4.

NOX EMISSIONS REDUCTION METHODS

There are two types of NOX reduction methods primary and
secondary methods. The primary method includes those that alter the
combustion process to reduce the NOX emission levels. The secondary
method includes those that clean the exhaust gases after they leave the
combustion chamber.
4.1 PRIMARY NOX EMISSION REDUCTION METHODS
The most widely used primary methods of NO X reduction available
today are:
Engine Timing.
Modification of injection Systems.
Narrow Angle Direct Injection process.
Low NOX combustion system.
Exhaust gas recirculation
Water-in-fuel emulsions.
Direct water injection.
Inlet air humidification system.
4.1.1 ENGINE TIMING
Compression ignition (diesel) engines and on spark ignition (gasoline)
engines, the timing of the fuel ignition is set a few crank degrees before the
top dead center. On diesel engines this means that the beginning of fuel
injection is started before the top dead center on the power stroke. The
advance angle before the top dead center is the pre-ignition angle and is
mainly a function of the fuel type and the speed of rotation. Engine
manufacturers optimize this pre-ignition angle for fuel economy and reliability
of the engine components. Retarding the injection timing can lead to lower
peak temperatures in the combustion chamber and thus lower NO X emissions.
On some engines this timing can be adjusted in service while on others this
adjustment is a major undertaking. The NO X reduction potential is limited
(about 2-3%) and trade-off is fuel economy

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4.1.2 MODIFICATION OF INJECTION SYSTEMS

It is the most simple and cheap method to reduce the NO X emission
levels. This method consists of retarding the fuel injection timing and
modifying the turbocharger specification. This method is limited to a NO X
reduction potential of between 10-20%. The drawback of this method is an
increased fuel consumption and thermal load on the engine. Maximum
injection pressures have reached 1600 to 1800 bar using common-rail diesel
injection and exceeded 2000 bar using the unit injector technique. This
improves fuel atomization, thus considerably reducing soot emissions. These
injection systems also implement new control technologies to distribute the
quantity injected into multiple injections (up to 5 to 7 for common rail) during
the thermodynamic cycle. By modulating the combustion process, this
technique substantially reduces emissions at the source (CO, NO x and
particulate matter) while bringing down the noise level.
4.1.3 NARROW ANGLE DIRECT INJECTION PROCESS
The idea is to distribute the fuel-air mixture much more evenly
throughout the combustion chamber. Lowering the combustion temperature
and avoiding excessively fuel-rich areas can very substantially reduce NO x
and soot formation. Most of the engine manufacturers and many research
institutes are working to adapt these new processes in heavy-duty diesel
engines. The Narrow Angle Direct Injection combustion system consists of an
injector with a cone angle smaller than usual (60 versus 150 in conventional
systems) and an adapted combustion chamber design. Fuel is injected very
early in the engine cycle. Fuel impingement on the cylinder wall is limited, so
oil dilution by the fuel is prevented. This means that there is more time to
ensure

homogeneous

air-fuel

mixture

before

auto

ignition.

The

disadvantages of this type of approach reside in a tendency to increase noise,

CO and unburned hydrocarbon emissions. Again, using suitable multistage
injection strategies to control the noise level as well as an oxidation catalyst to
eliminate the HCs and CO can solve these problems. Today, when applied to
heavy-duty diesel engines, the Narrow Angle Direct Injection process can
reduce NOx emissions by a factor of 10 to 50 while keeping soot emissions
very low over half of the operating range.
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4.1.4 LOW NOX COMBUSTION SYSTEM

The Low NOX combustion method involves rearranging the diesel
cycle. Increasing the compression ratio and fuel injection pressures, closing
the inlet valve sooner and starting the fuel injection at a very late stage in the
cycle rearranges the diesel cycle. The results of the rearranged cycle are
lower combustion temperatures and shorter combustion duration at high
temperatures. This method has a NO X reduction potential of 25-35%. In
addition, with the low NOX combustion process, the fuel consumption remains
the same and in some cases, is actually improved slightly.
4.1.5 EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION
When a small percentage of exhaust gas is introduced into the
combustion air, the oxygen purity of the combustion air is reduced leading to
lower NOX emissions. Products of combustion contain corrosive gases that
require to be taken into account while designing an EGR system. With a 20%
EGR NOX reduction is in the order of 50% with very little fuel consumption
penalty.
4.1.6 WATER-IN-FUEL EMULSIONS
The water-in-fuel emulsions method involves emulsifying water with the
fuel and injecting it through the same injection system. The water in the fuel
causes a humid combustion process resulting in a lower combustion
temperature. The advantages of this system are improved low load smoke
emissions as well as lower NOX emissions. The NOX emissions reduction is
limited to about 20% due to the instability of the emulsion at higher water
contents. The disadvantages of this system are it causes an increased
camshaft torque and cam load, full load operation is not possible at higher
water ratios due to limitations in the fuel injection equipment, the engine
performance is poor during non-water operation and the injection equipment
reliability and lifetimes are affected by the presence of water in the fuel.
Various types of homogenizers have been employed for fuel emulsification.
-

Mill pump homogenizer comprising of a grinding wheel impeller that

physically grinds the fuel as it passes through the unit

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Ultrasonic homogenizer employing high power ultrasonic transducers

to homogenize the fuel passing through the unit

High pressure homogenizer comprising of a piston pump to raise the

pressure of the fluid to about 100 bar and releasing it through a
homogenizing valve that physically pulverizes the fluid passing through
it.

4.1.7 DIRECT WATER INJECTION

The direct water injection (DWI) method involves injecting water
directly into the cylinder through a separate nozzle built into the same injector.
The water is injected prior to the injection of the fuel into the cylinder thus
having a longer time to reduce the cylinder temperature before the fuel is
injected and the combustion starts. The result is a lower combustion
temperature and lower NOX emission levels. The actual amount of reduction is
dependent on the amount of water injected. Water amounts vary up to a
maximum of around 50% of the consumed fuel volume. With the maximum
volume injected, the NOX emission levels can be reduced by 50-60%. The
only disadvantage of this system is a slightly higher fuel consumption (1-2
g/kWh). The above primary NOX reduction methods are the systems available
today.
4.1.8 INLET AIR HUMIDIFICATION SYSTEM
The Inlet air humidification system involves a humidification of the
combustion air prior to entering the combustion chamber. This causes a
humid combustion process resulting in a lower combustion temperature. The
result is a lower NOX emission level. As with direct water injection system, the
actual amount of reduction is dependent on the amount of water injected in
the combustion air. With this system, it is possible to inject even more water
as compared to direct water injection system. In some cases, it is possible to
even inject twice as much water as the consumed fuel volume. This gives a
slightly better result as compared to direct water injection system. The NO X
emission levels can be reduced around 60% with the addition of inlet air
humidification system. It is foreseen that inlet air humidification system is the

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future standard system to ensure that engines can meet the more stringent
local and regional proposed NOX emission levels.
4.2 SECONDARY NOX EMISSION REDUCTION METHODS
The most widely used primary methods of NO X reduction available
today are:
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) technique.
Selective Non Catalytic Reduction (SNCR) technique.
The NOx trap.
4.2.1 SELECTIVE CATALYTIC REDUCTION (SCR) TECHNIQUE
The most common and most effective method of secondary NO X
emission control is the selective catalytic reduction (SCR). This method
involves injecting an urea/water solution in the exhaust system after the
exhaust gas leaves the engine[7]. The urea/water solution mixes with the
exhaust gases before entering the honeycomb reactor. In the reactor, the
exhaust gas/urea/water mixture chemically reacts to form nitrogen and water
at the outlet of the reactor. The SCR system has a NO X emission reduction
potential of 85- 95% or down to about 1-2 g/kWh. The actual amount of
reduction is dependent on the amount of urea/water solution injected. The
more solution injected, the lower the NO X emissions outlet to a certain limit. If
too much urea/water solution is injected, it can cause what is known as
ammonia slip. Ammonia slip causes the smell of ammonia out the exhaust
stack. Today, a compact SCR unit is available that is nearly the same size as
a standard exhaust silencer. The compact SCR incorporates both the
honeycomb reactor section of the SCR and the silencer into one unit. With the
compact SCR, it makes it possible to retrofit an existing installation with an
SCR system for secondary cleaning of the exhaust. With the high degree of
NOX emission reduction, the SCR system is ideal for vessels operating in
sensitive areas. The main drawback of the system is the high investment and
operating costs. Fortunately, the system can be started and stopped as
needed to comply with more stringent regulations in sensitive areas. Another
feature of the system is the closed loop control system that continuously

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samples the exhaust gas as it leaves the reactor and regulates the amount of
urea solution injection based on the set point chosen by the operator.
4.2.2 SELECTIVE NON-CATALYTIC REDUCTION (SNCR)
In SNCR, a reducing agent (typically NH 3 or urea) is injected into the
engine above the combustion zone, where it reacts with NOx as in the case of
SCR. Critical factors in applying SNCR are sufficient residence time in the
appropriate temperature range and uniform distribution and mixing of the
reducing agent across the full engine cross section.
4.2.3 THE NOX TRAP
The NOx trap offers efficiency ratios comparable to those obtained by
the SCR, but without the disadvantage of having to carry another reducer on
board. A number of development projects are focused on this alternative
nitrogen oxide treatment.
In principle, it operates by alternating two stages:

The engine runs normally on a lean mixture. During this stage, the
nitrogen

oxides (after being oxidized to NO 2) are stored in nitrate

form on an adsorbent mass.

The engine is run on a rich mixture. The NO x are released then

reduced by the reducers (CO, HC) present in the exhaust gases.

To release and reduce the nitrogen oxides, the air-fuel ratio must exceed or
be equal to 1, which is unusual for a diesel engine. This is done by tuning the
engine (air flow, injection phasing and duration, EGR ratio). The conditions
under which regeneration occurs (fuel-air ratio, tuning) affect the duration and
efficiency of release. Regeneration also causes a substantial rise in the
temperature of the trap, which could exceed its storage window and thereby
limit the efficiency of the subsequent storage phase. The combined impact of
these different parameters, on both storage and destorage, shows that the
best NOx/consumption trade-off is obtained when regeneration occurs at high
levels of richness. By optimizing the system as a whole, it is possible to obtain
reduction efficiencies of about 80% for over diesel consumption of 2 to 5%. To
avoid discharge of CO and HCs, which can happen when running a richer fuel

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mixture, an oxidation catalyst is installed downstream from the trap to treat

these emissions.
The NOx trap also requires the use of a low-sulphur fuel (< 10 ppm). In
the presence of sulphur, the trap becomes progressively saturated with
sulfates, more stable than nitrates, which quickly reduces its efficiency. In
addition, it requires periodic desulfation by running a richer fuel mixture at
high temperature. Unlike the SCR, the NOx trap works closely with the engine
in managing rich-mixture running. In order to optimize strategies, any impact
on engine operation and its durability (lubricant dilution, thermal stresses, etc.)
should be taken into account, along with the thermal aging of the trap. Rich
mixture running, especially at high engine loads, generates smoke emissions
that would necessitate the use of a particulate filter.
4.2.4 FOUR-WAY CATALYSIS
The ultimate emission control solution is four-way catalysis
eliminating the four pollutants simultaneously (CO, HC, NO X and particulate
matter). This involves applying a CO, HC and NO X absorber catalyst to a
filtering medium to treat these emissions. There is a difficulty inherent to this
approach: active NOX treatment sites must be left accessible at the filter
surface and excessive soot accumulations must not be allowed to cover them
up. In developing the ceramic material, special attention is paid to porosity to
limit accumulation and to avoid an excessive increase in pressure loss due to
the presence of the adsorbent catalyst.

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