Talha bin Yaqub

ID:200991826

Material Selection and Specification for Blade, Disc and

Shaft for the Turbine Stage of Static Gas Turbine
Talha Bin Yaqub
School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT UK

Table of Contents:
1.

Introduction..............................................................................................................................3

2.

Turbine Blade:.........................................................................................................................4
2.1 Performance Specification.....................................................................................................4
2.2 Possible Materials:.................................................................................................................7
2.1 Processing:.............................................................................................................................8
2.1.1 Forging (Avitzur, 1968):.................................................................................................8
2.1.2 Investment Casting (Kalpakjian, 2001):.........................................................................8

3.

Turbine Disc...........................................................................................................................11
3.1 Performance Specification...................................................................................................11
3.1.1 Possible Materials:........................................................................................................12
3.2 Process Specification...........................................................................................................14

4.

Turbine Shaft.........................................................................................................................17
4.1 Performance Specification...................................................................................................17
4.1.1 Bending stiffness:.........................................................................................................18
4.1.2 Torsional Stiffness:.......................................................................................................18
4.1.3 Possible Materials:........................................................................................................20
4.2 Process Specification:..........................................................................................................20

5.

Joining:..................................................................................................................................22

6.

Specification and Sourcing....................................................................................................22

7.

Inspection:..............................................................................................................................22

8.

Lifetime..................................................................................................................................23

List of Figures:
Figure 1: Material Selection Chart (Yield Strength vs Density)...............................................7
Figure 2: Material Selection Chart (Youngs Modulus vs Density)..........................................7
Figure 3: Graphical Comparison of Processing Techniques (Discreet vs Capital Cost).......10
Figure 4: Graphical Comparison of Processing Techniques (Surface Roughness vs Capital
Cost)..............................................................................................................................................11
Figure 5: Graphical Comparison of Processing Techniques (Discreet vs Relative Cost
Index)............................................................................................................................................11
Figure 6: Material Selection Chart (Yield Strength vs Density).............................................13
Figure 7: Comparison of Tooling Cost for Primary Processes................................................16
Figure 8: Comparison of Capital Cost for Primary Processes................................................16
Figure 9: Comparison of Relative Cost Index for Primary Processes....................................17
Figure 10: Comparison of Section Thickness Range for Primary Processes.........................17
Figure 11: Material Selection Chart (Shear Modulus vs Density)..........................................20
Figure 12: Material Selection Chart (Youngs Modulus vs Density)......................................20
Figure 13: Comparison of Mass Ranges of Processes...............................................................22
Figure 14: Comparison of Relative Cost Index of Processes...................................................23

List of Tables:
Table 1: Performance Specification for Turbine Blade..............................................................5
Table 2: Processing Specification for Turbine Blade..................................................................9
Table 3: Performance Specification for Turbine Disc..............................................................12
Table 4: Processing Specification for Turbine Disc...................................................................15
Table 5: Performance Specification for Turbine Shaft.............................................................18
Table 6: Processing Specification for Turbine Shaft.................................................................21

1. Introduction
A gas turbine is a type of internal combustion engine in which air is used as working fluid. The
gaseous energy of air is used to convert chemical energy of fuel to mechanical energy.

Output shaft power, which is needed to drive the propeller, is provided by the turbine section of
the engine. The compressor and all other engine accessories are also driven by the power
provided by this section. The gradual advancement in the material science has made it possible to
manufacture gas turbine engines with high efficiency levels and high power ratings. It is the
capability of a material to withstand higher temperature which leads to the higher efficiency;
weight reduction can also be achieved if material has high elevated temperature strength to
weight ratio (Muktinutalapati, 2011).
In the start it was high temperature tensile strength which served as prime requirement for the
materials development. Later on, stress rupture life and then creep properties became factors for
material development. The choice of material was based on its capabilities to withstand higher
loads (Muktinutalapati, 2011).
This review gives an analysis on the advancement of materials and processes that are involved in
the production of various components of gas turbine engine.

Although there are several components that join up to make a gas turbine engine, emphasis here
has been on three main components i.e. blade, disc and shaft of turbine. These components are
critical to the performance of the gas turbine engine.

2. Turbine Blade:
Turbine blades are core component for the gas turbine engine as they are responsible for
extracting the energy from high temperature and high pressure gasses (Gurajarapu, et al., 2014).
Without turbine blades there will be no power at all while a slightest fault in the blades costs a
fortune to repair.

2.1 Performance Specification

During the operation, blades are subjected to significant gas bending and rotational stresses at
very high temperatures. They also withstand sever thermo mechanical loading cycles during
normal start-up and shutdown operation and unexpected trips. The turbine inlet is most difficult
and challenging point as it is subjected to severe difficulties like, extreme temperatures in range
of 9000 C- 12000C, high pressure, vibrations, small circulation area and high rotational speed
(Bohidar, et al., 2013).
Table 1: Performance Specification for Turbine Blade

Let suppose, the area of blade is rectangular,

A=bh

And h=2b
The objective function is an equation for the mass that we approximate as
m=bhL
While,
h Stands for the length of blade,

Stands for the density of material,

A Stands for the area of cross section,

Is a constant multiplier

High strength of the turbine blades requires that:

FL
= y
2 b2

Substituting value of b from this equation:

m=

Now for high bending stiffness,

S=

h L3 /2
21/ 2 1/2

C1 EI
L

S* is the desired stiffness, E is Youngs modulus, C1 is a constant that

b h3
depends on the distribution of load and I = 12 is the second moment of the area of
the beam. Thus
12 S 13
h=
L
C1 bE

Inserting this in equation gives equations for the performance metrics: the mass m2 of the blade
m

1
3

12 S
C1 b

( )

( )
1

E3

Material indices for these equations:

M 1=

1/ 2

1/3

&

M 2=

Figure 1: Material Selection Chart (Yield Strength vs Density)

Figure 2: Material Selection Chart (Youngs Modulus vs Density)

2.2 Possible Materials:

Zirconia, Nickel Chromium Alloys, Nickel based Super Alloys, Tungsten Carbides
Out of these selected materials, I have chosen Nickel based super alloys using the information
given in CESedupack. The reasons behind this selection are:

Zirconia is a ceramic material and it is highly brittle. Secondly, its process-ability is very
difficult. Moreover at high temperatures, zirconia loses its stability thus affecting its

performance and properties (Namavar, et al., 2007).

Nickel Chromium Alloys are very good corrosion and oxidation resistance but this is only up
to 1000C. Above 1000C, these alloys are not stable and start to degrade (Davis, 2000). This

makes them unsuitable to be used in the gas turbine blades.

Nickel based super alloys are one of the most advanced and best known alloys for high
temperature applications. As their name suggests, they have been developed for some special
applications. These are very stable up to 1300C and are capable of carrying high loads. They
are most wildly used in aerospace applications. They also possess very good corrosion,
oxidation and fatigue properties. Can carry loads at high temperatures. The most important
benefit of nickel super alloys is that the melt can be directionally solidified to make single
crystals which have exceptionally high performance and properties (Pollock & Tin, 2006).
These are the alloys of nickel with titanium, chromium, aluminum and other trace alloying

elements.
Tungsten Carbides are very hard and stable materials. They are best known for their high
wear resistance property. These are best used where cutting or wear degradation is to be
protected. Although tungsten carbide is very expensive material but its excellent performance
as cutting tools make it very attractive to be used in cutting tips and other tools like drill bits.
Most of the times WC is grinded using diamond cutter, thats why they are too expensive to
be processed. Another drawback with tungsten carbide is that it loses its stability above
1000C (Kurlov & Gusev, 2013). So these drawbacks make it unsuitable for gas turbine
applications in most cases.

Considering all the facts mentioned above, I think Nickel based Super alloys are the best
materials for turbine blade applications. It has maximum advantages or merits to be used as
turbine blade.

2.1 Processing:
After shortlisting the material to be used in turbine blades i.e., nickel based super alloys, we need
to specify the processing routes by which blades should be manufactured using lowest cost.
Important parameters to be considered are:
Table 2: Processing Specification for Turbine Blade

Function
Objective

Turbine blade
Minimize cost
Material: Nickel based super alloy
Shape: solid 3D, Noncircular prismatic
Constraints
Mass: Depends on the size of turbine
Surface roughness: A, very smooth
Choice of the process
Free Variables
Mass
The main processing routes found from CES using constraints are as below:

Forging
Investment Casting

2.1.1 Forging (Avitzur, 1968):

Forging is a shaping process in which the material in a rectangular or a billet shape is taken and it
is then heated to a high temperature (usually austenitic range) and then it is pressed in the dies
known as forging dies to make the required or desired shape. In some cases, cold forging is also
carried out in which the preheating step is missing; this is normally done on relatively soft
metals. In other words, material is squeezed by applying large plastic deformations. This process
is widely used to shape steel or alloy parts. There are two kinds of forging dies used in industries:
1. Open die, in which the component limit is much higher but the precision is less. Blank is
forced between two dies that are open and the material is exposed to the environment. The
lower die is immoveable and the upper die comes and strikes the blank and shapes it.
2. Closed die forging is the one in which the dies join together and the materials is forced to
take the internal shapes of the dies. This is the most precise form of forging but the
component size is limited. Complex shapes can be given to the parts using closed die forging.

2.1.2 Investment Casting (Kalpakjian, 2001):

Investment casting also known as lost wax casting is a very old casting technique for complex
parts with very high precision. A wax pattern is made and it is then dipped is a slurry. The slurry
material sticks to the pattern. This is then dried and sintered. After this, the wax is melted by
applying little heat and is removed. Then only ceramic mold is left behind. This mold is then
fired to give it final compactness. After this the melt is poured into the mold. Simple shapes can
be made easily without use of external forces in the melt but for making complex and intricate
parts, air pressure or vacuum is sometimes necessary for high precision. This process is suitable
for making parts with materials having a high melting temperature as the refractory material of
mold is stable at very high temperatures. It can work with both large and small batch sizes as per
requirement. Typically used for jewelry making and dental implants. Most advance use is to cast
nickel and cobalt based alloys.
Both of the processing techniques were analyzed and graphs were plotted by considering various
parameters as shown below;

Figure 3: Graphical Comparison of Processing Techniques (Discreet vs Capital Cost)

Figure 4: Graphical Comparison of Processing Techniques (Surface Roughness vs Capital Cost)

Figure 5: Graphical Comparison of Processing Techniques (Discreet vs Relative Cost Index)

It is clear from the graphs that capital cost of investment casting is much lower than the forging
processes in case of both discrete parts and low surface roughness products. While in case of
comparing relative cost index with discrete parts production, forging seems better but the

difference is not very high thus I will prefer investment casting over forging for producing
turbine blades.

3. Turbine Disc
A gas-turbine is usually composed of a set of discs, fastened onto a shaft. The main functions of
a turbine disc are to locate the rotor blades within the hot gas path and to transmit the power
generated to the drive shaft (Bohidar, et al., 2013).

3.1 Performance Specification

There are a number of forces acting on a turbine disc during operation. Therefore, the operational
parameters require high integrity advanced materials having a balance of some key properties
(Bohidar, et al., 2013) described in the table below:
Table 3: Performance Specification for Turbine Disc

Function
Objective
Constraints

Free Variables

Fly wheel
Maximizing K.E stored per unit mass
Must possess high temperature strength to withstand high centrifugal
forces > 100MPa
Should have good corrosion resistance
Must have high temperature stability, temperature range=9001400C(maximum for safety)
Cross section of the disc
Choice of material

Taking disc as a fly wheel and applying the equation to maximize the k.e stored/ unit mass.
U=

I 2
2

R4 h
2
m= R 4 h
from objective :
U R2 2
=
m
4
but there will also be some centrifugal stress due to spinning of the disc

max =

R
2

But this max stress should be less then the fracture stress.
so, combining above two equations give us:
U f
=
m 2

Constraints:
M=

Figure 6: Material Selection Chart (Yield Strength vs Density)

3.1.1 Possible Materials:

Boron carbide
Aluminum nitride
Nickel chromium alloys
Nickel based super alloys
Tungsten carbide

Titanium Alloys
Carbon Steels
Cast iron

Out of all these possible materials, I have chosen nickel based super alloys for turbine disc. Some
of the reasons are explained below:
Boron carbide: Boron carbide although very hard and high temperature stable compound, and
light but it cannot be used in the manufacturing of disc of turbine because it is very expensive to
be prepared. The tooling cost is also very high as it can only be surface finished or surface
modified using diamond grinding (Matkovich, 1977). Moreover, the toughness of boron carbide
is also less then nickel super alloys.
The maximum service temperature of titanium alloys is very less approx. 500C so they cannot be
used here (Leyens, 2003). Same is the case with carbon steels and cast irons. Their maximum
service temperature in around 400C.
Aluminum Nitride: Here again the problem of manufacturing limits its use as it is very expensive
to be grinded using diamond. Also the sintering temperature required for aluminum nitride is
around 1900C which is too high and costly. There is another issue that aluminum nitride shows
hydrolysis issues in presence of water. So moisture can affect its performance.
Nickel based super alloys (Davis, 2000), nickel chromium alloys, tungsten carbide have already
been explained in the turbine blades section. Except those general reasons of my selection, one
other reason is that the yield strength of nickel super alloys is the highest among all these and its
density is also lower then nickel chromium alloys, tungsten carbide and tungsten alloys. Density
of tungsten alloys and tungsten carbides is also greater then super alloys. So considering all the
manufacturing issues, general properties, density and mechanical properties so for me nickel
based super alloys seem to be the best choice for disc manufacturing material.

3.2 Process Specification

Table 4: Processing Specification for Turbine Disc

Function
Objective

Turbine Disc
Minimize cost
Material: Nickel based super alloy
Shape: solid 3D
Mass: 20-70kg
Constraints
Tolerance 0.001-0.002
Surface roughness: A, B
Process: primary shaping, discrete
Choice of the process
Free Variables
Mass
Depending on the constraints and the material shortlisted, there are two manufacturing options,
1) Forging
2) Hot isotactic pressing
Forging (Avitzur, 1968) has already been explained in detail in turbine blade section.
Hot isotactic pressing (Schatt, 1997) is the process in which the material is made powder and it
is then mixed with little binder and it is then placed in a deformable container, heated and
pressed. Very high pressure is provided using argon gas and also the compactness achieved
during this process is very high. Parts achieved are normally 100% dense and isotropic
properties. Material utilization fraction is around 0.9. The capital costs of this process may be
high but once started, they can serve for years. Energy consumption is also lower.

Figure 7: Comparison of Tooling Cost for Primary Processes

Figure 8: Comparison of Capital Cost for Primary Processes

Figure 9: Comparison of Relative Cost Index for Primary Processes

Figure 10: Comparison of Section Thickness Range for Primary Processes

From the graphs, it is clear that the forging relative cost index is low as compared to the hot
isotactic pressing techniques but section thickness range and tooling cost is better in case of hot
isotactic pressing then that of forging. The capital cost is somehow comparable in both of the

cases. The choice is bit difficult but due to the ability of hot isotactic pressing of making precise
and accurate parts with good surface finish, I will chose hot isotactic pressing. As in forging
there may be some issues of surface oxidation and material softening at high temperature
working. So, post forging treatments will also cause a lot of money addition to the process.
Considering all these factors, hot isotactic processing seems to be the best choice for me.

4. Turbine Shaft
The transmission shaft in a turbine is the first component to receive the power generated at the
turbine blade. The role of the shaft in the hydrokinetic turbine system is to transmit the torque
generated at the turbine blades to the generator. The torque and thrust at the blades are the major
external forces acting on the system and therefore are considered as the primary forces acting on
the shaft. The thrust does not lead to any bending moment because the horizontal component of
thrust (acting parallel to the axis of the shaft) cancel each other due to the symmetry and
accounts to only a normal force along the axis of the shaft. So the main forces acting on the shaft
are the rotational forces.

4.1 Performance Specification

Table 5: Performance Specification for Turbine Shaft

Function
Objective
Constraints
Free Variables

Beam/Shaft
Minimizing mass for greater power to weight ratio
High Torsional Stiffness>50GPa
High Bending Stiffness>25MPa
High corrosion resistance
High temperature stability. T=900-1400C(maximum for safety)
Cross section A of shaft
Choice of material
m= AL

In this case of shaft, we will consider two types of stiffnesses one due to bending and other due
to twisting.

4.1.1 Bending stiffness:

SB=

EI
L3

but here ,
2

I=

A
12 Putting it in stiffness equation and eliminating A gives,

m= [ 12 S B

1/2

L5/3 [ E 1/ 2 ]

4.1.2 Torsional Stiffness:

ST =

A2G
7L

putting in m to eliminate A give:

m=[

7 ST
L

1/2

L3/2 [ ( G )1/ 2 ]

1 /2

The constraints are:

M 1=

1 /2

M 2=

Figure 11: Material Selection Chart (Shear Modulus vs Density)

Figure 12: Material Selection Chart (Youngs Modulus vs Density)

4.1.3 Possible Materials:

Low alloy steel

Low carbon steel
Tungsten carbide
Stainless steel
Nickel based super alloys
Nodular cast iron

WC and nickel based super alloy has been rejected due to their very high cost and very high
density. Moreover the processing is also very difficult for these materials. Cast iron is too soft
and it may bend easily. Low carbon steel degrades at high temperatures and also the low
hardness of low carbon steel makes it unsuitable for this job. Low alloy steel is a good option as
it has a comparable density and strength values. It can with stand the loads and pressure.
Stainless steel is also a good option but it is brittle in nature and its formability is 2 while
formability of low alloy steel is 3. Also the fracture strength of low alloy steel is greater than all
of these shortlisted materials. Considering the ease of fabrication, density, strength and cost I will
choose low alloy steel for turbine shaft.

4.2 Process Specification:

Table 6: Processing Specification for Turbine Shaft

Function
Objective

Shaft
Minimize cost
Material: low alloy steel
Shape: solid 3D
Mass: 50kg(min)
Constraints
Tolerance 0.001-0.002
Surface roughness: A, B
Process: primary shaping, discrete
Choice of the process
Free Variables
Mass
The possible processes that appear in the software are

Hot isotatic process

Forging

(both of these are already explained in above sections)

And after analyzing the graphs shown below, it can be seen that forging appears to be the best
method for the manufacturing of the shaft as it is the low cost process relative to hot isotactic
pressing and also there will be a requirement of a very large and complex setup for hot isotactic
pressing. Forging also allows the manufacturing of shafts with greater mass ranges. There will be
some post forging treatments required like oxide layer removal of high surface finish. They will
be carried out after words. The grans structure after forging is also suitable for the manufacturing
of shaft.

Figure 13: Comparison of Mass Ranges of Processes

Figure 14: Comparison of Relative Cost Index of Processes

5. Joining:
To join blades with disc, material is the same for these i.e nickel based super alloys, the joint is
taken as tie joint and the forces acting on the blades are taken as bending forces. Now the best
joining method found using CESedupack is laser welding.
Joining of blades and disc reference: (Singer & Arzt, 1986)

6. Specification and Sourcing

Hastealloy X: (International, 1997)
Inconel 738: (Inc., n.d.)
Edupack: (CES, 2015)

7. Inspection:
Overhauling of the gas turbine engines must be carried out with a gap of 1 to 3 years. Besides
this there must be a setup of regular inspections. For these parts of the gas turbine, I would go for
the NDT inspection methods. In this, Ultrasonic can be used for shaft and also DPT testing can
be carried out to inspect the blades and disc. Besides this, radiography is a very good technique
to inspect the component with high accuracy. Real time monitoring of rotary equipment during
service can be done. While the machine or system is in service, the device is brought near the
equipment and it automatically monitors the condition of the components. It has a built in
stroboscope, camera and laser pyrometer. It detects the crack automatically and generates the
results.

8. Lifetime
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H.,

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