Dimensions, Tolerances, and Surfaces

The quality of a part is not only dependent on the physical and mechanical
properties of the material from which it is manufactured, but also upon the
geometrical attributes too. These attributes include the dimensions, tolerances,
flatness, roundness, angularity and surface finishes.
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) defines a dimension as "a
numerical value expressed in appropriate units of measure and indicated on a
drawing and in other documents along with lines, symbols and notes to define
the size or geometric characteristic, or both, of a part or part feature."
The dimension represented on a part drawing is an almost ideal state that is
generally unattainable in practice because of inaccuracies ... deviations ....
introduced by imperfections in the manufacturing processes. Tolerances
imposed on a dimension are specified to accommodate these imperfections, and
to specify the maximum admissible excursion from the desired perfect state.
Therefore parts with absolute dimensions lying outside this state are
unacceptable, they are rejected as scrap, and a financial penalty is incurred.
ANSI defines a tolerance as "the total amount by which a specific dimension is
permitted to vary. The tolerance is the difference between the maximum and
minimum limits."
Surfaces
The quality of a part's surface is dictated by the manufacturing process employed
to create the two or three dimensional shape. Furthermore the surface quality
varies widely among processes and this part attribute is of importance for the
engineer because of a variety of technical and commercial reasons.
- Aesthetics
- Safety
- Friction and wear
- Assembly operations
- Electrical conductivity
- Mechanical and physical properties
When magnified, using an optical microscope, surface irregularities and
imperfections become clearly evident. Flaws, roughness, waviness and patterns
imposed by the manufacturing process responsible for creating the surface are
readily identifiable.
Surface finish is a subjective term concerning the surface characteristics while
surface roughness can be defined as the average of the vertical deviations from
the nominal surface over a specified length. An arithmetic average can be
employed or a root-mean-squared average.

The decision of which manufacturing processes to employ to create a part in a

specific material with specific surface qualities and embodying specific
dimensions within prescribed geometrical tolerances is an important engineering
consideration, especially when it must be accomplished cost-effectively. To
facilitate this activity, manufacturing processes can be codified based on the
dimensional accuracy and surface finish they can attain.
Generally the more accurate the part and the more refined the surface attributes,
the more expensive the manufacturing processes needed to achieve this.
Therefore one should always specify the roughest surface with the largest
tolerances for a prescribed set of operating conditions.

.------ Surface texture

.......- - Altered layer

/~:I-+--

Substrate

FIGURE 5.2 A magnified cross

section of a typical metallic part
surface.

Waviness spacing
Crater (flaw)
Lay direction
Crack (flaw)
Waviness heigh1

Roughness height
Roughness width

Vertical deviations
(y;)

Nominal surface

x
FIGURE 5.5 Deviations
from nominal surface used
in the two definitions of
surface roughness.

FIGURE 5.1 Three ways to

specify tolerance limits for a
nominal dimension of
2.500: (a) bilateral, (b)
unilateral, and (c) limit
dimensions.

~---------------Lm----------------"

2.500~:~

(a)

2.500:g:g~

(b)

-r
2.505
2.495

(c)

TABLE 5.4

Typical tolerance limits, based on process capability (Section 44.2lt for various manufacturing processes.
Typical Tolerance Limits

mm

Process
Sand casting
Cast iron
Steel
Aluminum
Die casting
Plastic molding:
Polyethylene
Polystyrene
Machining:
Drilling, diameter:
6 rom (0.250 in)
25 rom (1.000 in)
Milling
'fuming

inches

1.3
1.5
O.5
, 0.12

0.050
0.060
0.020
0.005

0.3
0.15

0.01O
0.006

+0.08, -0.03
+0.13, -O.OS
0.08
0.05

+0.003, -0.001
+0.006, -0.002
0.OO3
0.002

Typical Tolerance Limits

Process
Abrasive processes:
Grinding
Lapping
Honing
Nontraditional processes:
Chemical machining
Electric discharge
Electrochem. grind
Electrochem. machine
Electron beam cutting
Laser beam cutting
Plasma arc cutting

rom

inches

0-008
0.OO5
0.005

0.0003
0.0002
O.0002

0.08
0.025
0.025

O.003
O.OOl
O.OOl
0.002
O.003
0.003
O.OSO

O.~

O.
0.08
1.3

Compiled from [4], [5], and other sources.

TABLE 5.5

Surface roughness values produced by the various manufacturing processes. a

Process
Casting:
Die casting
Investment
Sand casting
Metal forming:
Cold rolling
Sheet metal draw
Cold extrusion
Hot rolling
Machining:
Boring
Drilling
Milling
Planing
Reaming
Shaping
Sawing
Turning

m,

Typical Surface
Fmish

Range of
Rougbnessb

Good
Good
Poor

1-2 (30-65)
1.5-3 (SO-l00)
12-25 (SOO-l000)

Good
Good
Good
Poor

1-3 (25-125)
1-3 (25-125)
1-4 (30-1S0)
12-25 (500-1000)

Good
Medium
Good
Medium
Good
Medium
Poor

O.S-6 (15-250)
1.5-6 (60-2S0)
1-6 (30-250)
1.5-12 (60-S00)
1-3 (30-12S)
1.5-12 (60-500)
3-25 (100-1000)
0.5-6 (15-250)

Good

Finish

Range of
Rougbnessb

Very good
Very good
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent

0.1-2 (S-75)
0.1-1 (4-30)
0.05-0.5 (2-1S)
O.l-O.S (5-15)
0.02-0.3 (1-10)

Medium
Good
Medium
Medium
Medium

1.5-5 (50-200)
0.2-2 (10-100)
1.5-1S (50-500)
1.5-15 (50-500)
15-1S (50-500)

Poor
Poor
Poor

5-25 (250-1000)
12-25 (500-1000)
12-25 (500-1000)

Typical Surface

Process
Abrasive:
Grinding
Honing
Lapping
Polishing
Superfinish
Nontraditional:
Chemical milling
Electrochemical
Electric discharge
Electron beam
Laserbearn
Thermal:
Arc welding
Flame cutting
Plasma arc cutting

Compiled from
[2J, and other sources.
b Subjective description and typical range of surface roughness values are given, porn (po-in). Roughness can vary significantly for a given process,
depending on process parameters.

~--

Surface texture

~~.:...&~L.iJ..oII---- Altered layer

~~~~

./.4---- Substrate

FIGURE 5.2 A magnified cross

section of a typical metallic part
surface.

Waviness spacing
Crater (flaw)
Lay direction
Crack (flaw)

Roughness height
Roughness width

Actual surface

Vertical deviations
~)

Nominal surface

x
FIGURE 5.5 Deviations
from nominal surface used
in the two definitions of
surface roughness.

FIGURE 5.1 Three ways to

specify tolerance limits for a
nominal dimension of
2.500: (a) bilateral, (b)
unilateral, and (c) limit
dimensions.

~---------------Lm----------~

2.500~g:~

(a)

2.500 ~8:8J8

(b)

2.505
2.495

(c)

TABLE 5.4

Typical tolerance limits, based on process capability (Section 44.2), for various manufacturing processes.

1YPical Tolerance Limits

Typical Tolerance Limits

mm

inches

1.3
1.5
O.S
0.12

0.050
0.060
0.020
O.OOS

0.3
0.1S

0.010
0.006

+0.08, -0.03
+0.13, -O.OS
0.O8
0.05

+0.003, -0.001
+0.006, -0.002
0.003
0.002

Process
Sand casting
Cast iron
Steel
Aluminum
Die casting
Plastic molding:
Polyethylene
Polystyrene
Machining:
Drilling, diameter:
6 mm (0.250 in)
2S mm (1.000 in)
Milling
Turning

Process
Abrasive processes:
Grinding
Lapping
Honing
Nontraditional processes:
Chemical machining
Electric discharge
Electrochem. grind
Electrochem. machine
Electron beam cutting
Laser beam cutting
Plasma arc cutting

mID

inches

0.008
0.005
O.OOS

OJX)03
0.0002
O.OOO2

0.08
O.025
0.025
O.OS
0.08
0.08
1.3

O.003
0.00l
0.001
0.002
O.003
O.003
O.OSO

Compiled from [4], [5], and other sources.

TABLE 5.5

Surface roughness values produced by the various manufacturing processes."

Process
Casting:
Die casting
Investment
Sand casting
Metal forming:
Cold rolling
Sheet metal draw
Cold extrusion
Hot rolling
Machining:
Boring
Drilling
Milling
Planing
Reaming
Shaping
Sawing
Thrning

Typical Surface
Finish

Range of
Roughness b

Good
Good
Poor

1-2 (30-65)
1.5-3 (50-100)
12-25 (500-1000)

Good
Good
Good
Poor

1-3 (25-125)
1-3 (25-125)
1-4 (30-150)
12-25 (SOO-looo)

Good
Medium
Good
Medium
Good
Medium
,Poor
Good

0.5-6 (15-250)
1.5-6 (60-250)
1-6 (30-250)
15-12 (60-500)
1-3 (30-125)
1.5-12 (60-500)
3-25 (100-1000)
0.5-6 (15-250)

Process
Abrasive:
Grinding
Honing
Lapping
Polishing
Superfinish
Nontraditional:
Chemical milling
Electrochemical
Electric discharge
Electron beam
Laser beam
Thermal:
Arc welding
Flame cutting
Plasma arc cutting

Typical Surface
Finish

Range of
Roughnessb

Very good
Very good
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent

0.1-2 (5-75)
0.1-1 (4-30)
0.05-0.5 (2-15)
0.1-0.5 (5-15)
0.02-0.3 (1-10)

Medium
Good
Medium
Medium
Medium

1.5-5 (50-200)
0.2-2 (10-100)
1.5-15 (50-500)
1.5-15 (50-500)
1.5-15 (50-SOO)

Poor
Poor
Poor

5-25 (250-1000)
12-25 (500-1000)
12-25(500-1000)

Compiled from (1], [2], and other sources.

b Subjective description and typical range of surface roughness values are given, JLm (JL-in). Roughness can vary significantly for a given process,
depending on process parameters.