinese (Yunnan) Muslim scholar and leader; first to translate
the Qur'an into Chinese.
=> The [t] following a title indicates books translated into English.
1800 to 1900[edit]
John Medows Rodwell (18081900), English translation of The Koran, using derived
chronological sequence of Suras.
Abraham Geiger (18101874) German rabbi and scholar, major founder of Reform
Judaism, his Was hat Mohammed aus dem Judenthume aufgenommen?(Bonn 1833) [t] restates
and updates a perennial thesis (e.g., cf. L. Marracci).
Aloys Sprenger (18131893) Austria, Das Leben und die Lehre des Mohammad (2nd
edition, 3 volumes, Berlin 1869).
Carl Paul Caspari (18141892) German, Christian convert from Judaism, Norwegian
academic, Grammatica Arabica (184448), Latin.
Edward Rehatsek (18191891) Hungary, later India, first translation of Sirah Rasul
Allah into English (deposited, 1898).
Richard Francis Burton (18211890) British, Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to alMadinah and Mecca (2 vol., 1855).
Ernest Renan (18231892) French, Catholic apostate, Histoire generale et system compare
des langues semitiques (Paris 1863).
Friedrich Max Mller (18231900) German philologist, comparative religion pioneer, Oxford
Univ. professor, editor of 50 volume Sacred Books of the East, volumes 6 and 9 being
the Qur'an translated by E. H. Palmer.
Alfred von Kremer (18281889) Austria, professor of Arabic at Wien, foreign service
to Cairo, Egypt; Geschichte de herrschenden Ideen des Islams (Leipzig 1868); Culturgeschichte
Streifzge auf dem Gebiete des Islams (Leipzig 1873) [t].
Girish Chandra Sen (18361910) India, translated Muslim works into Bengali, including the
Qur'an (1886); professor of Islam for the Brahmo Samaj, universalist Hindu reform society
founded in 1828 by Ram Mohan Roy (17721833).
Michael Jan de Geoje (18361909) Dutch academic, led the editing of the Arabic text
of Ta'rikh al-rasul wa'l muluk [History of Prophets and Kings] of the Persian al-Tabari (d. 923), in
14 volumes (Leiden: Brill 1879-1901).
Theodor Nldeke (18361930) Germany, well regarded philologist and academic, Das
Leben Mohammeds (1863); Zur Grammatik de klassische Arabisch(1896); with Friedrich
Schwally Geschichte des Qorans (Leipzig, 19091919, 2 volumes).
Edward Henry Palmer (18401882), English; traveler in Arab lands; called to the bar in
1874; translated Qur'an for the S.B.E. (1880); killed in Egypt by desert ambush while with British
military patrol.
Ignazio Guidi (18441935) Italy, L'Arabe anteislamique (Paris 1921).
Herbert Udny Weitbrecht (18511937), The Teaching of the Quran with an Account of Its
Growth and a Subjekt Index, (1919)
William St. Clair Tisdall (18591928) Anglican priest, linguist, traditional partisan, The
Original Sources of the Quran (S.P.C.K. 1905).
Henri Pirenne (18621935) Belgian historian, Mahomet et Charlemagne (Paris 1937) [t],
how the Arab conquests disrupted Mediterranean trade, isolating the European economies
which declined.
Thomas Walker Arnold (18641930) England, professor in India associating with Shibli
Nomani & Muhammad Iqbal, later at London S.O.A.S.; The Caliphate(Oxford 1924); Painting in
Islam. A study of the place of pictorial art in Muslim culture (1928); The Preaching of
Islam (1929); Legacy of Islam (Oxford 1931) editor with A. Guillaume.
William Ambrose Shedd (18651918) U.S., Presbyterian, Islam and the Oriental Churches:
Their historical relations (1904).
Samuel Marinus Zwemer (18671952) U.S., Dutch Reform missionary to Islam, later
at Princeton, Islam. A Challenge to Faith (NY 1907); Law of Apostasy in Islam (1924).
Leon Ostrorog, Comte (18671932) Poland, The Angora Reform (London 1927), on the
"Law of Fundamental Organization" (1921) of republican Turkeytransferring power from the
Sultan to the Assembly; Pour la reforme de la justice ottomane (Paris 1912).
Gertrude Bell (1868-1926) English, Persian Pictures (1894); Syria: The desert and the
sown (1907); became a British political officer in Arab lands during World War I.
Reynold Nicholson (18681945) English, The Mystics of Islam (1914); A Literary History of
the Arabs (Cambridge Univ. 1930).
Ramn Menndez Pidal (1869-1968), Spain, elaborates Ribera and Asn. Espaa, eslabn
entre la cristiandad y el islam (1956) [t].
Leone Caetani (18691935) Italian nobleman, Annali dell'Islam (10 volumes, 19041926)
reprint 1972, contains early Arabic sources.
Miguel Asn Palacios (18711944), Catholic priest, professor of Arabic, studied the
mutuality of influence between Christian and Islamic spirituality (prompting vigorous
response), Algazel (Zaragoza 1901); La escatologia musulmana en la Divina Comedia (Madrid
1923) ["t"] per influence on Dante of mi'raj literature; El Islam cristianizado. Estudio
del sufismo a traves de las obras de Abenarabi de Murcia (Madrid 1931); Huellas del
Islam (Madrid 1941) includes comparative articles on Tomas d'Aquino and Juan de las Cruz.
De Lacy O'Leary (18721957) Bristol Univ. Arabic Thought and Its Place in History (1922,
1939); Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages (1923);Arabia before
Muhammad (1927); How Greek Science passed to the Arabs (1949).
Richard Bell (18761952) British, Origin of Islam in its Christian Environment (Edinburgh
Univ. 1925).
Arthur S. Tritton (18811973) The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects. A critical study
of the Covenant of 'Umar (Oxford 1930).
Alphonse Mingana (18811937) Assyrian Christian (Iraq), former priest, religious historian,
collected early Syriac and Arabic documents and books into the "Mingana Collection".
Julian Morgenstern (1881-197x) U.S., Rites of Birth, Marriage, Death and Kindred
Occasions among the Semites (Cincinnati 1966).
les origines du lexique technique de la mystique musulmane (Paris 1922, 2nd ed. 1954)
[t]; Passion de Husayn Ibn Mansur Hallaj (Paris 1973) [t].
Jos Ortega y Gasset (1883-1955) Spain, philosopher; like Unamuno opposed modern
trend to incorporate into Spanish historiography the positive Islamic element. Abenjaldn nos
revela el secreto (1934), about Ibn Khaldun.
[5]
Margaret Smith (18841970) Rabi'a the mystic and her fellow saints in Islam (Cambridge
Univ. 1928); Studies in Early Mysticism in the Near and Middle East(1931) development of early
Christian mysticism, of Islamic re Sufism, and a comparison.
Amrico Castro (1885-1972) Spain, reinterpreted Spanish history by integrating Muslim and
Jewish contributions. Espaa en su historia: Cristianos, moros y judos (1948) [t]; Sobre el
nombre y quin de los espaoles: cmo llegaron a serlo (1973).
Philip Khuri Hitti (18861978) Lebanon, formative re Arabic studies in the U.S., Origins of
the Islamic State (Columbia Univ. 1916) annotated translation ofKitab Futuh Al-Buldan of alBaladhuri; History of Syria, including Lebanon and Palestine (1957).
Shmei kawa (18861957) Japanese author activist; pan-Asian modern partisan, proIndia since 1913 (criticized per China by Gandhi in 1930s); indicted at Tokyo War Crimes
Tribunal for his "clash of civilizations" view; translation of Qur'an into Japanese (1950).
Giorgio Levi Della Vida (18861967) Jewish Italian, professor of semitic languages, Storia
e religione nell'Oriente semitico (Roma 1924); Les Smites et leur rle das l'histoire
religieuse (Paris 1938); anti-Fascist Italian politician in 1920s.
Harry Austryn Wolfson (18871974) U.S., Harvard Univ., Philo. Foundations of Religious
Philosophy in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (1947); The Philosophy of
the Kalam (1976); Repercussions of the Kalam in Jewish Philosophy (1979).
Arthur Jeffery (18921959) American University at Cairo 1921-1938, Materials for the
history of the text of the Quran (Leiden 1937-1951); Foreign Vocabulary in the
Quran (Baroda 1938); A Reader on Islam (1962).
Barend ter Haar (18921941) Dutch, Beginselen en Stelsel van het Adatrecht (Groningen
Batavia 1939) [t], on Adat law in Indonesia.
Olaf Caroe (1892-1981) a former governor of the area, The Pathans. 550 B.C. - A.D.
1957 (London 1958).
Freya Stark (1893-1993) English, Valley of the Assassins (1934) about NW Iran; The
Southern Gates of Arabia. A journey in the Hadhramaut (1936); A winter in Arabia (1939).
Willi Heffening (1894-19xx) Germany, Das islamische fremdenrecht zu den islamischfrnkischen staatsvertrgen. Eine rechtshistorischen studie zum fiqh(Hanover 1925).
variste Lvi-Provenal (1894-1956) France, Histoire de l'Espagne musulmane, 7111031 (3 volumes, Paris-Leiden 1950-1953).
E. A. Belyaev (18951964) Russia (USSR), Araby, Islam i arabskii Khalifat (Moskva, 2nd ed
1966) [t].
Gerald de Gaury (1897-1984) English soldier, Rulers of Mecca (New York, c.1950).
Jos Lpez Ortiz (18981992) Spain, Arabist with interest in legal history; article
on fatwas of Granada; Los Jurisconsultos Musulmanes (El Escorial, 1930);Derecho
musulman (Barcelona, 1932); a Catholic priest, later made Bishop.
Enrico Cerulli (18981988) Italy, Documenti arabi per la storia nell' Etiopia (Roma 1931); his
two works re Dante and Islam per M. Asn: Il "Libro della scala" e la question delle fonti arabospagnole della Divina commedia (Vatican 1949), Nuove ricerche sul "Libro della Scala" e la
conoscenza dell'Islam in Occidente(Vatican 1972).
=> The [t] following a title indicates books translated into English.
1900 to 1950s[edit]
Josef Schacht (19021969) France (Alsace), Islamic legal history, Der Islam (Tbingen
1931); Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence (Oxford 1950) influential work, a legal historical
critique (following, e.g., Goldziher) re the early oral transmission of Hadith & founding
jurists; Introduction to Islamic Law (Oxford1964); Legacy of Islam (2nd ed., Oxford 1974) edited
with C. E. Bosworth.
J. Spencer Trimingham (1904-wxyz) English; Islam in Ethiopia (Oxford 1952), a history and
current sociology; Sufi Orders in Islam (Oxford 1971); Christianity among the Arabs in PreIslamic Times (Beirut 1990).
Arthur John Arberry (19051969) English, The Koran Interpreted (1955), a translation that
attempts to capture the medium of the original Arabic; various other translations; Sufism. An
Account of the Mystics of Islam (1950).
Emilio Garcia Gomez (19051995) Spain, Arabist, poet; Poemas arabigoandaluces (Madrid
1940); Poesia arabigoandaluza (Madrid 1952); his theories, e.g., on origins of
the muwashshahat (popular medieval strophic verse); his admired translations from Arabic.
Henri Laoust (1905-wxyz) France, Essai sur les doctrines sociales et politiques de Taki-dDin Ahmad Taimiya, cononiste 'anbalite (Le Caire 1939); Le traite de droit public d'Ibn
Taimiya [al-Siyasah al-Shariyah] (Beirut 1948); Le politique de Gazali (Paris 1970).
Henry Corbin (19071978) France, former Catholic, associated with Eranos Institute
(inspired by Carl Jung), an academic re history of religions, idiosyncratic, long a resident
of Tehran; Les Motifs zoroastriens dans la philosophie de Suhrawardi (Tehran 1948); Avicenne
et la recit vissionaire (Tehran 1954) [t];L'imagination creatrice dans le soufisme d'Ibn
'Arabi (Zurich 1955-56, Paris 1958) [t]; Terre celeste et corps de resurrection: de
l'Iran mazdeen a l'Iran shi'ite(Paris 1960) [t].
Neal Robinson (1908-1983) academic, Christ in Islam and Christianity (SUNY 1991), study
of Islamic commentaries and interpretations.
James Norman Dalrymple Anderson (19081994) U.K., Islamic law at S.O.A.S., Islamic
Law in Africa (H.M.S.O., 1954); Islamic Law in the Modern World (New York University,
1959); Law Reform in the Muslim World (Athlone, 1976).
Martin Lings (19092005) Sufi scholar, Muhammed. His life based on the earliest
sources (1983); Secret of Shakespeare (1984).
Jacques Berque (1910 Algeria - 1995 France), pied-noir scholar who early
favored Maghribi independence, he retained his ties to Africa; Moroccan Berberethnology: Les
structures sociales du Haut Atlas (1955); Arab renaissance: Les Arabes d'hier a demain (1960)
[t].
Wilfred Thesiger (19102003) England, born and home in Ethiopia; Arabian Sands (New
York 1959), on late 1940s explorations by camel of the "empty quarter" Ar-Rab' Al-Khali; The
Marsh Arabs (London 1964), on the rural people of southern Iraq.
Giulio Basetti-Sani (1912-wxyz) Italy, Mohammed et Saint Franois (Ottawa 1959); Per un
dialogo cristiano-musulmano (Milano 1969).
Kenneth Cragg (1913-2012) U.S., The Call of the Minaret (Oxford 1956; 2d Orbis
1985); The Arab Christian (Westm./Knox 1991).
Uriel Heyd [Heydt] (19131968) Jewish German, moved to Israel in 1934, Studies in old
Ottoman criminal Law (Oxford 1973).
Franz Rosenthal (1914-wxyz) Fortleben der Antike im Islam (Zurich 1965); Muslim
intellectual and social history (Variorum 1990).
Albert Hourani (19151993) Lebanese English, Minorities in the Arab World (Oxford
1947); Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798-1939 (1962) on the Arabnahda [revival]; Political
Society in Lebanon (MIT 1986); A History of the Arab Peoples (1991, Harvard 2002); brother of
George Hourani.
Maxime Rodinson (19152004) Jewish French Marxist, Mahomet (Paris 1961) [t] as
understood with empathy by an atheist; Islam et capitalisme (Paris 1966) [t]; Israel et le refus
arabe (Paris 1968).
Bernard Lewis (1916->) Jewish English, prolific author, lately a modern partisan
insider, Arabs in History (1950); Muslim Discovery of Europe (1982, 2001);What went Wrong?
The Clash between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East (2002).
Marshall Hodgson (19221968) U.S., professor, Quaker, The Venture of Islam (3 volumes,
Univ.of Chicago [1958], 1961, 1974); The Order of the Assassins(The Hague: Mouton
1955); Rethinking World History. Essays on Europe, Islam... (Cambridge Univ. 1993).
Sabatino Moscati (1922->) Italy, Semitic studies, Le antiche civilita semitiche (Milano 1958)
[t]; I Fenici e Cartagine (Torino 1972).
Donald Leslie (1922->) Australia, Islamic Literature in China, late Ming and early
Ch'ing (1981); Islam in Traditional China (1986).
Ernest Gellner (19251995) London Sch.of Econ., Saints of the Atlas (London
1969); Muslim Society: Essays (Cambridge 1981).
Irfan Shahid, (1926->) Georgetown Univ., Dumbarton Oaks; Byzantium and the
Arabs (19841995) multi-vol., pre-Islamic politics.
Leonard Binder (1927->) Univ.of Chicago, Religion and Politics in Pakistan (Univ.of
California 1961).
Francis E. Peters (1927->) U.S., former Jesuit; Aristotle Arabus (Leiden: Brill
1968); Jerusalem and Mecca (NYU 1986); Muhammad and the Origins of Islam(SUNY
1994); Arabs and Arabia on the Eve of Islam (Ashgate 1999).
John K. Cooley (1927-2008) U.S. journalist, long time coverage of Arab world, An Alliance
against Babylon (Univ.of Michigan 2006); Unholy Wars. Afghanistan, America and International
Terrorism (2001); Baal, Christ, and Mohammed. Religion and Revolution in North Africa (1965);
collaboration with E. W. Said (2002).
Fredrik Barth (1928->) Political Leadership among the Swat Pathans (Univ.of London
1959).
Speros Vryonis (1928->) U.S., U.C.L.A., The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor
and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century (Univ. California
1971); Studies on Byzantium, Seljuks and Ottomans (Malibu 1981).
J. Hoeberichts (1929->) Dutch, Franciscus en de Islam (Assen: Van Gorcum 199x) [t];
formerly a theology professor in Karachi.
Jacob Neusner (1932->) U.S., Jewish theologian, Comparing Religions through Law:
Judaism and Islam (1999) with T.Sonn; Judaism and Islam in Practice(1999) editor, with T.Sonn
& J.E.Brockopp; Three Faiths, One God (2003) with B. Chilton & W. Graham.
William Chittick (c.193x->) U.S., collaborations with Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Allameh
Tabatabaei in Iran; A Shi'ite Anthology (SUNY 1981); Sufi Path of Love(SUNY 1983) text and
commentary on Rumi; Sufi Path of Knowledge (SUNY 1989) on Ibn Arabi; Imaginal Worlds. Ibn
al-'Arabi and the Problem of Religious Diversity (SUNY 1994).
Sami Zubaida (1937->) Univ.of London, Islam, the People and the State (1993); Law and
Power in the Islamic World (I.B.Taurus 2003).
Farhad Daftary (1938->) Inst. of Isma'ili Studies, London, The Isma'ilis: their history and
doctrines (1990).
Robert Simon (1939->) Hungary, Meccan Trade and Islam. Problems of origin and
structure (Budapest 1989); Qur'an translation (1987).
Michael Cook (1940->) English, Studies in the Origins of Early Islamic Culture and
Tradition (2004); with P. Crone, Hagarism (1977).
Roy Parviz Mottahedeh (1940->) U.S., Loyalty and Leadership in an Early Islamic
Society (Princeton University Press 1980), :The Mantle of the Prophet (Simon and Schuster,
1985).
John L. Esposito (1940->) U.S., Islam. The Straight Path (Oxford 1988); editor-inchief Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World (4 volumes, 1995);Islam and Civil
Society (European Univ. Inst. 2000).
Malise Ruthven (1942->) Scotland, Islam in the World (Oxford Univ. 1984); Fury for God.
Islamist attack on America (Granta 2002).
William A. Graham (1943->) U.S., Harvard University, "Divine Word and Prophetic Word in
Early Islam" (Mouton, 1977); "Beyond the Written Word" (Cambridge, 1986); "Islamic and
Comparative Religious Studies" (Ashgate, 2010)
Gerald R. Hawting (1944->) with Wansbrough at S.O.A.S., The First Dynasty of Islam:
The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750 (1986, 2000); The Idea of Idolatryand the Rise of Islam:
From polemic to history (Cambridge Univ. 1999).
Karen Armstrong (1944->) English author, former nun; Muhammad, a Biography of the
Prophet (San Francisco, 1993); Jerusalem: one city, three faiths (1997);A History of God (New
York, 1999); "Islam: A Short History" (2002).
Fred M. Donner (1945->) U.S., Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic
Historical Writings (1998).
Patricia Crone (1945->) Denmark, professor in England & U.S., a modern partisan, God's
Rule : Government and Islam (New York 2004), on political thought;Meccan Trade and the Rise
of Islam (1989); Roman, Provincial and Islamic Law (Cambridge Univ. 1987), as sources of
Islamic jurisprudence ; with M. Cook,Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World (Cambridge
Univ. 1977) following Wansbrough, sets forth the thesis (previously marginal, seldom explicit)
that a multivalent sect of Judaic dissenters predated Muhammad and contributed to the
Qur'an; not reprinted, Hagarism is largely rejected though cited.
Daniel Pipes (1949->) U.S., Hoover Inst., historian, modern partisan; In the Path of God:
Islam and Political Power (1983, 2002).
Carl Ernst (1950->) Islamic studies, Univ.of N.Carolina, Eternal Garden: Mysticism, History
and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Center (1993); Shambhala Guide to Sufism (1997); Following
Muhammad. Rethinking Islam in the contemporary world (2003).
D. M. Varisco (1951->) U.S., Medieval Agriculture and Islamic Science: The Almanac of a
Yemeni Sultan (Univ.of Washington 1994).
Maria Rosa Menocal (1953-1912) U.S., her The Arabic Role in Medieval Literary
History (Univ.of Pennsylvania 1987).
Kim Hodong (1954->) Korea, Holy War in China. Muslim Rebellion and State in Chinese
Central Asia 1864-1877 (Stanford U., 2004).
=> The [t] following a title indicates books translated into English.
1960s-Present[edit]
Adam Gaiser, scholar of medieval Islamic studies and Ibadi traditions, author of Muslims,
Scholars, Soldiers, a study of Ibadi Muslims in Oman.
David Powers, author of Muhammad is Not the Father of Any of Your Men.
Claudia Liebeskind, scholar of Sufi studies and South Asian religious history.
Angelika Neuwirth, German Islamic studies scholar focusing on literary readings of the
Qur'an. Author of Scripture, Poetry and the Making of a Community.
Rudolph Ware, author of The Walking Qur'an.
Austin Kennett England, Bedouin Justice. Law and Custom among the
Egyptian Bedouin (Cambridge Univ. 1925).
David Santillana Italy, Instituzioni di Diritto musulmano, malichita (Roma 1926, 1938), 2
volumes, on Islamic law, Maliki school.
Chin Chi-t'ang China, Chung-kuo hui-chiao shih yen-chiu [Studies in the Histsory of
Chinese Islam] (1935).
Ugo Monneret de Villard Italian academic, Lo Studio dell' Islam in Europa nel XII e nel XIII
secolo (Vatican 1944).
Norman Daniel Islam and the West. The making of an image (Edinburgh Univ. 1960).
Jean Jacques Waardenburg L'Islam dans le miroir de l'occident (Paris 1962), cultural
review of various western scholars of Islam: Goldziher, Hurgronje, Becker, Macdonald,
Massignon.
Farhadt J. Ziadeh, University of Washington, Lawyers, the rule of law & liberalism in
modern Egypt (1968).
James T. Monroe U.S., Univ.of California at Berkeley; Islam and the Arabs in Spanish
Scholarship (Leiden: E. J. Brill 1970); Hispano-Arabic Poetry (Univ.of Calif. 1974, reprint Gorgias
2004); with Benjamin M. Liu, Ten Hispano-Arabic Strophic Songs (U.C. 1989).
Abraham L. Udovitch U.S., Partnership and Profit in Medieval Islam (Princeton Univ. 1970).
Nilo Geagea Lebanese priest, Maria nel messagio coranico (Roma 1973) [t], study of texts
and of a meeting point between religions.
Bat Ye'or (Gisele Orebi Littman), British author, Jewish refugee (in 1958 thousands expelled
by Egypt as reprisal for Lavon Affair); her Hebrew pen name "Daughter of the Nile"; modern
partisan; Le Dhimmi (Genve 1980) [t]; Les Chretientes d'Orient entre Jihad et
Dhimmitude (Paris 1991) [t]; Eurabia: The Euro-Arab Axis (2006).
Antoine El-Gemayel, Lebanon, The Lebanese Legal System 2 vol. (International Law Inst.,
Georgetown Univ. 1985), editor.
Luce Lpez-Baralt Puerto Rico academic, her San Juan de la Cruz y el Islam (Colegio de
Mexico, Univ.de Puerto Rico 1985; Madrid 1990); Huellas del Islam en la literatura
espanola (Madrid 1985, 1989) [t]; influenced by Miguel Asin Palacios.
Joseph Cuoq France, L'Islam en Ethiopie des origines au XVIe siecle (Paris
1981); Islamisation de la Nubie Chretienne (Paris 1986).
George E. Irani Lebanon, U.S., The Papacy and the Middle East. The Role of the Holy See
in the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1962-1984 (Univ.of Notre Dame 1986), e.g., the effect of Vatican II on
Church policy.
Lisa Anderson U.S. academic, The State and Social Transformation in Tunisia and Libya,
1830-1980 (Princeton Univ. 1986).
David Stephen Powers Studies in Qur'an and Hadith. The Formation of the Islamic Law of
Inheritance (Univ.of California 1986).
David B. Burrell U.S., Knowing the Unknowable God: IbnSina, Maimonides, Aquinas (Univ.of Notre Dame 1986).
Masataka Takeshita Japan, Ibn 'Arabi's Theory of the Perfect Man and its Place in the
History of Islamic Thought (Tokyo 1987).
Heribert Busse, Univ.of Kiel, Theologischen Beziehungen des Islams zu Judentum und
Christentum (Darmstadt 1988) [t], which discusses Muhammad, as well as the narratives found
in the Qur'an about the Old Testament and the New Testament.
Jean-Franois Breton, L'Arabie heureuse au temps de la reine de Saba: Viii-I sicles avant
J.-C. (Paris 1988) [t].
Claude Addas France, her Ibn 'Arabi ou La quete du Soufre Rouge (Paris: Editions
Gallimard 1989) [t].
Julian Baldick, Univ. of London, Mystical Islam (1989); Black God. Afroasiatic roots of
Jewish, Christian, & Muslim religions (1998).
Harald Motzki Germany, Die Anfange der islamischen Jurisprudenz (Stuttgart 1991) [t], by
his review of early legal texts, provides a moderate challenge to Schacht's criticism of Hadith &
the origins of Islamic law.
Haim Gerber Hebrew Univ.of Jerusalem, State, Society and Law in Islam. Ottoman Law in
Comparative Perspective (SUNY 1994).
Brannon M. Wheeler (1965->) U.S., Applying the Canon in Islam. The Authorization and
Maintenance of Interpretive Reasoning in Hanafi Scholarship (SUNY 1996).
G. H. A. Juynboll Dutch, Studies on the Origin and Uses of Islamic Hadith ("Variorum"
1996).
Mehrzad Boroujerdi U.S., Iranian Intellectuals and the West. The tormented triumph of
nativism (Syracuse University 1996), includes clerical and lay religious thought, with critical
profiles of several 20th-century academic writers.
Michael Dillon, China's Muslims (Oxford Univ. 1996); China's Muslim Hui Community.
Migration, Settlement, and Sects (London 1999).
Malika Zeghal western academic, Institut d'Etudes Politiques (Paris), Gardiens de l'Islam.
Les oulemas d'al-Azhar dans l'Egypte contemporaine (Paris 1996);Les islamistes morocains: le
defi a la monarchie (Paris 2005); currently at Univ.of Chicago.
Robert G. Hoyland Oxford Univ., Seeing Islam as Others Saw It. A Survey and Evaluation
of Christian, Jewish, and Zoroastrian Writings on early Islam (Darwin 1997); Arabia and the
Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam (Routledge 2001).
Christopher Melchert U.S., The Formation of the Sunni Schools of Law (New York: Brill
1999); Ahmad Ibn Hanbal (2006), re Hanbali.
Christoph Luxenberg (a pseudonym), Die Syro-Aramische Lesart des Koran: Ein Beitrag
zur Entschlssenlung de Koransprache (Berlin 2000, 2007), employs historic Aramaic to
elucidate the Arabic texts.
Herbert Berg, Univ.of N.Carolina, Philosophy & Religion, The Development of Exegesis in
Early Islam. The Debate over authenticity of Muslim literature from the formative
period (Routledge/Curzon 2000).
Knut S. Vikor, Univ.of Bergen, Norway; Between God and the Sultan. A History of Islamic
Law (Oxford Univ. 2005), a fruitful synthesis of much resent scholarship; Sufi and Scholar on the
Desert Edge (1995).
Timur Kuran, Duke Univ., The Long Divergence. How Islamic law held back the Middle
East (Princeton Univ. 2011); Islam and Mammon: The economic predicaments of
Islamism (Princeton Univ. 2004).
=> The [t] following a title indicates books translated into English.
Akbar [Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar] (15421605), Mughul emperor; based chieflly on Islam
and Hinduism he founded a court religion Din-i-Ilahi, which did not flourish following the end of
his reign.
Cornell Fleischer, U.S., Kanuni Suleyman Prof. of Ottoman & Mod. Turkish Studies, Dept.
of Nr. E. Lang. & Civil., U. of Chicago.
Betty Kelen, U.S., U.N. editor, author, Muhammad, The Messenger of God
Martin Kramer (1954->), Israel, modern partisan, Wash. Inst. for Near East Policy; Shalem
Center; Harvard University.
Richard Landes, U.S., Boston University, modern partisan.
Franklin Lewis, U.S., Assoc. Prof. of Persian Lang. & Lit., Dept. of Near Eastern Lang. &
Civil., U. of Chicago.
Elijah Muhammad [Elijah Poole] (18971975), U.S., started the Nation of Islam movement
and proclaimed prophethood.
Pai Shou-i, China, Chung-kuo I-ssu-lan shih kang-yao [Essentials of the History of Chinese
Islam] (19xy).
A. Holly Shissler, U.S., prof. of Ottoman & Early Turkish Republican History, Dept. of Nr. E.
Lang. & Civil., U. of Chicago.
Sra Trifkovi, Serbian-American journalist, political analyst, modern partisan; author, The
Sword of the Prophet.
John Woods, U.S., Prof. of Iranian & Central Asian History, Dept. of Near Eastern Lang. &
Civil., Univ. of Chicago.
=> The [t] following a title indicates books translated into English.
Reference notes[edit]
1.
Jump up^ Many general and specific reference sources were used for the very wide variety of authors herein. The
general sources employed include: Bearman, Bianquis, Bosworth, van Donzel, & Heinrichs (editors), Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd
Edition., 12 vols. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1960-2005); Brandon (editor), Dictionary of Comparative Religion (New York: Scribners
1970); Norman Daniel, Islam and the West (Edinburgh Univ. 1958); John L. Esposito, Oxford Dictionary of Islam (Oxford Univ.
2003); Gibb & Kramers (editors),Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam (Leiden: Brill 1953; Cyril Glass, The Concise Encyclopedia of
Islam (San Francisco: HarperCollins 1989).
2.
Jump up^ The entries usually include bibliographic citations to works of the authors. These also may serve as
reference sources for further inquiry.
3.
4.
Jump up^ J. Monroe, Islam and the Arabs in Spanish scholarship (1970) at 247-248, 251.
5.
Jump up^ J. Monroe, Islam and the Arabs in Spanish scholarship (1970) at 248-251.
See also[edit]
Orientalism
External links[edit]
Booknotes interview with Karen Armstrong on Islam: A Short History, September 22, 2000.
Booknotes interview with Bernard Lewis on What Went Wrong?, December 30, 2001.
Booknotes interview with Caryle Murphy on Passion for Islam: Shaping the Modern Middle
EastThe Egyptian Experience, November 3, 2002.
Booknotes interview with Stephen Schwartz on The Two Faces of Islam: The House of Sa'ud
from Tradition to Terror, February 2, 2003.
The historiography of early Islam refers to the study of the early history of Islam during the 7th
century, from Muhammad's first revelations in AD 610 until the disintegration of the Rashidun
Caliphate in AD 661, and arguably throughout the 8th century and the duration of the Umayyad
Caliphate, terminating in the incipientIslamic Golden Age around the beginning of the 9th century.
Contents
[hide]
1 Primary sources
o
1.3 Epigraphy
2 Muslim historiography
o
4 See also
5 References
6 Bibliography
7 External links
Primary sources[edit]
7th-century Islamic sources[edit]
ibn Qays is the first Shia author in "al-Fihrist" of Ibn al-Nadim. Also al-Mas'udi refers to this book.
A manuscript of the book survived from the early 10th.
While it is the earliest available
book of Shia Islam, some Shia scholars are dubious about the authenticity of some part of it.
However the oldest known copy, on which the majority of modern manuscripts are based, was
written in 1676 CE
[citation needed]
[1]
[2]
650 Fredegar
665 Benjamin I
680 Bundahishn
Epigraphy[edit]
Analysis of a sandstone inscription found in 2008, determined that it reads: "In the name of Allah/ I,
Zuhayr, wrote (this) at the time 'Umar died/year four/And twenty." It is worthwhile pointing out
that caliph Umar bin al-Khattb died on the last night of the month of Dhl-Hijjah of the year 23 AH,
and was buried next day on the first day of Muharram of the new year 24 AH, corresponding to 644
CE. Thus the date mentioned in the inscription (above) conforms to the established and known date
of the death of Umar bin al-Khattb.
[3]
[4]
Muslim historiography[edit]
Further information: Muslim historiography
The "science of hadith" is the process that Muslim scholars use to evaluate hadith. The classification
of Hadith into Sahih (sound), Hasan (good) and Da'if (weak) was firmly established by Ali ibn alMadini (161234 AH). Later, al-Madini's student Muhammad al-Bukhari (810870) authored a
collection that he believed contained only Sahih hadith, which is now known as the Sahih Bukhari.
Al-Bukhari's historical methods of testing hadiths and isnads is seen as the beginning of the method
of citation and a precursor to the scientific method which was developed by later Muslim scientists. I.
A. Ahmad writes:
[5]
"The vagueness of ancient historians about their sources stands in stark contrast to the insistence
that scholars such as Bukhari and Muslimmanifested in knowing every member in a chain of
transmission and examining their reliability. They published their findings, which were then subjected
to additional scrutiny by future scholars for consistency with each other and the Qur'an."
Other famous Muslim historians who studied the science of biography or science of hadith
included Urwah ibn Zubayr (died 712), Wahb ibn Munabbih (died 728),Ibn Ishaq (died 761), alWaqidi (745822), Ibn Hisham (died 834), al-Maqrizi (13641442), and Ibn Hajar Asqalani (1372
1449), among others.
[7]
[8]
[9]
In the Muqaddimah, Ibn Khaldun warned of seven mistakes that he thought that historians regularly
committed. In this criticism, he approached the past as strange and in need of interpretation. The
originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural difference of another age must govern the
evaluation of relevant historical material, to distinguish the principles according to which it might be
possible to attempt the evaluation, and lastly, to feel the need for experience, in addition to rational
principles, in order to assess a culture of the past. Ibn Khaldun often criticized "idle superstition and
uncritical acceptance of historical data." As a result, he introduced a scientific method to the study of
history, which was considered something "new to his age", and he often referred to it as his "new
science", now associated with historiography. His historical method also laid the groundwork for the
observation of the role of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history, and he
is thus considered to be the "father of historiography" or the "father of the philosophy of history".
[10]
[8]
[11][12]
World history[edit]
[13]
Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838923) is known for writing a detailed and
comprehensive chronicle of Mediterranean and Middle Eastern history in his History of the Prophets
and Kings in 915. Abu al-Hasan 'Al al-Mas'd (896956), known as the "Herodotus of the Arabs",
was the first to combine history and scientificgeography in a large-scale work, Muruj adh-dhahab wa
ma'adin al-jawahir (The Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems), a book on world history.
Until the 10th century, history most often meant political and military history, but this was not so
with Persian historian Biruni (9731048). In his Kitab fi Tahqiq ma l'il-Hind (Researches on India), he
did not record political and military history in any detail, but wrote more on India's cultural, scientific,
social and religioushistory. Along with his Researches on India, Biruni discussed more on his idea
of history in his chronological work The Chronology of the Ancient Nations.
[14]
[14]
Al-Muwatta
Al-Waqidi (745822)
Sahih Bukhari
Muslim b. al-Hajjaj (died 875)
Sahih Muslim
Ibn Majah (died 886)
Sunan al-Tirmidhi
Abu al-Hasan 'Al al-Mas'd (896956)
Muruj adh-dhahab wa ma'adin al-jawahir (The Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems)
(947)
Nabataean Agriculture
Tafsir al-Tabari
Sunan al-Sughra
Indica
History of Khawarazm
Rawd al-Qirtas
Al-Dhahabi (12741348)
Talkhis al-Mustadrak
Tadhkirat al-huffaz
Muqaddimah (1377)
Kitab al-Ibar
Fath al-Bari
Tahdhib al-Tahdhib
Bulugh al-Maram
including German, Italian, French, or English, then summarized and commented in a fashion that
was often hostile to Islam. Notable Christian scholars include:
All these scholars worked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Another pioneer of Islamic studies, Abraham Geiger (18101874), was a
prominent Jewish rabbi and approached Islam from that standpoint in his "Was hat Mohammed aus
dem Judenthume aufgenommen?" (1833). Geiger's themes were continued in Rabbi Abraham I.
Katsh's "Judaism and the Koran" (1962)
[15]
Other scholars, notably those in the German tradition, took a more neutral view. The late 19th
century scholar Julius Wellhausen (18441918) is a prime example. They also started, cautiously, to
question the truth of the Arabic texts. They took a source critical approach, trying to sort the Islamic
texts into elements to be accepted as historically true, and elements to be discarded as polemic
or pious fiction. These scholars might include:
H. A. R. Gibb (18951971)
In the 1970s, what has been described as a "wave of sceptical scholars" (Donner 1998 p. 23)
challenged a great deal of the received wisdom in Islamic studies. They argued that the Islamic
historical tradition had been greatly corrupted in transmission. They tried to correct or reconstruct the
early history of Islam from other, presumably more reliable, sources such as coins, inscriptions, and
non-Islamic sources. The oldest of this group was John Wansbrough (19282002). Wansbrough's
works were widely noted, but perhaps not widely read. Donner (1998) says:
Wansbrough's awkward prose style, diffuse organization, and tendency to rely on suggestive
implication rather than tight argument (qualities not found in his other published works) have
elicited exasperated comment from many reviewers. (Donner 1998 p. 38)
Wansbrough's scepticism influenced a number of younger scholars, including:
Michael Cook
In 1977, Crone and Cook published Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World, which argued
that the early history of Islam is a myth, generated after the conquests of Egypt, Syria, and
Persia to prop up the new Arab regimes in those lands and give them a solid ideological
foundation. According to their theory the Qur'an was composed later, rather than early, and the
Arab conquests may have been the cause, rather than the consequence, of Islam. The main
evidence adduced for this thesis was based upon a contemporary body of non-Muslim sources
to many early Islamic events. If such events could not be supported by outside evidence, then
(according to Crone and Cook) they should be dismissed as myth.
Crone and Cook's more recent work has involved intense scrutiny of early Islamic sources, but
not their total rejection. (See, for instance, Crone's 1987 publications,Roman, Provincial, and
Islamic Law and Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam, both of which assume the standard outline
of early Islamic history while questioning certain aspects of it; also Cook's 2001 Commanding
Right and Forbidding Wrong in Islamic Thought, which also cites early Islamic sources as
authoritative.)
In 1972 a cache of ancient Qur'ans in a mosque in Sana'a, Yemen was discovered commonly
known as the Sana'a manuscripts. The German scholar Gerd R. Puin has been investigating
these Qur'an fragments for years. His research team made 35,000 microfilm photographs of the
manuscripts, which he dated to early part of the 8th century. Puin has not published the entirety
of his work, but noted unconventional verse orderings, minor textual variations, and rare styles
of orthography. He also suggested that some of the parchments were palimpsests which had
been reused. Puin believed that this implied an evolving text as opposed to a fixed one.
[16]
Karl-Heinz Ohlig researched as well Christian/Jewish roots of the Qur'an and its related texts.
He sees the term Muhammad istelf (the blessed, as in Benedictus qui venit) as part of that
tradition.
[17][18]
Contemporary scholars have begun to turn to the study of the Islamic sources in a sceptical
mood. They tend to use the histories rather than the hadith, and to analyze the histories in terms
of the tribal and political affiliations of the narrators (if that can be established), thus making it
easier to guess in which direction the material might have been slanted. Notable scholars
include:
Fred M. Donner
Wilferd Madelung
Gerald Hawting
Jonathan Berkey
Andrew Rippin
G.H.A Juynboll
[citation needed]
Sherman Jackson
Fazlur Rahman
Suliman Bashear
See also[edit]
Islamic conquests
References[edit]
1.
Jump up^ See:* Sachedina (1981), pp. 5455 * Landolt (2005), p. 59 * Modarressi (2003), pp 8288 * Dakake (2007),
p.270
2.
3.
4.
5.
Jump up^ Ahmad, I. A. (June 3, 2002). "Faith and Reason: Convergence and Complementarity"
University. Retrieved 2011-05-07.|chapter= ignored (help)
(PDF).
Al Akhawayn
6.
Jump up^ Mohamad Abdalla (Summer 2007). "Ibn Khaldun on the Fate of Islamic Science after the 11th
Century", Islam & Science 5 (1), p. 61-70.
7.
Jump up^ S. Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers.ISBN 1-85065-356-9.
8.
^ Jump up to:a b H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1.
9.
10.
11.
Jump up^ Ibn Khaldun, Franz Rosenthal, N. J. Dawood (1967), The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, p.
x, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-01754-9.
Jump up^ Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1-85065-356-9.
12.
Jump up^ Enan, Muhammed Abdullah (2007). Ibn Khaldun: His Life and Works. The Other Press. p. v. ISBN 9839541-53-6.
13.
Jump up^ Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic
Thought & Culture 12 (3).
14.
^ Jump up to:a b M. S. Khan (1976). "al-Biruni and the Political History of India", Oriens 25, p. 86-115.
15.
Jump up^ Online text: "Judaism And The Koran Biblical And Talmudic Backgrounds Of The Koran And Its
Commentaries (1962) Author: Abraham I. Katsh". Internet Archive. Retrieved 2007-04-18.
16.
Jump up^ Atlantic Monthly Journal, Atlantic Monthly article: What is the Koran ,January 1999
17.
Jump up^ Ohlig, The Hidden Origins of Islam: New Research into Its Early History, Muhammad as a Christological
Honorific Title 2008 interviewhttp://www.qantara.de/webcom/show_article.php/_c-478/_nr-756/i.html
18.
Jump up^ Der frhe Islam: eine historisch-kritische Rekonstruktion anhand zeitgenssischer Quellen, Karl-Heinz
Ohlig, p.333, Verlag Hans Schiler, 2007
Hadith terminology
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Types (categories)
) mus talah
in Islam which specifies the acceptability of the sayings (hadith) attributed to
the prophet Muhammad and other early Islamic figures of significance, such as Muhammad's
family and/or successors. Individual terms distinguish between those hadith considered rightfully
attributed to their source or detail the faults of those of dubious provenance. Formally, it has been
defined by Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani as: "knowledge of the principles by which the condition of the
narrator and the narrated are determined." This page comprises the primary terminology used
within hadith studies.
[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Number of terms
2.1 Sah h
2.2 Hasan
2.4 Daf
3.1 Mutawatir
3.2 Ahaad
4.1 Marfu`
4.2 Mawquf
4.3 Maqtu'
6 References
7 Further reading
Number of terms[edit]
The individual terms are numerous, with Ibn al-Salah including sixty-five in his Introduction to the
Science of Hadith and then commenting: "This is the end of them, but not the end of what is
possible, as this is subject to further particularization to an innumerable extent." Al-Bulqini
commented on this by saying, "We have added five more categories, making it seventy." Ibn alMulaqqin counted the various types as being "more than eighty" and al-Suyuti included ninety-three
[2]
[3]
in Tadrib al-Rawi. Muhammad al-Hzim acknowledged the numerous terms, reaching almost 100 by
his own count, saying: "Be aware that the science of hadith consists of numerous types reaching
almost a hundred. Each type is an independent discipline in and of itself and were a student to
devote his life to them he would not reach their end."
[1]
[4]
Sah h[edit]
S ah h (
Ibn Hajar defines a hadith that is s ah h lithatihi
) is best translated as "authentic".
"s ah h in and of itself" as a singular narration (ahaad; see below) conveyed by a trustworthy,
completely competent person, either in his ability to memorize or to preserve what he wrote, with
a muttas il ("connected")isnd ("chain of narration") that contains neither a serious concealed flaw
(illah) nor irregularity (shdhdh). He then defines a hadith that is s ah h ligharihi "s ah h due to
external factors" as a hadith "with something, such as numerous chains of narration, strengthening
it."
[citation needed]
[5]
Ibn Hajar's definitions indicate that there are five conditions to be met for a particular hadith to be
considered s ah h :
1. Each narrator in the chain of narration must be trustworthy;
2. Each narrator must be reliable in his ability to preserve that narration, be it in his ability to
memorize to the extent that he can recall it as he heard it, or, that he has written it as he
heard it and has preserved that written document unchanged;
3. The isnd must be connected (muttasil) insofar as it is at least possible for each narrator in
the chain to have received the hadith from a predecessor;
4. The hadith, including its isnd, is free of illah (hidden detrimental flaw or flaws, e.g. the
establishment that two narrators, although contemporaries, could not have shared
the hadith, thereby breaking the isnd.)
5. The hadith is free of irregularity, meaning that it does not contradict another hadith already
established (accepted).
A number of books were authored in which the author stipulated the inclusion of s ah h hadith alone.
According to Ahl al-Sunna, this was only achieved by the first two books in the following list:
1. S ah h al-Bukhr. Considered the most authentic book after the Quran.
[6]
2. S ah h Muslim. Considered the next most authentic book after Sahh al-Bukhr.
[6]
3. S ah h ibn Khuzaymah. Al-Suyuti was of the opinion that S ah h Ibn Khuzaymah was at a
higher level of authenticity than S ah h Ibn Hibbn.
[7]
4. S ah h Ibn Hibbn. Al-Suyuti also concluded that S ah h Ibn Hibbn was more authentic
than Al-Mustadrak alaa al-S ah h ain.
[7]
[7]
Hasan[edit]
Hasan ( meaning "good") is used to describe hadith whose authenticity is not as well-established
as that of s ah h hadith, but sufficient for use as (religious) evidence.
Ibn Hajar defines a hadith that is h asan lithatihi "h asan in and of itself" with the same definition
a s ah h hadith except that the competence of one of its narrators is less than complete; while
a hadith that is h asan ligharihi ("hasan due to external factors") is determined to be h asan due to
corroborating factors such as numerous chains of narration. He states that it is then comparable to
a s ah h hadith in its religious authority. A h asan hadith may rise to the level of being s ah h if it is
supported by numerous isnd (chains of narration); in this case that hadith would be h asan
lithatihi ("h asan in and of itself") but, once coupled with other supporting chains, becomes s ah h
ligharihi ("s ah h due to external factors").
[9]
Related terms[edit]
Musnad[edit]
The early scholar of hadith, Muhammad ibn Abdullah al-Hakim, defines a musnad ( meaning
"supported") hadith as:
A hadith which a. scholar of hadith reports from his shaikh whom he has apparently
heard hadith from at an age conducive to that, and likewise each shaikhhaving heard from
his shaikh until the isnd reaches a well known Companion, and then the Messenger of
Allah. An example of that is:
Abu 'Amr 'Uthman ibn Ahmad al-Samak narrated to us in Baghdad: al-Hasan ibn Mukarram
narrated to us: Uthman ibn 'Umar narrated to us: Yunus informed us from al-Zuhri from
Abdullah ibn Kab ibn Mlik from his father Ka'b ibn Malik who sought from ibn Abi Hadrad
payment of a debt the latter owed the former while in the mosque. Their voices became
raised to the extent that they were heard by the Messenger of Allah. He exited only by lifting
the curtain of his apartment and said, 'O Kab! Relieve him of his debt,' gesturing to him in
way indicating by half. So he Kab said, 'Yes,' and the man paid him."
To clarify this example I have given: my having heard from Ibn al-Samak is apparent, his
having heard from al-Hasan ibn al-Mukarram is apparent, likewise Hasan having heard from
'Uthman ibn 'Umar and 'Uthman ibn 'Umar from Yunus ibn Yazid this being
an elevated chain for 'Uthman. Yunus was known [for having heard from] al-Zuhri, as was alZuhri from the sons of Ka'b ibn Malik , and the sons of Ka'b ibn Malik from their father and
Ka'b from the Messenger as he was known for being a Companion. This example I have
made applies to thousands of hadith, citing just this one hadith regarding the generality [of
this category].
[10]
A musnad hadith should not be confused with the type of hadith collection similarly
termed musnad, which is arranged according to the name of the companion narrating
each hadith. For example, a musnad might begin by listing a number of the hadith, complete
with their respective sanads, of Abu Bakr, and then listing a number of hadith from Umar,
and then Uthman ibn Affan and so on. Individual compilers of this type of collection may vary
in their method of arranging those Companions whose hadith they were collecting. An
example of this type of book is the Musnad of Ahmad.
Muttasil[edit]
Muttas il ((
) refers to a continuous chain of narration in which each narrator has heard
that narration from his teacher.
[11]
Daf[edit]
Ibn Hajar described the cause of a hadith being classified as d af as "either due to discontinuity in the chain of narrators or due to
some criticism of a narrator."[12]
Daf ((
) is the categorization of a hadith as "weak". Ibn Hajar described the cause of
a hadith being classified as weak as "either due to discontinuity in the chain of narrators or
due to some criticism of a narrator." This discontinuity refers to the omission of a narrator
occurring at different positions within theisnd and is referred to using specific terminology
accordingly as discussed below.
[12]
Categories of discontinuity[edit]
Muallaq[edit]
Discontinuity in the beginning of the isnd, from the end of the collector of that hadith, is
referred to as muallaq (m meaning "suspended"). Muallaq refers to the omission of one
or more narrators. It also refers to the omission of the entire isnd, for example, (an author)
saying only: "The Prophet said..." In addition, this includes the omission of the isnd except
for the companion, or the companion and successor together.
[12]
Mursal[edit]
Mursal ( (meaning "hurried"): if the narrator between the Successor and Muhammad is
omitted from a given isnd, the hadith is mursal, e.g., when a Successor says, The Prophet
said ... Since Sunnis believe in the uprightness of all Sahaba, they do not view it as a
necessary problem if a Successor does not mention what Sahaba he received
the hadith from. This means that if a hadith has an acceptable chain all the way to a
Successor, and the successor attributes it to an unspecified companion, the isnd is
considered acceptable. There are, however, different views in some cases: If the Successor
is a young one and it is probable that he omitted an elder Successor who in turn reported
form a Sahaba. The opinion held by Imam Malik and all Maliki jurists is that the mursal of a
trustworthy person is valid, just like a musnad hadith. This view has been developed to such
an extreme that to some of them, the mursal is even better than the musnad, based on the
following reasoning: "The one who reports a musnad hadith leaves you with the names of
the reporters for further investigation and scrutiny, whereas the one who narrates by way of
irsal (the absence of the link between the successor and the Prophet), being a
knowledgeable and trustworthy person himself, has already done so and found the hadith to
be sound. In fact, he saves you from further research." Others reject the mursal of younger
Successor.
[13]
[13]
Mud al[edit]
Mud al ((
meaning "problematic") describes the omission of two or more consecutive
narrators from the isnd.
[14]
Munqati [edit]
A hadith described as munqati ( meaning "broken") is one in which the chain of people
reporting the hadith (the isnd) is disconnected at any point. Theisnd of a hadith that
appears to be muttas il but one of the reporters is known to have never heard hadith from his
immediate authority, even though they lived at the same time, is munqati.
It is also applied
when someone says "A man told me...".
[13]
[13]
Shdhdh[edit]
reliable than he is. It does not include a hadith which is unique in its matn and is not narrated
by someone else.
[15]
Mud tarib
[edit]
Mud tarib
( meaning "shaky") According to Ibn Kathir, if reporters disagree about a
particular shaikh, or about some other points in the isnd or the matn, in such a way that
none of the opinions can be preferred over the others, and thus there is irreconcilable
uncertainty, such a hadith is called mud tarib.
[16]
is reported through Abu Ishaq, but as many as ten different opinions are held regarding
this isnd. Some report it as mursal, others as muttasil; some take it as a narration of
Abu Bakr, others as one of Sa'd or `A'ishah." Since all these reports are comparable in
weight, it is difficult to prefer one above another. Hence, the hadith is termed
as mud tarib".
[16]
Mawd [edit]
Causes of fabrication[edit]
There are several factors which may motivate an individual to fabricate a narration:
political differences;
fabrications by heretics;
fabrications by story-tellers;
Collections[edit]
This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section
by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged
and removed. (March 2012)
In hadith terminology, a hadith is divided into two categories based, essentially, upon the
number of narrators mentioned at each level in a particular isnd. Consideration is given
to the least number of narrators at any level of the chain of narration; thus if ten
narrators convey a hadith from two others who have conveyed it from ten, it is
considered `aziz, not mashhur.
[17]
Mutawatir[edit]
The first category is mutawatir ( meaning "successive") narration. A successive
narration is one conveyed by narrators so numerous that it is not conceivable that they
have agreed upon an untruth thus being accepted as unquestionable in its veracity. The
number of narrators is unspecified. A hadith is said to bemutawatir if it was reported by
a significant, though unspecified, number of narrators at each level in the chain of
narration, thus reaching the succeeding generation through multiple chains of narration
leading back to its source. This provides confirmation that the hadith is authentically
attributed to its source at a level above reasonable doubt. This is due to its being
beyond historical possibility that narrators could have conspired to forge a narration. In
contrast, an ahaad hadith is a narration the chain of which has not reached a number
sufficient to qualify as mutawatir.
[17]
Types of mutawatir[edit]
the Maghrib prayer, yet the narrations of all the reporters who reported the number of ra'kat
are not in the same words. Their words are different and even the events reported by them
are different. But the common feature of all the reports is the same: the exact number of
ra'kat. The hadith is thus said to be mutawatir in meaning.
Ahaad[edit]
The second category, ahaad ( meaning "singular") narration, refers
to any hadith not classified as mutawatir. Linguistically, hadith
ahad refers to a hadithnarrated by only one narrator.
In hadith terminology, it refers to a hadith not fulfilling all of the
conditions necessary to be deemed mutawatir. Hadith ahadconsists of
three sub-classifications also relating to the number of narrators in the
chain or chains of narration:
[17]
[17]
Mashhur[edit]
`Aziz[edit]
Gharib[edit]
A gharib ( )(hadith is one conveyed by only one narrator. AlTirmidhi's understanding of a gharib hadith, concurs to a certain extent
with that of the other traditionists. According to him a hadith may be
classified as gharib for one of the following three reasons:
[17]
[citation needed]
[18]
Marfu`[edit]
Ibn al-Salah said: "Marfo` ( )(refers to a narration attributed
specifically to the Prophet [Muhammad]. This term does not refer to
other than him unless otherwise specified. The category of marfu` is
inclusive of narrations attributed to the Prophet regardless of their
being muttasil, munqati` or mursal among other categories."
[19]
Mawquf[edit]
Maqtu'[edit]
Ibn al-Salah defined maqtu` ( )(as a narration attributed to
a Tabii (a successor of one of Muhammad's companions), whether it is
a statement of that successor, an action or otherwise. In spite of the
linguistic similarity, it is distinct from munqati`.
[19]
References[edit]
1.
^ Jump up to:a b al-`Asqaln, Ahmad ibn `Al. al-Nukat Ala Kitab Ibn al-Salah (in
Arabic) 1. `Ajman: Maktabah al-Furqan. pp. 8195.
2.
Jump up^ Ibn al-Salah. 'Aishah bint 'Abd al-Rahman, ed. Muqadimah Ibn al-Salah (in
Arabic). Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif. p. 150.
3.
Jump up^ Al-Tathkirah fi 'Ulum al-Hadith, Dar 'Ammaar, Jordan, first edition, 1988.
4.
^ Jump up to:a b c d Muqadimah Ibn al-Salah, by Ibn al-Salah, along with Muhasin alIstilah by al-Bulqini, edited by 'Aishah bint 'Abd al-Rahman, pg. 101, Dar al-Ma'arif,
Cairo.
5.
Jump up^ Nuzhah al-Nuthr, published with Al-Nukat by 'Ali ibn Hasan, pg. 82, Dar ibn
al-Jawzi, al-Damam, 6th edition.
6.
^ Jump up to:a b al-Shahrazuri, `Uthman ibn `Abd al-Rahman Ibn al-Salah (1990). `Aishah
bint `Abd al-Rahman, ed. al-Muqaddimah fi `Ulum al-Hadith. Cairo: Dar al-Maaarif.
pp. 1609.
7.
^ Jump up to:a b c Tadrib al-Rawi, vol. 1, pg. 148, Dar al-'Asimah, Riyadh, first edition,
2003.
8.
9.
Jump up^ Nuzhah al-Nuthr, published as Al-Nukat, pg. 9192, Dar ibn al-Jawzi, alDamam, 6th edition.
10.
Jump up^ Marifah 'Ulum al-Hadith, by al-Hakim, pg. 17-8, Da'irah al-Ma'arif
al-'Uthmanaiyyah, Hyderabad, India, second edition, 1977.
11.
Jump up^ Nuzhah al-Nuthr, published with Al-Nukat by 'Ali ibn Hasan, pg. 83, Dar ibn
al-Jawzi, al-Damam, 6th edition.
12.
^ Jump up to:a b c Nuzhah al-Nuthr, published with Al-Nukat, pg. 108, Dar ibn al-Jawzi, alDamam, 6th edition.
13.
^ Jump up to:a b c d "The Classification of hadith according to the links in the isnd, by
Suhaib Hsan". Witness-pioneer.org. 2002-09-16. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
14.
Jump up^ Nuzhah al-Nuthr, published with Al-Nukat by 'Ali ibn Hasan, pg. 112, Dar ibn
al-Jawzi, al-Damam, 6th edition.
15.
^ Jump up to:a b "The Classification of hadith according to the nature of the text
and isnd, by Suhaib Hassan". Witness-pioneer.org. 2002-09-16. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
16.
17.
^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h Nuzhah al-Nathar, by Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, printed with: AlNukat Ala Nuzhah al-Nathr, pgs. 5170, by Ali ibn Hasan ibn Ali, Dar Ibn al-Jawzi,
Dammam, Saudi Arabia, sixth edition, 1422.
18.
Jump up^ Al-Baith al-Hathith Sharh Ikhtisar Ulum Al-Hadith, Ahmad Muhammad
Shakir, vol. 1, pg. 126, Maktabah al-Maarif, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, first edition, 1996.
19.
^ Jump up to:a b c Muqadimah Ibn al-Salah, by Ibn al-Salah, along with Muhasin alIstilah by al-Bulqini, edited by 'Aishah bint 'Abd al-Rahman, pg. 193-5, Dar al-Ma'arif,
Cairo.
20.
Jump up^ Nuzhah Al-Nathr, pg. 4551, published with al-Nukat of Ali ibn Hasan, Dar
Ibn al-Jawzi. I referred to the explanation of Ali al-Qari, Sharh Sharh Nukhbah al-Fikr, in
particular segments of pgs. 143-7.