AN INVESTIGATION OF THE TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION IN CAST-RESIN TRANSFORMER WINDINGS

Linden W. Pierce, Member

General Electric Company
Rome, Georgia

Abstract: The cast-resin dry type transformer

which had its development in Europe began to be widely
used in the United States in the 1 9 8 0 ' s . This type unit
was incorporated into the first IEEE standard in 1989.
One of the problems facing the IEEE working groups
developing product standards and loading guides for the
cast-resin transformer was the correct value of the
hottest spot temperature allowance used to determine
permissible average winding temperature rises so that
insulation system temperatures would not be exceeded.
Different values of the hottest spot temperature
allowance are used in IEEE and IEC standards. Published
literature on this subject is minimal,
A comprehensive thermal test program was conducted
on a 2000 kVA cast-resin dry type transformer with 300
embedded thermocouples to determine the hottest spot
temperature allowance and to obtain data to develop
mathematical models. Nineteen thermal test runs were
performed at different loads, tap positions, and core
excitations under natural and forced air operating
conditions. The test data indicated that the hottest
spot temperature allowance used in the IEC standard was
too low. In the IEEE standard the hottest spot
temperature allowance appears conservative up to about
115
average winding temperature rise. The locations
of the hottest spot for the primary and secondary
winding were determined. Conclusions about thermal
testing and loading are presented.
OC

Kevwords;
Cast-Resin, Dry Type Transformer,
Hottest Spot Temperature Allowance, Industry Standards,
Loading, Heat Transfer, Thermal Testing.
INTRODUCTION
After the demise of askarel insulated transformers
containing polychlorinated biphenols (PCB'S) in the
1 9 7 0 ' s , several alternative products appeared. One
alternative was a dry type transformer with solid cast
windings of epoxy resin. The development and commercial
application of this unit began in Europe and this
transformer design began to be widely accepted in the
United States in the 1 9 8 0 ' s .
The solid cast and/or
resin-encapsulatedtransformer was incorporated into the
first IEEE standard [ l ] in 1989. Various terminology is
used to describe this type unit and it will be referred
to as the "cast-resin''transformer in this paper.
One of the problems faced by the IEEE Working
Group which developed the new standard was the correct
value of the hottest spot temperature allowance to be
used for the cast-resin transformer. The hottest spot
temperature allowance is defined as the designated
difference between the hottest spot temperature and the
observable insulation temperature [2].
ANSI/IEEE
Standard 1 states that the value is arbitrary, difficult
to determine, and depends on many factors, such as size

and design of the equipment. The observable insulation

temperature for dry type transformers is the average
winding temperature by resistance. The hottest spot
temperature allowance for dry type transformers then is
defined as the incremental temperature to be added to
the average winding temperature rise plus ambient
temperature so that the hottest spot temperature in the
transformer windings does not exceed the limiting
insulation system temperature.
In this paper the
hottest spot temperature "increment" is defined as the
difference between tested hottest spot temperature rise
and tested average winding temperature rise.
The
hottest spot temperature "allowance" previously defined
is the temperature difference used in standards
documents.
Also in this paper references to
"temperature rise" mean "temperature rise over ambient
air temperature".
The hottest spot temperature rise usually cannot
be measured by tests on production units. The value of
the hottest spot temperature allowance to be used for
different insulation system temperatures is a major
unknown facing the IEEE Working Groups developing
standards and loading guides for ventilated dry type and
cast-resin transformers. There are major differences
between the hottest spot temperature allowance used by
the IEEE Standard [l] and the IEC Standard [ 3 ] as shown
in Table 1 below.
Table 1
HOTTEST SPOT TEMPERATURE ALLOWANCE USED IN STANDARDS
INSULATION
SYSTEM
TEMPERATFE
CLASS, c

185

AVE. WFG. HOTTEST SPOT TEMP!RATURE

RISE, C
ALLOWANCE, C

-150

In
--

_-

30

30

Analytical and experimental investigationsof the

temperature distributions in ventilated dry type and
cast-resin transformers are lacking in the technical
literature, especially recent literature.
Several
papers deal with the mathematical solution of the
conduction heat transfer in electrical coils of which
those by Jakob [4]and Higgins [5] are typical. Several
papers address the heat transfer in miniature
transformers such as the paper by Mark [ 6 1 . The only
analytical paper treating heat transfer in large
ventilated dry type transformers is the paper by Halacsy
[7]. The basic heat transfer mechanisms were considered
in a solution of the average winding rise. Core heating
effects were not considered and no calculation methods
were developed for hottest spot temperature rise
prediction.

TEST P R O G M

An excellent experimental study was conducted by

Stewart and Whitman [ 8 ] and reported in 1944.
They
reported laboratory test results of hottest spot and
average winding temperature rises for large ventilated
dry type coils of various lengths.
At that e!it
standard average winding temperature rises were 80 C
and the hottest sgot temperature allowance used in AIEE
standards was 10 C. Based on the experimental work of
Stewart and Whitman and Satterlee [9], the standards
were revised so th$t the hotteTt spot temperature
allowance was 30
C for 80
C average winding
temperature rise. Stewart and Whitman's test results
were reported again with additional data by Whitman [ 101
'in 1956. Whitman [ll] presented a paper on loading of
ventilated dry type transformers and suggested that the
hottest spot temperature rise should be approximately
1.375 times the average winding temperature rise. Even
though Whitman suggested that the ratio of hottest spot
temperature rise to average winding temperature ri5e
was constant, the IEEE standards use a constant 30 C
hottest spot temperature allowance for all insulation
system temperature classes. IEC standards, although
using a variakle hottest spot temperature allowance,
still use 10 C at 80 'C average winding temperature
rise even though the data of Whitman indicated it should
be 30 OC and the AIEE standards were changed. For small
transformers the hottest spot temperature allowance may
be less as indicated by the data of Antalis and Duncan
[ 121 who experimentally determiped a hottest spot
temperature increment of 6 to 11 C at average winding
temperature rises from 80 to 138 OC for single phase
units from . 5 through 15 kVA. Dormer [ 1 3 ] reported test
results on a 600 kVA dry type unit.o He reported a
hottest spot temperature rise of 153 C at an average
winding temperature rise of 118 'C for the high voltage
winding and a hottest spot temperature rise of 162 OC at
113 'C average winding temperature rise for the low
voltage winding.
Thus the tested hottest spot
temperature increments were 35 and 49 'C. The ratios of
the hottest spot temperature rise to average winding
temperature rise were similar to the earlier data of
Stewart and Whitman.
Outer [ 1 4 ] stated that based on cast-in
thermocouples in 400 and 600 kVA cast-resin units the
ratio of hottest spot temperature rise to average
winding temperature rise was 1.15. He also stated that
the ratio for larger ratings was higher but gave no
values.
Featheringill
[15] presented loading
calculations for
cast-resin transforme5s using
conventional loading guide equations and a 30 C hottest
No experimental or
spot temperature allowance.
analytical results were reported to support the
calculations. Although the IEC Loading Guide for Dry
Type Transformers [16] applies to cast-resin dry type
transformers, this type unit was omitted from coverage
in the 1989 edition of the IEEE Loading Guide [ 171 since
the IEEE Working Group decided that adequate data was
not available.
A review of the dry type transformer standards and
published literature indicated that a comprehensive
experimental and analytical study was needed to
determine the correct value of the hottest spot
temperature allowance for both ventilated dry type and
cast-resindry type transformers. This paper reports on
the investigation conducted by the author on a 2000 kVA
cast-resin dry type transformer with embedded
thermocouples in the high voltage and low voltage
windings. The test program was conducted to assist in
the development of a mathematical model to calculate
hottest
spot temperature rises
in
cast-resin
transformers and to support IEEE Working Group efforts
developing product standards and loading guides.

Test Transformer
A prototype cast-resin transformer rated 2000 kVA,
three phase, 60 hertz, high voltage of 4160 volts delta
connected, and a 480 volt Y connected Low voltage was
constructed with embedded thermocouples to determine the
hottest spot temperature rises of the high voltage and
low voltage windings under various loading conditions.
Fans were installed on the unit to evaluate the hottest
spot temperature rises under forced cooled conditions.
HV

LV

in

Figure 1 .

High Voltage and Low Voltage Windings

The winding design used by the author's company

and others is illustrated in Figure 1. The high voltage
winding consisted of two castings per phase of four
sections per casting. The two castings were in intimate
contact and clamped with jack screws and rubber at the
ends. Each section consisted of 21 to 22 turns of
aluminum strip conductor separated by insulation between
turns. The low voltage winding was a layer type with 11
layers of full length aluminum sheet conductor separated
by layer insulation. Three hundred iron-constantan
thermocouples of .005 inch diameter wire were inserted
between turns of the high voltage winding and on each
layer of the low voltage winding during the winding
process. The large number of thermocouples was required
to investigate the axial and radial temperature
distributions of all the high voltage winding sections
and low voltage winding layers at radial positions
represented by "in window" and "out of window"
locations. The center leg of the three phase assembly
was expected to be the hottest and this was the leg that
was instrumented with thermocouples.
A plan view
photograph with the top core yoke removed is shown in
figure 2.

593

Test Procedure

Figure 2.

Thermal testing was conducted in the production

test facility of the author's company.
Additional
thermocouples were added to monitor air, casing, and
core temperatures. Production thermal tests for dry
type transformers are usually made by either the short
circuit method or the loading back method in accordance
with the ANSI/IEEE Test Code [18]. The short circuit
method requires two tests to be performed. A test with
rated current is performed with the low voltage windings
shorted. During this test core loss is not present.
The short is removed and an excitation thermal test is
performed with rated voltage which gives core loss but
no load on the unit. The average temperature rises are
determined for the two tests and combined by means of an
equation in the Test Code to determine the corrected
average temperature rise with full load currents in the
windings and normal excitation on the core.
The
loading back test method produces rated currents in the
windings simultaneously with rated voltage to give core
loss.
The loading back test method is more
representative of actual loading but it requires a
greater amount of testing facilities and becomes
increasingly difficult to perform as the size of the
transformer increases.
Full voltage on the unit presented a possible
hazard to test personnel and equipment with the high
voltage winding thermocouples connected to the data
acquisition equipment. Experience had shown that the
core loss has only a small effect on the high voltage
winding average temperature rise. Thermal tests were
performed first with the low voltage windings shorted
and current circulated in the windings.
These tests
represented the current-runportion of the short circuit
test method although the runs were performed at many
values of current. The primary objective of the current
runs was to obtain temperature data for the high voltage
winding.
With the current-run thermal test only
impedance voltage exists on the high voltage winding and
core l o s s is not present.
In dry type transformers the core has a
significant effect on the average temperature rise of
the low voltage winding. After the current-run thermal
tests were completed, the high voltage winding
thermocouples were disconnected and each thermocouple
lead taped to an insulating board and separated from
other thermocouples inside the transformer casing. Test
runs were then performed on the unit by the loading-back
or "bucking" method in accordance with the ANSI/IEEE
Test Code [le]. The primary objective of these tests
was to obtain the temperature data for the low voltage
windings with core l o s s present.
Test runs were made on low and high tap positions
and different core excitations with self cooled (AA) and
forced air operation (FA) to obtain data under different
conditions to develop a mathematical model. During run
2 3 impulse testing in an adjacent test berth damaged the
data acquisition equipment. For the last test run the
hotter thermocouples were selected based on previous
data and measurements taken using alternate equipment
with the capability to measure fewer channels. During
test run 24 an electrical failure occurred due to the
thermocouples in the high voltage winding.
The data acquisition equipment permitted rapid
scanning of all the thermocouples throughout the test
runs. Transient data was recorded during start-up and
cool-down. Comparison of the thermocouple readings
taken shortly before and after switch-on and shortly
before and after switch-offof the transformer indicated
no changes due to electric or magnetic fields. The test
runs for which steady state data is reported are
The transient data may be
summarized in Table 2 .
reported in a subsequent paper.

High Voltage and Low Voltage Windings

Plan View on Core Leg

The internal assembly of the unit is shown in

figure 3 with the unit in the casing with several sheet
metal panels removed.

Figure 3 .

Core and Coil Assembly in Casing

594

Table 4
THERMAL TEST RESULTS
FOR LOW VOLTAGE WINDING'

Table 2
THERMAL TEST RUNS

q-z

CORE
EXC. %

TAP
POS.

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
100
100
100
115
100

1.000

1.000

1.406
1.000
1.000

LOW
LOW
LOW
LOW
LOW
LOW
LOW
LOW
LOW
LOW
LOW
HIGH
HIGH
HIGH
LOW
LOW
LOW
LOW
LOW

y
M
B
.

COOL.

HS .
RISE

C
AA
AA
AA

AA
AA
FA
FA

FA
FA
FA
AA
AA

AA
FA
AA

AA
AA
AA

FA

27.1
28.9
24.5
24.8
28.4
26.9
25.4
25.3
24.4
27.8
25.9
25.2
28.6
27.0
31.0
28.3
30.9
33.3
34.9

91.7
77.4
54.5
117.7
99.7
95.8
84.5
78.1
44.4
11 1 2 2 . 9
91.2
12
86.6
14
1 5 105.6
90.8
16
113.1
97.4
20 1 4 6 . 6
22 1 2 6 . 9
108.1

Hot and cold resistance measurements were taken

between terminals of all three phases using equipment
patented by Runaldue and Burnett [ 1 9 ] . This equipment
was developed by General Electric to accurately measure
low resistances. A cooling curve of the hot resistance
was extrapolated to the instant of shutdown in
accordance with the Test Code, For the delta connected
high voltage winding the average temperature rise of the
center leg was obtained by calculating the resistance of
each coil from the terminal resistance measurements. A
similar procedure was used for the Y connected low
voltage winding for runs one through six. After run six
the average temperature rise of the center leg low
voltage winding was obtained by using line to neutral
resistance measurements.
These procedures .with
applicable equations have been proposed by the IEEE Task
Force revising the method of performing temperature rise
tests for dry type transformers for the next edition of
the ANSI/IEEE Test Code [ l a ] .

IS. INCREMENT UTI0

3S/AV.
I LEG

CTR.

61.6
42.9

66.2
47.2

78.3
70.4

83.5
77.1
66.7
57.3
37.4
96.6
82.4
78.3
94.7
71.1
92.1
78.9
116.2
97.1
81.3

52.0
34.1
88.8

75.6
71.8
89.0
64.2
86.6
74.6
110.3
91.2
75.3

II

1.17
1.16

11.6

17.8

1.19
1.24
1.27
1.36
1.19
1.27
1.11
1.11
1.12
1.28
1.23
1.23
1.26
1.31
1.33

All temperature rises and differences in 'C.

A summary of the test results are shown in Tables
The average temperature rises shown were not
corrected for ambient temperature. The current run
tests were not corrected for core excitation effects.
This permitted direct comparison of the tested average
temperature rises with the tested hottest spot
temperature rises.
The hottest spot temperature
increment is shown based on an average temperature rise
of the three coils (legs) and of the hottest center coil
with the thermocouples. The ratio of the hottest spot
temperature rise to average temperature rise is based on
the center coil.
3 and 4 .

ANALYSIS OF TEST DATA

TemDerature Distribution

Summarv of Results

The axial temperature distribution of the high

voltage winding is shown in Figure 4 . The plot is for
the hottest spot temperature rise of each section
between turns 7 and 8 . The hottest spot for the high
voltage winding was located in the second section from
the top of the winding.
The dip in the temperature
distribution for run 1 2 at section 4 is due to turns
tapped out and thus not loaded. The temperature of the
top section is less than the second section from the top
due to additional heat l o s s from the significant area at
the top of the high voltage coil

Table 3
THERMAL TEST RESULTS
FOR HIGH VOLTAGE WINDING'
RUN
NO.

AVG. RISE

HS.
RISE

LEG
'

1
2
3
4
5
7
8
9

10

11
12
14
15
16
18
19
20
22
23

94.2
80.9
54.8
126.0
103.2
106.4
93.1
84.4
46.8
138.9
95.3
84.5
104.6
89.4

75.4
63.3
41.9
98.7
79.9
74.6
66.8
63.4
35.3
99.3
75.8
66.2
83.6
66.3
82.7
68.1
-12.2
83.7
84.8

HS. INCREMENT RATIO

i
.vA'SHJ.RTC
3 LEG

CTR.

77.5
66.0
43.5
102.7
82.2
75.9
70.2
65.2
36.3
103.5
78.2
70.5
87.5
69.7

18.8
17.6
12.9
27.3
23.3
31.8
26.3
21.0
11.5
39.6
19.5
18.3
21.0
23.1

16.7
14.9
11.3
23.3
21.0
30.5
22.9
19.2
10.5
35.4
17.1
14.0
17.1
19.7

11.22
1.23
1.26
1.23
1.26
1.40
1.33
1.29
1.29
1.34

TEST 12
LOW TA?

TEST 1 1
HIGH TAP

-e-

110,

1.22
1.20
1.20
1.28

117.2
85.2
86.8

*All temperature rises and differences in 'C.

SECTION FROM BOTTOM

FIGURE 4. HV AXIAL TEMPERATURE

DISTRIBUTION
595

The temperature distribution in a radial direction

around the high voltage winding showedlittle difference
between locations under the core compared with outside
the core. Temperature distribution patterns for the
high voltage winding were similar for all the test runs
differing only in magnitude. The radial temperature
distribution of the high voltage winding is shown in
Figure 5 for self cooled and forced air operation. As
expected the hottest spot was located between turns 7
and 8 for self cooled operation.
For fan cooled
operation the hottest spot was located between turns 10
and 11. The temperature rises at locations A, D, and E
shown in Figure 5 were within insulation under and over
the winding. Due to flatness of the curve in the
hottest spot region only small measurement errors should
result due to thermocouple location.
TEST 12
AA

LOCATION

TEMP. RISE OVER mBIENT,oCl

CURRENT
RUN
12

TEST 7
FA

* *
"-1

12

10

14

BUCKING
RUN

16

18

20

UNDER INNER LEAD

OVER INNER LEAD
LAYER 2
LAYER 4
LAYER 5
LAYER 7
LAYER 10
OVER OUTER LEAD
AVERAGE RISE CTR LEG

DIFFERENCE

18

91.2
89.4
84.1
84.2
84.3
89.0
90.9

113.1
112.4
105.5
104.2
103.2
102.9
103.8
103.1

14.8
12.2

82.4

92.1

9.7

__

21.9
23.0
21.4
20.0
18.9

--

22DE

TURN NO.

FIGURE 5. HV RADIAL TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION

SECTION 7.

For the low voltage sheet winding a smaller

increment of temperature change from the top to bottom
was expected. This was confirmed by test as shown in
Figure 6 .
LEAD
SIDE

COMPARISON OF LV WINDING TEMPERATURE RISE TEST RESULTS

AT 100 PER CENT LOAD

OPPOSITE
LEAD SIDE

-8-

-46-

97.1
~

""I

C
Table 7
COMPARISON OF TEST RESULTS WITH STANDARDS
JIND COOL

RUNI

HS

IRATIO

ITEST

NO. RISE HS/AVE HSoINC.

lac
I
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

H V A A

40

DISTANCE FROM BOTTOM, INCHES

FIGURE 6. TEST 18, LV WINDING, LAYER 2

AXiAL TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION
HV

The temperature distribution within the low

voltage winding was much more complicated than
illustrated by figure 6 . The temperature distribution
was influenced by the inside and outside leads and core
heating. The hottest spot was located near the top of
the inside lead next to the core.
This would be
somewhat expected by observation of Figure 2 which shows
the absence of one cooling duct in this region to allow
space for the leads without increasing the build of the
winding. Additional insulation around the leads inside
the winding also contributes to the hottest spot
temperature in this region. The temperatures in the low
voltage winding varied around the winding in a helical
heat flow pattern which is difficult to illustrate.

LV

LV

596

FA

AA

FA

54.8
80.9
94.2
95.3
103.2
126.0

1.26
1.23
1.22
1.22
1.26
1.23

11.3
14.9
16.7
17.1
21.0
23.3

IEEE

___

IEC

30
30
30
30
30

5
5
10
10
10
15

10.5
19.2
22.9
30.5
35.4

__

__

30
30
30
30

5
5
5
15

18.5
21.0
30.4

30
30
30
30

10
10-15
15

10

QISCUSSI~
The test program showed that the ratio of hottest
spot temperature rise to average temperature rise at
different loads only varied slightly. This agreed with
the conclusions of Whitman [ll] for ventilated dry type
transformers. The tested ratios for the 2000 kVA unit
were higher than the ratios reported by Outer [ 1 4 ] for
400 and 600 kVA units indicating that the ratio of
hottest spot temperature rise to average temperature
rise probably varies with size of unit. The test data
indicated that the hottest spot temperature allowance
used in the IEC standard is too low resulting in
permissible average temperature rises which are too
high. This is also confirmed by the data of Stewart and
Whitman [ 8 ] for ventilated dry type units. The hottest
spot temperature increment was found to increase with
increasing hottest spot temperature rise and not the
constant 30 '2 allowance used in the IEEE standard. The
constant 30 C allowance appears conservative up to
about 115 'C average temperature rise for the cast-resin
design tested. Hottest spot temperature allowances used
in product standards should be conservative and probably
based on the largest unit covered by the product
standard. Future standards revisions should consider
a constant ratio of hottest spot temperature rise to
average temperature rise.
Another difference in IEEE and IEC standards
involves the method for performing temperature rise
INSULATION HOT. SPOT PERMISSIBLE
PERMISSIBLE
tests.
The IEEE test code 1181 requires that
SYSTEM
AVERAGE
AVERAGE
RISE
temperature rise tests be performed on the tap position
l'EMPERA:URE
IN
TEMP. RISE
TEMP. RISE
which gives the maximum winding temperature rise which
CLASS, c 40 'c AMB PER TEST DATA* PER STMDARDS
would usually be the low tap. IEC 726 [3] specifies
that the temperature rise test be performed on the rated
AA
FA
IEEE[l] IEC[3]
tap. On low tap the unit would run hotter than tested.
For three phase transformers there is a difference
65
51.6
48.5
-60
105
between average temperature rises of the three legs with
80
63.5
59.7
-75
120
the center leg usually but not always the hottest. The
_90
71.4
67.2
60
130
IEEE Task Force on Dry Type Thermal Tests has suggested
__
150
110
87.3
82.1
80
that the average temperature rise be calculated for each
-100
85.8
155
115
91.3
leg individually and the highest value used to determine
140
111.1 104.5
-125
180
if guarantees are met. The test program confirmed that
_
_
185
145
115.1
108.2 1 1 5
this was the correct approach.
Confirmation of hottest spot temperature rise i s
one performance characteristic for which no standard
test method exists. Consideration should be given to
add this measurement to the IEEE Standards as a design
test requirement using prototype transformers to qualify
a design family. A standard recommended test procedure
should also be developed. The test program indicated
that the loading back test method gave higher IOW
voltage winding hottest spot temperature rises than
expected from the short circuit test method. Core loss
raises the temperature of the low voltage winding nonuniformly. The top portion of the winding nearest the
core increased the most contributing to the higher
hottest spot temperature. A similar effect could occur
in the high voltage winding although the effect is
thought to be less. Additional investigation is needed
to develop correction factors for hottest spot
temperature rise for the short circuit test method.
Due to questions raised in the IEEE Working Groups
of the Transformers Committee the author decided that
this data and initial analysis should be made available
to the industry at the present time.
Additional
mathematical analysis is needed to fully explain the
effect of various physical parameters such as size upon
the hottest spot temperature increment. Analysis of dry
TIME CONSTANT, MINUTES
TEST
type transformer heat transfer appears to have been
neglected as evidenced by the lack of published papers.
HV
LV
The data obtained should assist in future product
standards and loading guide revisions. The test data
LEAD WINDING
reported is for only one transformer design from one
manufacturer.
Data and analysis from other
110
133
RUN 1 START UP
212
manufacturers is needed because there are several castINCREASE FROM 75%
89
129
194
resin transformer designs available.
The test
TO 114% LOAD
experience reported should assist other manufacturers in
planning similar thermal test programs.

CONCLUSIONS

S. J. Antalis and G. I. Duncan, "Temperature

Distribution in Insulation Systems for Dry Type
Transformers and Their Effect on Design,"
presented at IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New York,
Jan. 30-Feb. 4, 1966, IEEE paper 31CP66-163.
"Designing Class C Dry Type
R. L. Dormer,
Transformers for Maximum Efficiency,AReviewwith
Guidance on Predicting Behavior under Various
Conditions," Electrical Review, 7 Sept. 1973, pp.
313-317.
F. R. den Outer, "The Loading of Solid-Insulation
Distribution Transformers with Special Reference
to the Cast Resin Type," Proc. International
Conference on Electricitv Distribution (CIRED
19771 , London, 23-27 Mai-1977. Part I, pp. 7579, Discussion Part I1 pp. 31-32,37,41-42,Paper
2.7.
W. E. Featheringill, "Power Transformer Loading,"
IEEE Trans. on Industrv Amlications, Vol. IA-19,
No. 1, pp. 21-27, Jan./Feb. 1983.
Loadine Guide for Drv-TvDe Power Transformers, IEC
905, 1987.
JEEE Guide for Loadine Drv-TvDe Distribution and
Power Transformers, ANSI/IEEE C57.96-1989.
IEEE Standard Test Code for Dry TvDe Distribution
and Power Transformers, ANSI/IEEE C57.12.91-1979,
Section 11.
L. R. Runaldue and J. W. Bumett, "Method and
Apparatus for the Measurement of Low Resistance,"
U. S , Patent 2.772.395, Nov. 27, 1956.

1.

The hottest spot temperature allowance used in IEC

standards for dry type transformers is too low.
2.
The hottest spot temperature allowance used in
IEEE standards appears conservative up to about 115 C
for the cast-resin dry type transformer design tested.
3.
A constant ratio of hottest spot temperature rise
to average temperature rise should be used in product
standards and loading guides. The ratio is different
for self cooled and forced air operation.
4.
The average temperature rise of each leg of a
three phase transformer should be determined for both
The average
the primary and secondary winding.
temperature rise of the hottest winding should be used
to determine conformance to standards.
5.
Consideration should be given to requiring the
measurement of hottest spot temperature rise on a
prototype transformer to qualify a design family.
Recommended test procedures should be developed.
6.
The loading back test method may give a higher
hottest spot temperature rise than expected from the
short circuit test method.
7.
Time constants are different for the high voltage
winding and the low voltage winding. Different parts of
a winding may have different time constants. The
different time constants should be considered in loading
equations.
8.
Data and analysis from other transformer
manufacturers is needed to obtain a consensus agreement
on future product standards and loading guide revisions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
The work described in this paper was financed by
the General Electric Company. Many General Electric
personnel contributed to the manufacture and testing of
the transformer described in the paper. R. E. Gearhart
provided valuable technical honsultation to the author.
The assistance of the General Electric Medium
Transformer Operation Test Department at Rome, Georgia
is gratefully acknowledged.

IEEE Standard General Reauirements for Dry TvDe

Distribution and Power Transformers Including
n o s e with Solid Cast and/o r Resin Encawdated
m,IEEE C57.12.01-1989,
Table 4A p. 16.
. .
U E E Standard General PrinciDles
for TemDerature
Limits in the Rat' of Electric w e n t and foy
the Evaluation of Electrical Insulati m , M I =
STD. 1-1986, p. 8.
Drv TvDe Power Transformers,
IEC .Standard
Publication 726. First Edition, 1982, Table IV
pp. 19,21,23and Amendment 1, February 1986.
M. Jakob, "Influence of Non Uniform Development
of Heat Upon the Temperature Distribution in
Electrical Coils and Similar Heat Sources of
Simple Form," Trans. ASME, Vol. 66, pp. 593-&05,
1944.
T. J . Higgins,
"Formulas for Calculating the
Temperature Distribution in Electrical Coils of
General Rectangular Cross Section,"Trans. ASME,
Vol. 66, pp. 665-670, 1944.
M. Mark, "Heat Transfer Techniques for Magnetic
Core Components," ElectrotechnolQgy,August1962,
pp. 87-93.
A. A. Halacsy, "Temperature Rise of Dry Type
Transformers," AIEE Tr-,
Vol. 77, Part 111,
pp. 456-462, August 1958.
H. C. Stewart and L. C. hitman, "Hot Spot
Temperatures in Dry-Type Transformer Windings,"
AIEE T r m , Vol. 63, pp. 763-768, 1445-1448,
1944.
W. W. Satterlee,
"Design and Operating
Characteristics of Modern Dry-Type Air Cooled
Transformers," AIEE T u , vol. 63, pp. 701704, 1445-1448,1944.
L. C. Whitman,
"CO-Ordination of Dry Type
Transformer Models with Transformer Geometry,"
AIEE Trans,, Vol. 75, Part 111. pp. 328-332,
June 1956.
L. C. Whitman, "Loading of Ventilated Dry Type
Transformers," AIEE Trans,, Vol. 76, Part 111,
pp, 1077-1084, Dec. 1957.

BIOGRAPHY
Linden W. Pierce (M'70) was
born in AthenB, Texas on
January 4, 1941. He received
the B. S . degree in Mechanical
Engineering fromThe University
of Texas, Austin in 1963,
completed the GE Advanced
Course in Engineering in 1966,
and received the M. S. Degree
in Mechanical Engineering from
the University of Tennessee,
Knoxville in 1973.
In 1963 he joined the
General Electric Company and
since 1965 has worked for the Transformer Department at
Rome, Georgia with various positions in transformer
design, development, and program management. He is
currently Senior Engineer, Product Technology. He holds
eight patents.
Mr. Pierce is a member of the IEEE Power
Engineering, Magnetics, Dielectrics and Electrical
Insulation, and Industry Applications Societies, and
CIGRE.
He is a member of the IEEE Transformers
Committee, Chairman of the Working Group on Development
of the Loading Guide for Cast-Resin Transformers, and
Chairman of the Task Force on Revision of the Test Code
for Performing Temperature Rise Tests on Dry Type
Transformers. He is a Registered Professional Engineer
in the State of Georgia.

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