Notes Amino Acids and Proteins

Proteins are about 50% of the dry weight of most cells, and are the most structurally complex
molecules known. Each type of protein has its own unique structure and function.
Polymers are any kind of large molecules made of repeating identical or similar subunits called
monomers. The starch and cellulose we previously discussed are polymers of glucose, which in that
case, is the monomer. Proteins are polymers of about 20 amino acids monomers.
The amino acids all have both a single and triple letter abbreviation. Here is an example.

Alanine = A = Ala

Each amino acid contains an "amine" group, (NH 2) and a "carboxylic acid" group (COOH)
(shown in black in the diagram).
The amino acids vary in their side chains (indicated in blue in the diagram).
The eight amino acids in the orange area are nonpolar and hydrophobic.
The other amino acids are polar and hydrophilic ("water loving").
The two amino acids in the magenta box are acidic ("carboxylic" group in the side chain).
The three amino acids in the light blue box are basic ("amine" group in the side chain).

Amino Acids: shown in another structural formula format

H O
NH2

C C OH
CH3

H O
NH2

CH
H3C CH3

alanine
ala A
C C OH

NH2

C C OH

NH2

C C OH
CH2

CH2

leucine
leu L
NH2

H O
NH2

tryptophan
trp W

C C OH

H O
NH2

C C OH

CH OH

CH2

CH3

SH
OH
tyrosine
tyr Y

threonine
thr T

H O
NH2

C C OH

C C OH
CH2

O C
OH

aspartic acid
asp D

cysteine
cys C

C C OH

H O
NH2

CH2
O C
OH
glutamic acid
glu E

OH

glycine*
gly G
H O
C C OH

O C
NH2

NH2

C C OH
CH2
CH2
CH2
NH2

histidine
his H

H O
NH2

lysine
lys K

C C OH
CH2
CH2

O C
NH2

asparagine
asn N

CH2

NH

serine
ser S

CH2

CH2

NH2 C C OH
CH2

C C OH

CH2

H O

C C OH

H O

H O
NH2

H O

NH2

C C OH

proline
pro P

*
NH2

methionine
met M
H O

NH

isoleucine
ile I

CH2

CH3

CH2

CH3

C C OH

NH

H O
CH2 CH2
CH2

CH2

H O

NH2

C C OH
CH CH3

CH
H3C CH3

CH2

phenylalanine
phe F

NH2

CH2

valine
val V
H O

H O
NH2

C C OH

H O

H O

glutamine
gln Q
H O
NH2

C C OH
CH2
CH2
CH2
NH

NH C
NH2
arginine
arg R

Amino acids are named as such because each amino acid consists of an amine portion and a
carboxylic acid part, as seen below.

H O
NH2

C C OH
R

Compare this structure to the above structures of each of the amino acids. Each amino acid has this
general structure.
The side chains are sometime shown as R-groups when illustrating the backbone.
In the approximately 20 amino acids found in our bodies, what varies is the side chain. Some side
chains are hydrophilic while others are hydrophobic. Since these side chains stick out from the
backbone of the molecule, they help determine the properties of the protein made from them.
The amino acids in our bodies are referred to as alpha amino acids. The reason is that the central
carbon is in an alpha position in relation to the carbonyl carbon. The carbon adjacent to the carbonyl
carbon is designated the alpha carbon. Each carbon in the chain will be designated with a different
letter of the Greek alphabet. See the example below.

carbonyl carbon

beta

delta

CH 3CH2CH 2CH 2CH2 CH

epsilon

gamma

alpha

H O
+

NH3

C C O
R

zwitter ion
You may have noticed that the general form for the amino acid is often drawn with the acidic
hydrogen attached to the amine group. This occurs because amine groups are basic. So, the amino
acid has performed an acid-base reaction on itself. When the amino acid is in this form it is referred
to as a Zwitter ion. When amino acids are in solution this is the form that they will be found.

Chirality:
A chiral compound must contain a carbon that is bonded to four different atoms/groups. If you look at
the above amino acids you will see that, with the exception of glycine, each structure is chiral around
the carbon with the R group. Each amino acid will come in two structural formats, called
enantiomers, an L and a D. You were given two tables of all the amino acids, the tables are only
different in the format that the amino acids are drawn. The first format is the one used to show the
chirality of the amino acid. To determine which enantiomer you have you look to the location of the
hydrogen on the chiral carbon. If the hydrogen is on the left, then the amine group is on the right, this

is the D enantiomer. If the hydrogen is on the right, then the amine group is on the left, this is the L
enantiomer. See the below structural diagrams:
COOH
COOH
COOH
COOH
NH2 C H
H C NH2
NH2

C H

H C NH2

CH2

CH2

CH3

CH3

OH

OH

D-alanine

L-serine

L-alanine

D-serine

The importance of chiral compounds is that their chemical reactivity is different. Sometimes the
difference means the compound will have an adverse effect on a person. Sometimes the difference
means the person simple can not metabolize the compound. The latter is the case with amino acids.
Meaning we can consume both L and D amino acids, but our bodies will only metabolize the D form.
The enzymes used in the metabolism of amino acids are built to fit this D form but not the L form.
The L form will pass through your body unused.

Buffering:
-amino acids contain both acidic -COOH and the basic NH 2 groups, these two functional groups
allow them to act as a buffer. Unfortunately, though, the picture is not as simple as this. In the
solid crystalline state the a-amino acids exist as Zwitter ions, as discussed before they are formed
by the transfer of protons, H+ from the -COOH to the NH2 groups. For -amino acids without
acidic or basic side chains these zwitter ions have charged groups but are neutral overall. Amino
acids are found in the Zwitter form even as solids, they form an ionic matix similar to salts.
H O
+

NH3

C C O

R
Zwitter ions remain when the -amino acid is dissolved in water at pH 7. Addition of an acid,
supplying more protons, produces ions with an overall positive charge. The amino acid forms the
below structure in an acid environment.
H O
H O
+

NH3

C C O

H+

NH3

C C OH

R
R
Addition of a base, removes the acidic hydrogens, producing ions with an overall negative charge.
The amino acid forms the below structure in a basic environment.
H O
H O
+

NH3

C C O

OH

NH2

C C O

H2O

R
R
We can describe -amino acids as amphoteric as they can react with both acid and alkali. They
are effective buffers in biological systems. The situation is more complicated in a-amino acids that
have acidic or basic R groups , e.g. glu or lys.

At very low pH all -amino acids exist as ions with an overall positive charge, while at high pH
they exist as ions with an overall negative charge. For each -amino acid there is a pH between
these extremes at which its molecules are neutral overall. This value is called the isoelectric
point for the -amino acid. At its isoelectric point the -amino acid molecules will not move when
placed in an electric field. The separation technique called electrophoresis relies on molecules

with different isoelectric points moving at different speeds when kept at a fixed pH and placed in
an electric field.
The isoelectric point is calculated by averaging the pKa values for the carboxylic acid and the
amine group. pK1 applies to the carboxylic acid and pK2 applies to the amine.
pK 1 pK 2
pI
2
This formula does not take into account acidic or basic side chains. If an acidic side chain is
present you average the side chain pKa and pK1. For a basic side chain you average the side
chain pKa and pK2.

Protein Functions:
Type of Protein
Structure

Function
structural support

Contractile
Transportation
Storage

muscle movement
movement of compounds
nutrient storage

Hormone
Enzyme

chemical communication
Catalyze biological reactions

Protection

Recognized and destroy

foreign substances

Examples
collagen in tendons and cartilage
keratin in hair and nails
actin, myosin, tubulin and kinesin proteins
hemoglobin carries O2 and lipoproteins carry lipids
ferritin stores iron is spleen and liver
casein stores proteins in milk
insulin regulates blood sugar
lactase breaks down lactose
trypsin breaks down proteins
immunoglobulins stimulate immune system

Reactions of Amino Acids:

To form protein, the amino acids are linked by dehydration synthesis to form peptide bonds. The
chain of amino acids is also known as a polypeptide.

Protein Structure Types:

Some proteins contain only one polypeptide chain while others, such as hemoglobin, contain several
polypeptide chains all twisted together. The sequence of amino acids in each polypeptide or protein
is unique to that protein, this is call the primary structure. If even one amino acid in the sequence is
changed, that can potentially change the proteins ability to function. For example, sickle cell anemia
is caused by a change in only one nucleotide in the DNA sequence that causes just one amino acid in
one of the hemoglobin polypeptide molecules to be different. Because of this, the whole red blood
cell ends up being deformed and unable to carry oxygen properly.
The primary structure is created through the linking of amino acids. This linking is accomplished by
the formation of a peptide bond. This is a dehydration reaction. In other words the peptides combine
and lose a water molecule.
The peptide bonding of three alanine amino acids are shown below.

A longer polypeptide is shown above. Each peptide chain will have an amine end and a carboxylic
acid end and each amino acid is referred to as a residue. So, the ends are named, n-terminal residue
and c-terminal residue or the n-terminus and c-terminus.
The sequence of amino acids will cause the protein to have areas of its shape conforming to one of 3
shapes, alpha-helical, beta-pleated sheet or woven (sometimes called turns). These are secondary
structures.

The two most common secondary structures are shown above, alpha helical and beta sheet.
These structures are created by molecular interactions between amino acids. Normally the
interactions are hydrogen bonds. Other interactions will form as well.
Hydrogen bonds, in the most simple explanation, from between hydrogens attached to an oxygen
or nitrogen and the lone pairs found on an oxygen or nitrogen.
Disulfide bridges form between cysteine and methionine amino acids.
Salt bridges are interactions between the ends of the Zwitter ion, the NH 3+ and the COO-.

Hydrophobic interactions are formed between those amino acids with hydrophobic R groups.

Overall Tertiary Structure showing:

Pink = alpha-helical area
Yellow = beta-sheet area
White/Blue = woven or turns area

The above picture shows an entire protein, this is called its tertiary structure. The tertiary
structure gives the protein its function. If the tertiary structure is deformed the protein will not
function. The primary structure is sequenced in a way as to form the tertiary structure. The side
chains of the amino acids cause them to interact with the other parts of the chain. These interactions
include hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interactions, electrostatic interactions and van der Waals
forces. An egg white is all protein, when it comes out of the shell it is clear, when you cook the egg
you destroy its Tertiary Structure and the protein unfolds and becomes white, this destroys the
proteins secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures. The primary structure will normally stay intact
if the food is cooked..
Some proteins have a quaternary structure. The quaternary structure occurs in proteins composed of
more than one peptide chain. Meaning two or more proteins come together to form one large protein.
We have mentioned hemoglobin a couple of time. This large protein has a quaternary structure as it
is composed of four myoglobin subunits. Each subunit is a separate polypeptide chain.

This picture is showing each of the four structure types and the order of their formation. First the
primary structure is formed, as this structure forms secondary structures take shape. Once the
protein sequence is completed the protein folds into its tertiary structure. If the protein has a
quantanary structure, two or more proteins will come together to complete the quantanary structure.

Destroying a Protein:
When a protein is destroyed it is said to be denatured. Remember that the purpose of a primary
structure is so the secondary and tertiary structures will form. Certain conditions will cause the
protein to unfold, leaving only the primary structure.
heat breaks hydrogen bonds by causing the atoms to vibrate too radically
UV light breaks hydrogen bonds by exciting bonding electrons
organic solvents breaks hydrogen bonds
strong acids and bases breaks hydrogen bonds and can hydrolyze the peptide bonds, breaking
the primary structure
detergents disrupt hydrophobic interactions
heavy metal ions forms bonds to sulfur groups and can cause proteins to precipitate out of
solution.

Essential and Non-Essential Amino Acids:

As far as your body is concerned, there are two different types of amino acids: essential and nonessential. Non-essential amino acids are amino acids that your body can create out of other
chemicals found in your body. Essential amino acids cannot be created, and therefore the only way
to get them is through food. Here are the different amino acids:
Non-Essential Amino Acids:
1. Alanine (synthesized from pyruvic acid)
2. Arginine (synthesized from glutamic acid)* essential for infants and young children
3. Asparagine (synthesized from aspartic acid)
4. Aspartic Acid (synthesized from oxaloacetic acid)
5. Cysteine (synthesized from homocysteine, which comes from methionine)
6. Glutamic Acid (synthesized from oxoglutaric acid)
7. Glutamine (synthesized from glutamic acid)
8. Glycine (synthesized from serine and threonine)
9. Proline (synthesized from glutamic acid)
10. Serine (synthesized from glucose)
11. Tryosine (synthesized from phenylalanine)
H O
NH2

C C OH
CH2
CH2

O C

H O O
H C C C OH

H
pyruvic acid

NH2

CH2OH
H
HO

O
H
OH

glutamic acid
H O

NH2

C C OH
CH2

O C
O
H

HO C C C C OH HO C C
H
oxaloacetic acid

aspartic acid

H O

CH2
NH2

C C OH
CH2

phenylalanine

OH
serine

O H H O O

O H O O

C C OH

OH

H
HO
alpha -D-glucose

H O

H O
NH2

C C OH

C C C OH

H H
oxoglutaric acid
H O

NH2

C C OH
CH2

H O
NH2

C C OH

H C OH

CH2

CH2

H C H

CH2

H
threonine

CH3
methionine

SH
homocysteine

Essential Amino Acids:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Valine

must be consumed

Protein Nutrition:
Protein in our diets comes from both animal and vegetable sources. Most animal sources (meat, milk,
eggs) provide what's called "complete protein," meaning that they contain all of the essential amino
acids. Vegetable sources usually are low on or missing certain essential amino acids. For example,
rice is low in isoleucine and lysine. However, different vegetable sources are deficient in different
amino acids, and by combining different foods you can get all of the essential amino acids throughout
the course of the day. Some vegetable sources contain quite a bit of protein -- things like nuts, beans,
soybeans, etc. are all high in protein. By combining them you can get complete coverage of all
essential amino acids.
The digestive system breaks all proteins down into their amino acids so that they can enter the
bloodstream. Cells then use the amino acids as building blocks.
From this discussion you can see that your body cannot survive strictly on carbohydrates. You must
have protein. According to this article, the RDA (Recommended Daily Allowance) for protein is 0.36
grams of protein per pound of body weight. So, a 150-pound person needs 54 grams of protein per
day.
Athletes will need more in their diets. Many studies have recommended protein levels of 1 gram of
protein per kilogram of body weight per day. Which is near three times that of a non-active person.
If you would like to read some good sports nutrition texts, try "The Athlete's Kitchen" by Nancy Clark
MS RD or "Sports Nutrition" by Dan Benardot Ph.D., RD. Sports nutrition for children, try "Play Hard
Eat Right" by Debbi Sowell Jennings MS RD and Suzanne Nelson Steen D.Sc. RD.

The nutritional facts picture is the Nutritional Facts label from a

package of bacon. You can see that a serving of this bacon has 4
grams of protein. There are 9 servings in this package giving a total
of 36 grams of protein. An 8 ounce glass of milk contains about 8
grams of protein. A slice of whole grain bread may contain 2 or 3
grams of protein. You can see that it is not that hard to meet the
RDA for protein with a normal diet. A fried egg will have about 8
grams of protein. So, a typical breakfast may consist of 2 fried
eggs, 2 pieces of toast and a glass of milk giving you about 30
grams of protein just for breakfast. A 150 lb person is well on their
way to meeting their RDA of 54 grams of protein.

Analyzing Amino Acids:

Electrophoresis:

Above are pictures of gel electrophoresis. The protein is denatured so that it loses all secondary
and tertiary structure. This means you have the protein as a string of amino acids. It is because
of this string-like form that you can separate proteins based on their molecular weight alone. A
protein standard solution, a mixture of proteins of known molecular masses, is loaded into lane
spot #1. The protein samples that are your unknowns are loaded into other adjacent lanes #2 &
#3.
In electrophoresis an electric potential difference is applied across a plate of gel. Molecules
separate on the gel since they move at speeds that depend on their size. Smaller proteins move
at a faster rate than larger proteins. When the protein bands have migrated down the gel one can
compare the molecular weights of the unknown proteins to the standard protein molecular
masses.

Test Reagents for Amino Acids:

Xanthoproteic Test:
positive test for benzene rings which have amino or hydroxyl groups, such as that present in
tryptophan and tyrosine
addition of concentrated HNO3 .
gives yellow color and is intensified to orange-yellow by the addition of a base
Cysteine Test:
positive test for cysteine
addition of cyanide salt to reduce disulfide bonds
addition of nitroprusside to from a colored complex with sulfhydryl groups
gives a pink to purple color intensity increases with concentration of SH groups
if no nitroprusside is used a black ppt will indicate positive test

nitroprusside
Biuret Test:
positive test for peptide bonds
Biuret Reagent is made of sodium hydroxide and copper sulfate
blue reagent turns violet in the presence of proteins
pink color persists with short-chain polypeptides
color intensity varies with concentration of peptides

Ninhydrin Test:
positive test for amino acids, not peptides
all amino acids give blue
except proline which gives a yellow color

Sanger Reagent:
Reagent for the determination of the N-terminal amino acid in a peptide.
In the first step the amino group is coupled to 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitirobenzene (by a nucleophilic
aromatic substitution).
Then the peptide is hydrolytically cleaved. If the hydrolysis is mild enough (which can be quite
annoying), then the whole peptide can be degradated via this reaction.

After the cleavage the dinitrophenyl residue is still connected to the N-terminal amino acid. That
can easily be separated and analyzed by e.g. chromatography

Edman Degradation:
Degradation of the N-terminal amino acid of a peptide.
Then the amino acid can be identified e.g. with chromatographic methods or melting point.

9 Essential Amino Acids: Function, Deficiencies and Excesses

HISTIDINE
Main Functions:
Found in high concentrations in hemoglobin.
Useful in treating anemia due to relationship to hemoglobin.
Has been used to treat rheumatoid arthritis.
Precursor to histamine.
Associated with allergic response and has been used to treat allergy.
Assists in maintaining proper blood pH.
Histidine Excess In:
Pregnancy
Histidine Deficiency Seen In:
Rheumatoid arthritis
Anemia
Dysbiosis (Imbalance of intestinal bacterial flora).
Note:
High Histidine levels are associated with low zinc levels. Low Histidine levels are associated with high
zinc levels. Thus, abnormal Histidine levels are an indicator that zinc levels should be tested.
ISOLEUCINE
Main Functions:
One of the 3 major Branched-Chain Amino Acids (BCAA), all of which are involved with muscle
strength, endurance, and muscle stamina.
Muscle tissue uses Isoleucine as an energy source.
Required in the formation of hemoglobin.
BCAA levels are significantly decreased by insulin. Translation: High dietary sugar or glucose intake
causes release of insulin, which, in turn, causes a drop in BCAA levels. Therefore, right before
exercise, it is not wise to ingest foods high in glucose or other sugars, as the BCAA's, including
Isoleucine will not be readily available to muscles.
Isoleucine Excess Seen In:
Diabetes Mellitus with ketotic hypoglycemia
Isoleucine Deficiency Seen In:
Obesity
Hyperinsulinemia
Panic Disorder
Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (Note: Deficiencies in BCAA in CFS, GWS, FM are associated with
muscle weakness, fatigue, and post-exertional exhaustion).
Acute hunger
Kwashiorkor (starvation)
LEUCINE
Main Functions:
As one of the 3 branched-chain amino acids (the other 2 being Isoleucine and Valine), Leucine has all
of the properties discussed with Isoleucine, as it pertains specifically to the branched-chain amino
acid functions.
Potent stimulator of insulin.
Helps with bone healing.
Helps promote skin healing.
Modulates release of Enkephalins, which are natural pain-reducers.
Leucine Excess Seen In:
Ketosis

Leucine Deficiency Seen In:

Hyperinsulinemia
Depression
Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (Note: Deficiencies in BCAA in CFS, GWS, FM are associated with
muscle weakness, fatigue, and post-exertional exhaustion).
Acute hunger
Kwashiorkor (starvation)
Vitamin B-12 deficiency in pernicious anemia
LYSINE
Main Functions:
Inhibits viral growth and, as a result, is used in the treatment of Herpes Simplex, as well as the
viruses associated with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, such as: Epstein-Barr Virus, CytoMegalo Virus,
and HHV6.
L-Carnitine is formed from Lysine and Vitamin C.
Helps form collagen, the connective tissue present in bones, ligaments, tendons, and joints.
Assists in the absorption of calcium.
Essential for children, as it is critical for bone formation.
Involved in hormone production.
Lowers serum triglyceride levels.
Lysine Excess Seen In:
Excess of ammonia in the blood
Lysine Deficiency Seen In:
Herpes
Epstein-Barr Virus
Chronic Fatigue Syndrome
AIDS
Anemia
Hair loss
Weight loss
Irritability
METHIONINE
Main Functions:
Assists in breakdown of fats.
Precursor of the amino acids Cysteine and Taurine.
Helps reduce blood cholesterol levels.
Antioxidant.
Assists in the removal of toxic wastes from the liver.
One of the sulfur-containing aminos (the others being Cysteine and the minor amino acid, Taurine).
The sulfur-containing amino acids act as anti-oxidants which neutralize free radicals.
Helps prevent disorder of hair, skin, and nails due to sulfur and anti-oxidant activity.
Precursor to Carnitine, Melatonin (the natural sleep aid) and Choline (part of the neurotransmitter,
Acetylcholine).
Involved in the breakdown of Epinephrine, Histamine, and Nicotinic Acid.
Required for synthesis of RNA and DNA.
Natural chelating agent for heavy metals, such as lead and mercury.
Methionine Excess Seen In:
Severe liver disease
Methionine Deficiency Seen In:
Chemical Exposure
Multiple Chemical Sensitivity (MCS)

Vegan Vegetarians
PHENYLALANINE
Main Functions:
Precursor to Tyrosine, which, in turn, is the precursor to the neurotransmitters: Dopamine and the
excitatory neurotransmitters Norepinephrine and Epinephrine.
Precursor to the hormone, Thyroxin.
Enhances mood, clarity of thought, concentration, and memory.
Suppresses appetite.
Major part of collagen formation.
While the L-form of all of the other amino acids is the one that is beneficial to people, the
D and DL forms of Phenylalanine have been useful in treating pain.
DL-Phenylalanine is useful in reducing arthritic pain.
Powerful anti-depressant.
Used in the treatment of Parkinson's Disease.
Phenylalanine Excessive Seen In:
Pregnancy
pigmented melanoma
PKU (phenylketonuria)
panic disorder/anxiety attacks.
Phenylalanine Deficiency Seen In:
Depression
Obesity
Cancer
AIDS
Parkinson's Disease
Note:
Phenylalanine should be avoided if you suffer from High blood pressure, as it has hypertensive.
THREONINE
Main Functions:
Required for formation of collagen.
Helps prevent fatty deposits in the liver.
Aids in production of antibodies.
Can be converted to Glycine (a neurotransmitter) in the central nervous system.
Acts as detoxifier.
Needed by the GI (gastrointestinal) tract for normal functioning.
Provides symptomatic relief in ALS (Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, Lou Gehrig's Disease).
In laboratory experiments with animals, Threonine increases thymus weight.
Threonine is often low in depressed patients. In that group of patients, Threonine is helpful in treating
the depression.
Threonine Excess Seen In:
Alcohol ingestion
Those treated with sedative anti-convulsing medication (animal studies)
Vitamin B6 deficiency
Pregnancy
Liver cirrhosis
Threonine Deficiency Seen In:
Depression
AIDS
Muscle Spasticity
ALS (Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis)

Vegetarianism
Epilepsy
TRYPTOPHAN
Main Functions:
Precursor to the key neurotransmitter, serotonin, which exerts a calming effect.
Effective sleep aid, due to conversion to serotonin.
Reduces anxiety.
Effective in some forms of depression.
Treatment for migraine headaches.
Stimulates growth hormone.
Along with Lysine, Carnitine, and Taurine is effective in lowering cholesterol levels.
Can be converted into niacin (Vitamin B3).
Lowers risk of arterial spasms.
The only plasma amino acid that is bound to protein.
Tryptophan must compete with 5 other amino acids to pass through the blood-brain barrier and enter
the brain. Those 5 are: tyrosine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine, and valine and are called Large
Neutral Amino Acids (LNAA).
Requires pyridoxal-5-phosphate (P5P) a form of vitamin B6 to be converted into serotonin. P5P
deficiency will lower serotonin levels, even if Tryptophan levels are normal.
Tryptophan Excess Seen In:
Increased intake of salicylates (aspirin).
Increased blood levels of free fatty acids.
Sleep deprivation.
Niacin intake.
Tryptophan Deficiency Seen In:
Depression
Insomnia
Chronic Fatigue Syndrome
ALS
FDA ban of Tryptophan
Note:
Simultaneous treatment with Tryptophan and Prozac (and other SSRI anti-depressants, such as Paxil
and Zoloft) can produce an irreversible brain disorder called Serotonin Syndrome. This treatment
combination is to be avoided.
Standard AMA, APA (American Psychiatric Association), FDA, and pharmaceutical industry position
has been that Tryptophan is not an effective treatment of serotonin-depletion depressions, when
compared to Prozac and other SSRI's.
Clinical experience has shown that some people respond well to Prozac while others respond well to
Tryptophan in treating serotonin-depleted depressions. When the FDA banned Tryptophan,
thousands of people who only had a positive response to Tryptophan (and not to Prozac)
decompensated psychologically and never recovered.
Tryptophan is again available, but only through prescription and compounding pharmacies.
VALINE
Main Functions:
One of the 3 major Branched-Chain Amino Acids (BCAA) . . .the other 2 being leucine and
isoleucine . . . all of which are involved with muscle strength, endurance, and muscle stamina.
BCAA levels are significantly decreased by insulin. High dietary sugar or glucose intake causes
release of insulin, which, in turn, causes a drop in BCAA levels.
Competes with Tyrosine and Tryptophan in crossing the blood-brain barrier. The higher the Valine
level, the lower the brain levels of Tyrosine and Tryptophan. One of the implications of this

competition is that Tyrosine and Tryptophan nutritional supplements need to be taken at least an hour
before or after meals or supplements that are high in branched chain amino acids.
Actively absorbed and used directly by muscle as an energy source.
Not processed by the liver before entering the blood stream.
Any acute physical stress (including surgery, sepsis, fever, trauma, starvation) requires higher
amounts of Valine, Leucine and Isoleucine that any of the other amino acids.
During period of Valine deficiency, all of the other amino acids (and protein) are less well absorbed by
the GI tract.
Valine Excess Seen In:
Ketotic Hypoglycemia
Visual and tactile hallucinations
Valine Deficiency Seen In:
Kwashiorkor
Hunger
Obesity
Neurological deficit
Elevated insulin levels