FUNDAMENTALS OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

Introduction
Remote Sensing can be broadly defined as the collection of information about an
object or physical phenomena without being in physical contact with the object or
phenomenon. Aircraft and satellites are the most common platforms from which remote
sensing observations are made. Aerial photography is the original form of remote sensing
and has wide applications in topographical mapping, engineering, environmental studies and
exploration for oil and minerals. In the early stages of development, aerial photographs
were obtained from balloons and kites. Later, with the development of airplane (1903) and
specifically during the World War (1914 to 1918), aerial photography received more attention in the interest of military intelligence.
In India, aerial photographs have been in use since 1920 for aerial surveys and for
interpretation in specific fields such as geology. Attempts were also made to use
terrestrial photographs obtained from photo-theodolites for survey purposes around 1899.
Photogrammetric methods for mapping were introduced in the 1948 with the advent of
multiplex stereo plotting instrument. Later, such equipment was further augmented with
the acquisition of modern stereo plotting instruments during the period from 1954 to 1956.
Since then, Survey of India (the national mapping agency) has kept itself abreast of the
technological changes in the fields of photogrammetric mapping and aerial photography.
The present discussion confines itself to aerial remote sensing only i.e. aerial
photography.
Aerial Photography
Aerial photography is defined as the science of obtaining photographs from the air
using various platforms, mostly aircraft, for studying the surface of the earth. The sun
provides the source of energy (electromagnetic radiation or EMR) and the photosensitive
film acts as a sensor to record the images. Variations in the gray tones of the various
images in a photograph indicate different amounts of energy reflected from the objects as
recorded on the film.
The earth's atmosphere, which contain various particles and molecules of gases and
water vapor, attenuates the incoming as well the outgoing energy/radiation (scattering)
after interaction (reflectance, transmittance and absorption) with the object and thus
reduces the contrast between different images formed on the photographic film.
Therefore, the quality of aerial photography largely depends upon the atmospheric
conditions prevailing at that time. Different filter/lens combinations can, however, be used
to eliminate some of the atmospheric effects in black and white photography by making use
of a yellow (minus blue) filter to reduce the effects of haze. The problem becomes more
complex in the case of colour photography. Other factors that influence aerial photography
are as follows.

Scale
Scale is the ratio of distances between two images on an aerial photograph and the
actual distance between the same two points/objects on the ground, in other words the
ratio f/H (where f is the focal length of the camera lens and H is the flying height above
the mean terrain). Due to variations in flying height, the scales of different photographs
may vary. Scale may also vary because of the effects of tilt and relief displacements.
Camera/Film/Filter Combinations
In order to extract the maximum information from
aerial photograph, the image should be of the highest quality. To ensure good image quality,
modern distortion-free cameras are used. Some of the latest versions have image motion
compensation devices to eliminate or reduce the effects of forward motion. Depending
upon the requirements, different lens/focal length/film/filter combinations can be used.
Flight Direction
As a rule, aerial photography is flown in strips to cover the designated area. For
convenience in handling, it is advisable to keep the number of strips to minimum. The flight
direction of the strips is therefore kept along the length of the area. This direction may
be any suitable direction along a natural or man-made feature and should be clearly
specified.
Time/Season of Photography
The time of aerial photography is very important, as long, deep shadows tend to
obscure details, where as small shadows tend to delineate some details effectively and are
generally advantageous in improving the interpretational values of a photograph. Based on
experience, aerial photography should be flown when the sun's elevation is 30 degrees above
the horizon, or three hours before and after the local noontime.
The choice of the most suitable season depends on factors such as seasonal
variations in light reflectance, seasonal changes in the vegetation cover and seasonal
changes in climatological factors. The purpose for which aerial photography is flown also
dictates the season. For example, for photogrammetric mapping, geological or soil survey
purposes, the ground should be as clearly visible as possible.
Atmospheric Conditions
As mentioned before, the presence of particles (smoke or dust) and molecules of
gases in the atmosphere tends to reduce contrast because of scattering, especially by the
heavier particles; therefore the best time for photography is when the sky is clear, which
normally in India is from November to February. The presence of dust and smoke during
the pre monsoon summer months and of clouds during the monsoon months forbids aerial
photography during these periods.

Stereoscopic Coverage
To examine the earth's surface in three dimensions, aerial photography is normally
flown with a 60 % forward overlap and a 25 % side lap, to provide full coverage of the area.
This is an essential requirement from the photogrammetric mapping point of view to obtain
data both on planimetry and heights using the stereoscopic principle of observation in 3-D
and measurement techniques with stereo plotting instruments. Stereoscopic viewing also
helps in interpretation, as the model is viewed in three dimensions.
Applications of Aerial Photography
Mapping
The application of aerial photography in photogrammetric mapping is an established
procedure all over the world. It has been found to be fast, accurate, indispensable in
inaccessible areas and cost effective in the long run, as initially the establishment of a
photogrammetric survey/mapping unit involves capital expenditure due to the cost of
photogrammetric instruments and other ancillary equipment.
Interpretation
Photo interpretation has revolutionalised the methods of data collection in various
disciplines. It greatly reduces the fieldwork and thereby the cost. The information is
reliable and acceptance for most studies such as in the fields of geology, water resources,
geomorphology, hydrogeology, forestry and ecology, soil surveys, and urban and regional
planning.
Map Substitute
In a situation where there are no adequate large-scale maps available, aerial
photographs can serve as map substitutes in the form of photomaps. In the case of
relatively flat terrain, these photomaps can be produced by rectification to remove the
effects of tilt distortion and scale correction. This method has been found to be three to
four times faster than conventional mapping by photogrammetric methods. In the case of
hilly terrain, such photomaps (orthophoto maps) can be produced by the orthophoto
technique, which has also proved to be faster than conventional mapping. In some urgent
situations, simple mosaics prepared from aerial photographs can substitute for maps.
Classification of Aerial Photography
There are different criteria to classify aerial photographs depending upon the scale,
tilt, coverage, film and spectral coverage/response. This classification can be defined as
follows:

Scale
* Large scale: between 1:5,000 and 1:20,000
* Medium scale: between 1:20,000 and 1:50,000
* Small scale: smaller than 1:50,000 (Scale classification may differ from country to
Country)
Tilt
* Vertical: when the tilt is within 3 (nearly vertical)
* Oblique : Low oblique (horizon does not appear but tilt is more than 3 )
High oblique (horizon appears)
* Horizontal or terrestrial : camera axis is kept horizontal.
Angular Coverage
*
*
*
*

Narrow angle : angle of coverage less than50

Normal angle : angle of coverage of 60.
Wide angle : angle of coverage of 90 .
Super-wide angle : angle of coverage of 120

Film
*
*
*
*

Black and white panchromatic.

Black and white infrared.
Colour
Colour infra-red/false colour

Spectral Coverage/Response
* Multispectral: Depending upon the number of spectral bands.
As indicated above, a wide variety of photographic data products are available for
mapmakers, interpreters and resources scientists from which they can derive data relevant
to their specific needs. A thorough knowledge of the characteristics of these data
products is therefore imperative to derive the maximum benefits and to optimize the work
procedures.
Photographic Products
In all aerial photographic tasks, the images are recorded on film negatives, which
are
seldom
used
for
mapping
or
interpretation.
Positive
prints
or
transparencies/diapositives prepared from the film negatives are used for photogrammetric
mapping as well as for interpretation work. The criteria for good positive prints are that
the prints should represent the actual response and reproduce all the details in the negative
in a manner that permits easy recognition.

The positive materials in use are paper, film, and glass plates.
Positive
transparencies, which are also called diapositives, are better as, they record all the details
present in the negatives. Diapositives are therefore used when high precision and quality
are the goals. Paper prints are, however, so much easier to handle that they are always
used for photo interpretation and field checking. The different types of photographic data
products are detailed below.

Negatives on film (polyester based): previously on glass plates also.

Diapositives/transparencies on film

Contact prints on photographic paper of various grades and types. Such photographic
papers are available in grades of soft, medium and hard, and are used to obtain contact
prints of optimum contrast from the original film negative. For example, if the original
negative is of high contrast, a soft paper is used to prepare the contact prints.
Similarly, photographic paper is also available in various thickness and surface qualities
(matte or glossy) for use in different stages of mapping and interpretation.

Enlargements obtained on film or photographic paper for specific uses.

Colour/false colour prints.

Positive prints can also be prepared on colour
films/paper/transparencies from original colour negative films for use in interpretation.
Likewise, such prints/transparencies can also be obtained from colour infra-red/false

colour films.
facilities.

Multispectral photographs on film or photographic paper. In the case of multispectral

photographs from an I2S camera, it is possible to obtain colour composites or false
colour composites by the combination/superimposition of different spectral bands: for
example, the blue, green and red bands can be combined in special projection
instrument to obtain true colour composites. If the idea is only to view them,
colour/false colour composites can be obtained from special instruments such as Mini
Addcol Viewer.

However, the processing of such films requires special processing

Obtaining Aerial Photography

As per the existing policy of the Government of India, all types of aerial
photographs are classified documents (secret or restricted), depending upon the location
and its strategic importance. The Surveyor General of India coordinates all activities
relating to the execution of aerial photographic tasks for all civilian needs. The
coordinating authority performs the following functions :

Design and issue of the specifications for photographic tasks.

Layout and priorities, clearance from various agencies and distribution of tasks among
the three flying agencies.
Flight planning and evaluation for suitability of the executed tasks.
Distribution of photographs to the indenter.
Accounting for the above.

Flying Agencies
As the coordinating agency does not have its own flying facilities, the flying
operations for aerial photography are carried out by the Indian Air Force; the Air Survey
Company, Dum Dum, Calcutta and the National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), Hyderabad.
Cost of Aerial Photography
The cost of aerial photography in India depends upon the flying agency carrying out
the operation; the scale of the aerial photography; the area covered. Cost also depends
whether the prints are supplied from fresh or existing photography.
In the case of Indian Air Force, the cost depends upon the number of actual flying
hours and the type of aircraft used: as such , the cost can not be worked out in advance.
In the case of Air Survey Company, the cost is Rs. 75.20 per square mile (Rs. 29/per square km) for 1:40,000 scale (1990 price - the cost is now under revision). For other
scales, a linear conversion can be made; for example at 1:5,000 scale the cost is (40/5) X
75.2 = Rs. 601.60 per square mile and at 1:60,000 scale the cost is (40/60) X 75.20 = Rs.
50.15 per square mile.
In the case of the NRSA, the cost varies from scale to scale and by the distance of
the area from their headquarters. As such, the cost must be worked out separately for
each task.
Handling of Aerial Negatives
The greatest sources of dimensional change in aerial negatives are humidity and
thermal expansion/contraction. Ideally, negatives should be kept at the same temperature
and relative humidity that existed at the time of exposure. The recommended relative
humidity is 50 to 60 per cent, and temperatures should be 70o F with +/- 3o F tolerance.
In order to ensure dimensional stability, it is advisable to control the temperature of the
aerial camera while in operation so as to be close to normal room temperature.
It is also recommended that negative rolls be stored for future use in controlled
conditions of temperature and humidity as mentioned above. While working with negatives,
their surfaces should be kept free from dust, grease, scratches and fingerprints. These
precautions will help in obtaining good quality data products on reproduction as and when
required.

Specifications of Aerial Photography

For planning fresh photography, the purpose of the photography and scale are the
main considerations. However, while defining these specifications, the following factors
should be kept in view. Unless otherwise specified, the overlaps should be kept 60 per cent
in the forward direction and 25 per cent in the lateral direction. For special tasks and
terrains, the overlaps can be increased to 80 percent in the forward direction and 50 to 60
per cent in the lateral direction, especially in steep hilly areas and in city centers with highrise buildings.

Camera lens : depending on the type of photography required.

Film/filter combination : depending on the type of photography required.
Shutter speed : depending on the scale, type of
aircraft, its speed and film
speed/aperture (between 1/100 to 1/1,000 seconds).
Image motion : to be kept within tolerable limits
(i.e. 20 um on the negative scale) by
the proper combination of shutter speed/aperture and speed of aircraft
Camera frame : stable mounts
Platforms : ceiling height, stability in flying and speed limits.
Auxiliary data : as required
Processing : depending on the film type and the requirements of the data products.

AERIAL CAMERAS
Basic requirements of aerial photographs
The most important uses of aerial photographs are for production of base maps and
for application of photo-interpretation techniques for natural resources survey for geology,
soil survey and forestry purposes. In order to be useful for above purposes, aerial
photography should fulfill the following requirements :
a)

the photography should provide a faithful image of even the minutes detail,

b)

the definition of photography should be clear,

c)

the photography should be distortion free and continuous,

d)

the tilt and crabs are within tolerable limits.

Optical aspects of aerial camera

In aerial survey owing to the movements of the camera relative to the ground, short
exposure time and the necessity for bright photography, the aerial camera should fulfill the
following requirements :
a) A large relative aperture of the taking lens to produce bright and clear photographs.
b) The photographs produced are geometrically accurate with a high degree of sharpness
and good definition over large angular field.
c) The camera lens should be free from following lens aberrations.
I.

Spherical aberration - Occurs when rays from various zones of a lens focus at
different places along the axis; this results in an object point being imaged as a
blurred circle. It is caused by the spherical shape of the lens surfaces. It is
decreased as the lens aperture is reduced.(Fig.1).

II.

Coma - is a comet-shaped blur of light formed around image points off the axis. It
is partly due to spherical aberration of oblique rays.

III.

Astigmatism - is an aberration, which causes a point object off the axis to be

imaged as two mutually perpendicular short lines, located at different distances
from the lens. One of these is radial and other tangential with respect to centre of
the field.(Fig.2).

IV.

Curvature of the field - The surface of the best definition is located midway
between the two radial and tangential surfaces as explained in (iii) above and its
departure from flatness is termed `curvature of the field.' (Fig.2).

V.

Chromatic aberration - results when rays of various wavelengths of different

colours focus at different distances from the lens. Lateral chromatic aberration is
a difference in image magnification for various colours caused by chromatic
aberration of oblique rays (Fig.3).

d)
The camera lens is free from lens distortion.
Radial lens distortion is
the linear
displacement of an image point radially to or from the centre of the image field - a
positive value being considered away from the centre. Tangential lens distortion is a
small displacement in the image plane perpendicular to radial lines from the centre
of the field and is caused due to either lack of precision in centering of the various
lens elements or to improper mounting of the lenses. A lens exhibiting distortion will
image a square positioned perpendicularly and symmetrically with reference to the
optical axis as a pincushion or barrel since the various zones of the image
correspond to different focal length values and consequently varying image scale
(Fig. 4).
e)
The definition is good. Definition concerns the ability of a lens to record fine
details and
can be expressed as maximum number of lines pair per millimeter that can just be
seen as separate lines in the image. Normally, a resolving power of 45 lines pair per
mm is considered satisfactory.
Aerial cameras
The aerial cameras should be of a good quality. Its optical unit holding the lens,
fiducial marks and edges, which define the focal plane, should be of a rigid mechanical
structure. The main types of aerial cameras are given in Table 1.
Components of Aerial Cameras
The major components of an aerial camera are : Lens, lens cone, shutter and
diaphragm, camera body, drive mechanism, film magazine, focal plane and film flattening
device (Fig.5.).
The lens should be distortion-free and of high resolution. The lens surfaces should
have anti-reflection coatings.
The lens cone support the lens and retain it at a predetermined distance and
position from the film or plate negative, and serves to include direct light from striking the

film or plate. The interior of the lens cone should be black and fitted with baffles so as to
reduce the reflection of flare light.
The shutter and diaphragm of an aerial camera functions as a light value and
regulates the amount and period of time that light is permitted to pass through the lens and
expose the film or plate. The shutter should be of the between the lens type.

Fig. 1 Spherical aberration

and curvature
curve )

Fig. 3 Chromatic aberration

distortion

Fig. 2 Astigmation ( Dotted curves)

of field ( solid

Fig. 4 Effect of lens

10

Fig. 5 An aerial camera

( a= film, b= pressure plate, c= focal plane frame, d= lens, e= filter)

11

The camera body houses the camera drive mechanism, driving motor, operating handles and
levers, electrical connections and switches and other accessories which may be
necessiciated by specified requirements.
The camera derive mechanism is the power unit and power distributor for the entire
camera. The electric motor causes the many cams gear and shafts of the camera to move.
By means of rods and couplings, the power is routed to the shutter and the film magazines.
When a cycle is completed, the camera drive receives and electrical or mechanical impulse,
operates the shutter, and thus exposes the sensitized material.
The film magazine is first of all a container of film. Besides this it contains a
driving mechanism, which receives power from the camera drive mechanism and thereby
shifts the film after each exposure has been made. In addition, the magazine contains a
means of holding the film flat in the focal plane while the exposure is being made.
The focal plane of an aerial camera is the plane in which all light rays through the
lens cone come to a focus. A frame bound the focal plane, which determine the size of the
negative. In order to provide a means for placing the emulsion of the film in the exact focal
plane, a metal plate known as locating back is used in modern aerial cameras.
The film flattening is usually accomplished in modern aerial cameras by a vacuum
system. The locating back has grooves in which there are small holes which leads to a
central vacuum connections and hold the film firmly against the focal plane frame.
Camera mounting
It is advisable to keep the maximum relative motions between image and film, arising
from angular vibrations during the longest exposure, below a value of 0.002 mm. For a good
camera mounting, the centre of support should be near the centre of gravity, the mount
should be near the centre of gravity, the mount should feel soft and yield easily to hand
pressure, with its natural frequency not higher than 5 cycles per second, and damping
should be somewhat under damped.
Intervalometer
The use of an intervalometer, which controls the automatic exposure of the camera
at, specified distance intervals, along the flight line result in correct forward overlap. The
determined exposure interval is set on the intervalometer, which is then regulated by
electric or mechanical impulses with varying flying speeds and flying heights.
Crab compensation
Another important requirement is that the camera must be able to be turned into
its mount to compensate for crab. The crab is determined through simple sighting devices

12

and is eliminated by turning the camera ;through the `angle of crab' and thus uniform
overlap over the entire breadth of the photograph is ensured.

13

TABLE I
DETAILS ABOUT CAMERAS
SL.
NO.

CAMERA
TYPE
&
MAKE

TYPE
LENS

1.

Wild RC 5
(a)

a)Normal
angle

2.
3.

4.

Wild
RC 8
Wild RC9

Wild
10

RC

5,

Zeiss
RMKA

6.

Multiband
I2S

OF

ANGULAR
COVERAGE

FOCAL
LENGTH

PICTURE
SIZE

SHUTTER
TYPE
&
SPEED

60o

210

18x18

90o

115

18x18

Spring type
1/100
1/200

90o

115

18x18

Universal
wide angle

90o

115

23x23

Wide
F/5.6

90o

152

23x23

b)Wide angle
Wide angle

angle

Wide angle

93o

153

23x23

76o

153

8.9x8.9

FILM
LENGTH
USED
PER ROLL
(m)
60

NO. OF
EXPOSURE
PER
LENGTH
280

OVER-LAPS
IN FLIGHT
DIRECTION
POSSIBLE
20,60,70,80

SHORTEST
SEQUENCE
OF
PICTURE
3..5

60

280

-do-

-do-

1/300

60

280

-do-

-do-

Rotary
shutter with
continuous
setting from
1/100
to
1/00
Rotary
shutter
1/100
to
1/1000
Rotating
disc
type
from 1/100
to
1000
continuously
Focal plane
(2 type A, B)
1/140
to
1/350-A
1/350
to
1/980-B

60

235

-do-

-do-

60 or 120

230
460

120

470

76

or

20,25,30
50,55,60
65,70,75
80,85,90
20 to 90
continuously

1.6

2.0

2.0

REMARKS

Lens fully corrected for visible

spectrum (400 nm to 750 nm)
-do-

Lens corrected for the visible and

infrared sectors of spectral range
(500 nm to 900 nm) and with
appropriate light filters

Can be used for photography on

Panchromatic, infrared, colour and
false colour infrared films.

The older types of cameras of Eagle IX type of British make, which have been used largely in the past, are also available. These cameras
have lenses, which show distortions, which are appreciable, and the image quality is also not good as with modern cameras. The focal
length available is 6, 10, 12 and 20.

14

PROCESSING OF BLACK AND WHITE, COLOUR, BLACK AND WHITE

INFRARED AND COLOUR INFRARED FILMS, FILM DENSITY AND
CHARACTERISTICS CURVES
A real image formed by an optical system, may be recorded permanently by situating
a photographic film in the image plane. After the appropriate processing and printing, a two
dimensional impression of the scene is obtain.
BASIC BLACK & WHITE PHOTOGRAPHY
A light sensitive emulsion consisting of a suspension of microscopic silver halides
crystals in a gelatin binder is coated on a piece of flexible polyester to produce a black and
white film.
How a picture is formed
1.

Light reaching the sensitive layer through the camera lens during the exposure causes
an invisible change in the silver halides.

2. When the emulsion is treated with a developer those grains of silver halides, which have
been affected by light, are reduced to black metallic silver. The developer has no
effect on the grains in areas that have received no light during the exposure.
3. The grains that are not affected by the developer would blacken if exposed to light and
so a fixing solution is used to dissolve these unexposed, undeveloped grains without
effecting the permanent image in black silver.
4. The film is then washed to remove all unwanted chemicals. And so a negative is made in
which the various brightness of the original are recorded as corresponding degrees of
blackness.
5. To obtain a picture in which the various brightness correspond to those of the original
scene, this negative is printed by passing light through it onto a paper coated with a
silver halides emulsion.
6. The paper is then developed, fixed and washed as in the case of the negative.
Physical properties of the developed image
The degree of darkening of the film on development is expressed by a logarithm
number, which is called Density. The higher the density, the darker is the film. In case of
film, we are only interested in transmission density. Following relation is used for defining
photographic density.

15

Illumination (OUT)
------------------ X 100 percent
Illumination (IN)

Transmittance =

Opacity

Density =

Illumination (IN)
----------------Illumination (OUT)

Logarithm of Opacity

Characteristic Curve
The relation between exposure, development and the density of corresponding
negative is represented by a characteristic curve. It is also known as H and D curve, D log E
curve or response curve.
In the characteristic curve, densities are plotted against the logarithm of the
exposure to which they correspond. The characteristic curve of all photographic films or
papers has general S shape as shown in the figure 6. The shape of the curve will vary on the
following conditions.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

Type of emulsion (speed, contrast, B&W or colour etc.)

Type of developer (contrast, chemical constitution etc.)
Time of development
Temperature of developer
Dilution of the developer
Method of agitation (manual or automatic processing)

The lower part of the curve AB is known as the Toe region and the upper part CD is
known as the shoulder region. The central part BC is known as straight-line region and
tangent of its angle with the log. Exposure axis is known as Gamma or contrast of the
emulsion. Straight-line region is the best region of the film response. The aim of correct
exposure is to utilize the straight-line region of the characteristic curve.
Speed/Sensitivity
Speed is one of the most important sensitometric properties of photographic
material intended for aerial photography and also for general-purpose photography.
Knowledge of speed value permits the proper settings of shutter speed and aperture
number for correct exposure of a film. The general sensitivity of a film describes its
ability to produce a density change on exposure to light. The less light required to produce
a certain measurable density response, the higher is the sensitivity/speed of the emulsion.
Speed of the film is directly proportional to the size of the silver halides grains.

16

Speed of a film is specified by arithmetical numbers in American and British

standards (ASA/BS) and by logarithmic numbers in German Standard (DIN). The formula
to compute these speed number is :-

ASA/BS

0.8
---Em

DIN

10 log (1/Em)

Here Em is the exposure in Lux seconds corresponding to the point M obtained on

the characteristic curve for a density value of 0.1 above base plus fog density.
In case of under exposure, we have loss of information in the lowlight areas we have
loss of information in highlight areas for over exposure.
Printing from negatives
There are two methods of photo printing.
a) Contact printing : The negative film and the positive printing paper is kept in perfect
contact and exposed to light without a lens. Size of the positive print is of the same
size of original negative.
b) Projection printing : The negative image is projected through a lens on the positive
paper and the size of the positive print is of the desired magnification.
For preparing good quality positive prints from B&W negatives of varying density
range or contrast we use positive papers of different grade such as hard, medium, soft etc.
BASIC COLOUR PHOTOGRAPHY
In the spectrum of light (see fig.7), the most obvious colours are blue, green, red
and spectral yellow. For convenience, in colour photography, the spectral yellow is ignored
(it is a very narrow band of wavelengths) and it is said that the spectrum is divided into
three major bands, each being one third of the total :
BLUE
(400 to 500 nm)
GREEN (500 to 600 nm) and
RED
(600 to 700 nm)

and that WHITE LIGHT contains equal quantities of these three. All systems of 'true'
colour photography in use today are based on three facts. They are

17

1) All the colours and wavelengths of light that the human eye can see can be matched by
mixtures of only three suitably choosen colours called YELLOW, MAGENTA & CYAN.
Each of these absorbs one third of all the wavelengths in white light while transmitting
the other two thirds. See figure 7.

Fig. 6 Characteristic curve and aerial film speed

Fig. 7 Visible spectrum with transmission and absorption characteristics of

filters

18

for additive and subtractive colors.

Because each colour absorbs the one third of the spectrum that it does not transmit,
each is sometimes called a MINUS COLOUR. That is
YELLOW is called MINUS BLUE because it absorbs Blue
MAGENTA is called MINUS GREEN because it absorbs Green
CYAN is called MINUS RED because it absorbs Red.
The three colours BLUE, GREEN & RED, each being one third of the total spectrum are
called PRIMARY COLOURS whilst each of the other colours, YELLOW, MAGENTA &
CYAN are called secondary or COMPLEMENTARY COLOURS.
YELLOW is complementary to BLUE

(Yellow absorbs blue)

MAGENTA is complementary to GREEN (Magenta absorbs green)

CYAN is complementary to RED

(Cyan absorbs red)

The three complementary colours are used to match all of those in nature, obviously
anything, which was yellow, magenta or cyan is easy to match and (figure 8) shows how
blue, green and red are made. White is the absence of any colour whilst black is a
mixture of the maximum possible quantity of all three, grays are matched by mixtures
of equal quantities of yellow, magenta and cyan but not at the maximum possible
strength. The correct proportions of each of the complementary colours can match any
other colour that occurs in nature.
The other two important facts, which are used in colour photography, are :
2) It is possible, in effect, to make three different emulsions, each sensitive to one third
of the spectrum and to use then all at the same time, that is one emulsion is sensitive to
blue light (400 - 500 nm) another is sensitive to Green light (500 to 600 nm) whilst the
last is sensitive to Red light (600 to 700 nm).
3) In the processing of the colour film or paper, it is possible to produce a different dye in
each emulsion layer and each dye may be in the form of an image complementary in
colour to the sensitivity of the emulsion layer in which it is formed.
That is, the Blue sensitive layer gives a Yellow dye image.
the Green sensitive layer gives a Magenta dye image.
the Red sensitive layer gives a Cyan dye image.

19

This system is called CHROMOGENIC development. In respect of point 3 above,

the three layers will only be sensitive to Blue, Green and Red, and the dye images produced
will only be Yellow, Magenta and Cyan respectively in a 'true' colour film. In a 'false' colour
film, there will not necessarily be three emulsion layers, the emulsion layers may not be
sensitive to Blue, Green and Red but possibly to other bands of the visible spectrum or even
to invisible radiations such as infrared, nor will the dye images produced necessarily be
complementary to the sensitivities of the emulsion layers in which they are formed.
Construction of a colour film
The sources of all contemporary colour photographic systems depends not only on
the facts that various emulsions can be made sensitive to well defined spectral bands and
that dye images can be produced later in those emulsion layers by chromogenic development,
but also on the facts that all the emulsion layers are exposed at the same time and that the
images formed in them are exactly registered. In other words, the image of a point in one
layer will be exact coincidence with the image of the same point in all the other layers. The
three (usually) emulsion layers and the three images formed cannot be physically separated
from each other.
A `true' colour film consists, then, of three light-sensitive emulsion layers coated
upon a film base, each emulsion being sensitized to one of the primary colours and capable
of producing the corresponding complementary colour during processing, the dye image
which is produced by chromogenic development in each of the three emulsion layer will
absorb the primary colour to which that layer was originally sensitive.
This system is used for both types of film, negative and reversal, giving
respectively, negative and positive images, figure 9 shows the cross-section of the true
colour film.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------BLUE SENSITIVE EMULSION gives YELLOW DYE IMAGE
yellow layer
GREEN SENSITIVE EMULSION

gives

MAGENTA DYE IMAGE

RED SENSITIVE EMULSION gives

CYAN DYE IMAGE

FILM BASE
FILM BASE
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Figure 9 - Cross-section of a true colour film

In figure 9, the layer between the Blue and Green sensitive emulsion layers was not
explained. It is a yellow layer which is necessary to absorb blue light and prevent it from
reaching the lower two emulsions because they are also sensitive to blue light. As was

20

stated earlier, all photographic emulsions are inherently sensitive to blue and in a colour
film, this sensitivity is suppressed by making sure that no blue light reaches the Green and
Red sensitive emulsion layers. The yellow filter layer is destroyed during processing.

Fig. 8: Color triangle showing the relationship among additive (+) and
subtractive (-) primary colors.

21

Fig. 9: Cross sections of positive and negative color films showing how images
are formed on the three emulsion layers.
Colour film type
It has already been mentioned that there are two types of colour film, negative and
reversal, giving negative and positive image respectively. The two types of film are
constructed in an identical way but their emulsions are slightly different, it is the
processing of the film, which controls the final image depending upon whether it is negative
or positive. The best images can only be produced however, if a film is made to be
processed only to a negative or is made to be processed only to a positive, it is not possible
to make just one film that can be processed successfully to either a negative or a positive.
This has been attempted in the past (Kodak `Ek-tachrome `MS' `Aerographic' film) but by
the most modern standards, the quality achieved was inadequate.
In other words, manufacturers make and sell two different types of colour films for
negative or positive images, they are known as negative or reversal films. It is possible to
buy `true' colour films as either negative or reversal material but the most widely used
`false' colour (Kodak `Aerochrome' Infrared) is available only for reversal processing to
give positive images. Of the other `false' colour films, Kodak Water Penetration Colour
films is a reversal film, the G.A.F. Blue-sensitive Colour Film is also for reversal processing
whilst the Russian films which are quite well known but no longer available (Spectrozonal)
were made in two types, one to give negatives, the other to give positives by reversal
processing.
Colour reproduction
The next four diagrams show
fig.10 the reproduction of colour by an aerial colour negative
film
fig.11

the reproduction of colour by a 'true' colour reversal

film

fig.12 the reproduction of colour by Kodak 'Aerochrome'

Infrared 'false' colour film
fig.13 the reproduction of colour negative by colour printing
paper.
Choice of film type
Colour photographs made with reversal film are usually sharper, contain more detail
and have better colour reproduction, (in true colour photography). BUT, the film actually
used in the aerial camera is the same film that is processed to give the final diapositive, it

22

is the same film that is exposed in the air, which is finally used, by the interpreter or the
photogrammetrist. This is a poor situation because if a diapositive is damaged or destroyed,
it can only be replaced by re-flying the photographic mission. It is possible to make paper
prints or duplicate diapositives from original transparencies but the techniques, which must
be used, are difficult and the material is expensive as

Fig. 10: The colour negative - positive process

23

24

Fig. 11: The substantive reversal process

25

Fig. 12: Reproduction of colours by Kodak Aero chrome Infrared False

colour film

26

Fig. 13: The silver - dye - bleach process

compared with the costs of making similar products from colour negatives - and in some
areas of the world, the adequate materials may not be available. It is therefore better to
take the original aerial photographs on colour negative film. Although a diapositive made
from a negative will not be as good as an original diapositive but will be very similar to a
duplicate diapositive. The reasons for the changes in quality are that, as with black and
white techniques, there is always a slight loss of resolution and detail each time the
photographic process is used but, in colour photography, each time the process is used, the
colour itself also becomes worse. It is obvious, then that the user of colour aerial
photography has some difficult choices to make. It is better to use colour negative film for
large-scale aerial photography to avoid the overall blue cast due to effect of scattering of
lower wavelengths. And for small scale aerial photography IR colour aerial films are suitable.
If all photography is carried out with reversal films, both true and false colour, then the
optimum quality will not be achieved and some production will be very slow or even
impossible. There are no straightforward solutions to these problems. Aerial photography
should be based on utilization to fulfill the desired results of mapping/interpretation.

27

Equipment for colour aerial photography

So far, nothing has been written in these notes about the characteristics of the
cameras and accessories, which should be used for colour aerial photography. The reasons
for this is that there are no differences in the cameras required - any modern aerial
camera with lenses suitable for both panchromatic and infrared black and white
photography will also be suitable for colour work. The one big difference in the taking of
colour photographs is that in true colour work, it is not permissible to use a yellow filter to
reduce the effects of haze. But, because much of the haze radiation is short wavelength, it
is both possible and desirable to fit the camera with an `ultraviolet absorbing' filter which
transmits virtually all visible light but absorbs the unwanted ultraviolet radiation. Figure 14
shows the transmission curve of a typical filter that might be used. Another aspect of
importance, in any use of colour film, for any purpose, is that the exposure of the film must
be correct, it is not possible to compensate for under - or over-exposure during the
processing of the film. Correct exposure is absolutely essential for colour reversal films.
Should colour photography be used?
If the use of colour film is considered, it is unlikely to totally replace black and
white film but may be in addition. The image quality is still not quite as good as that of
black and white photography and this is one reason why it is sometimes said to be desirable
to take colour photographs at a larger scale. Haze also has a detrimental effect on `true'
colour photography that cannot be minimized by the use of a `minus-blue' filter. These
facts make it desirable to produce colour photography at the largest possible scale for
optimum quality and information content.
For reasons of cost, economy and time consumption, it may be advisable therefore,
to cover the total survey area by black and white photography and then to add colour
photography for those parts where this might have particular advantages. Colour is
especially useful when results in black and white do not show sufficient differentiation
between important details and where colour differences are clear and relevant to the
investigation being carried out.
The much higher costs of aerial photography are not caused just by the higher
prices of colour film, these are only a very small fraction of the total expenditure on a
photographic mission, they are caused much more by organizational and time consumption
problems, not the least of which is the necessity of waiting for really clear atmospheric
conditions. The instances in which colour aerial photography can be the best means of
solving particular survey problems are limited but are becoming decreasingly so as new and
better materials and methods become available. If colour photography gives better
information, then the time and the money spent to produce it can be well justified.

28

AERIAL FLIGHT PLANNING

General
After all the relevant information regarding the aerial photography has been
obtained, the photographic flying mission has to be carefully planned. The fundamental
requirement of flight planning is adequate stereoscopic coverage with the least number of
pictures consistent with desired accuracy. The main factors affecting flight planning are
selection of aerial camera, flight altitude, forward overlap, lateral overlap, flight plan,
selection of aircraft, aerial film, and navigation instruments. On finalization of flight
planning the actual flight takes place when the weather conditions is ideal and the time and
season of photography is desired. Occurrence of clouds, avoidance of crabs, water surfaces
and gaps are also considered.
Selection of aerial camera
If the aerial camera and focal length of the lens have already been specified by the
inventor, then these should be used. If not, the focal length of the lens and aerial camera
has to be decided by Survey of India, who is responsible for design of photographic
specifications. Aerial cameras may be of different format size. For reasons of economy,
the larger format size should be used as far as possible.
Flight altitude
The scale of aerial photographs to be flown which is to be indicated by the user is
defined as the ratio of focal length(f) and the flying height(H) i.e. f/H. Thus, the photo
scale over an area can be constant if in other words the terrain height is constant. Usually
in nature, there is altitude variations in the terrain and therefore, the scale also vary from
photo to photo or even point to point. Thus, the given photo scale is only the mean scale
which is designed to be achieved by computing the flight altitude above mean ground level.
The flying height above mean ground level is important as it in intimately connected with
the ceiling height of the aircraft which is the maximum altitude above mean sea level at
which the aircraft can fly safely . If the height of mean ground level above mean sea level is
h and ceiling height of the aircraft above mean sea level CH, them maximum flying height
above mean ground level H for particular aircraft is given by, H =Ch-h. However, the flying
height above mean sea level which is the height of the aircraft above mean ground level
added to the height of the mean ground level above mean sea level and is given by H + h is
important for the pilot as he has to maintain the height of his aircraft at this level.
Scale variations
As explained earlier the photo scale is not constant over the entire area and the
expected scale variations can be computed according to terrain height variations. However,
it is also difficult to keep the flying height constant. The determined height can be held

29

within 50 feet while the flight is in progress. Actual flying height shall generally be within
2% for 200 feet of the computed flying height.
Alternatively it is possible to maintain a near constant photo scale over an area with
terrain variations by computing different flying height for each strip. The constant photo
scale is not so important for photogrammetry as it is for preparation of semi-controlled
photo-mosaics. If the photo scale is kept constant, scaling of individual photographs by
means of photographic enlargers or rectifiers can be avoided while preparing semicontrolled mosaics.
In order to obtain a constant scale, flying height is determined by means of flight
altimeters that are accurately calibrated to international standard atmosphere. This
calibration has to be carried out periodically on the test bench and has to be duplicated or
repeated during flight.
Date in Flight Report
For purposes of checking the scale it is necessary to mention the most important
data in the flight report, and therefore, the following should be mentioned therein.
a)

Altimeter calibration data.

b)

Sea level pressure or aerodrome level pressure of take-off.

c)

Sea level pressure or aerodrome level pressure at landing.

d)

Sea level pressure used at the survey area.

e)

Corrected outside air temperature (COAT) for each 1000 feet.

f)

Instruments and installation's errors calibrated for the

flying height.

g)

Indicated or calculated flight altitude or flying height.

h)

Required true altitude.

Forward Overlap: For stereoscopic viewing of photographs there should be certain amount
of overlap between two consecutive photographs. The overlap in flight direction shall be
60% 5% as expressed with respect to average terrain datum. In no case, however, less
than 53% and also in no case the forward overlap between photo number 1,3,5 and etc. be
less than 6% at the highest point.
Other forward overlap percentages can be specified if other special requirements
have to be fulfilled. In cases of block photography where saving in ground control is
envisaged a fore lap of 80% to 90% is used and suitable photographs having matching edges

30

with photographs of adjacent strips, but having at least 60% overlap amongst the
photographs of the same strip, are chosen for actual work.
Where the end of the strips of one block overlap the end of strips of another block,
the overlap shall be at lest 3 photographs and preferably 6 photographs. This is necessary
to make use of the control points of the existing photography for the new photography.
The above recommendations can be used for all normal cases but in cases of
mountainous terrain with large relief variations, the tolerance of 5% in forward overlap
may not be sufficient if the highest ground points are to have a minimum overlap of 53%.
Thus, it will be safer to have a slightly more forward overlap i.e. 60% to 65% in such cases.
Lateral overlap
The lateral overlap between strips only requires being sufficient to provide
certainty of identification of common detail and to allow for the lateral tilt and slight
deviations from course in the length of the strip. In general, a minimum lateral or side
overlap should be aimed at, for reasons of economy. In majority of cases, an average lateral
overlap 20% of the photo format size can be specified. Tolerance must be allowed at about
5% for navigational uncertainties and 5% for small terrain height differences. In terrain
with relief variation not more than 5% of flying height, lateral overlap specifications may be
stated as the lateral or side overlap shall be 20% 10% of the photo format size. This
results in maximum value of 30% and minimum value of 10% lateral overlap.
The effect of relief in mountainous terrain is to cut out the effective coverage due
to the scale of photography being larger on hilltops than in valleys and therefore adequate
provision should be made for relief at the planning stage. Based on past experience in the
Himalayas, it has been found that a lateral overlap of 35% caters for the terrain relief
variations in these areas. In mountainous areas the specifications for lateral overlap may
also be given as 20% + 10% + times relief percentage, where percentage relief.

X=

Extreme difference in ground height in the overlap area

--------------------------------------------------------------------- x 100
height of aircraft above lowest ground

Selection of aircraft
The selection of aircraft is done by the flying agency. The two factors, which are
required to be considered for the selection, are, the ceiling height of the aircraft and its
flying range. An aircraft, to be suitable for aerial photography, should have requisite speed,
a high rate of climb, and good stability while in flight and unobstructed view in all directions
for ease of navigation. It should have a ceiling height equal to or higher than the highestflying altitude specified. It should be able to remain in the air long enough to take
advantage of suitable photographic time, roomy enough to carry its full load to the maximum
flying height specified.

31

Navigation instruments and crew

If any navigation instruments e.g., radar or Decca navigator, inertial navigation
system, global positioning system is being used, these should be checked before installation.
All the spare magazines should be checked. Aerial camera and viewfinder should also be
checked for satisfactory operation.
The photographic crew i.e., the pilot and aerial photographer-cum-navigator should
be well qualified for the photographic task assigned to them.
Special survey data
In case any special survey data are required, these should be specified clearly. The
special survey data may be one or more of the following :
a)

Statoscope reading for each camera station.

b)

Horizon camera images for each exposure.

c)

Radar altimeter of Airborne Profile Recorder.

d)

Aerodist data.

e)

Gyro-controlled or inertia-controlled camera vertically data.

f)

Doppler-controlled air base measurements.

Aerial film
A fine-grain emulsion aerial film manufactured by any of the established
manufacturers, e.g.Agfa, Gaevert, Ilford or Kodak should be used.
Flight instruments and aircraft's calibration
According to the ICAO standards, the flight instruments shall be calibrated at least
once in every 1.5 years.This applies in particular to the barometric altimeter, temperature
gauge, and radar altimeter and for any other available scale or altitude reference system,
the magnetic compass, and direction gyro. The calibration shall consist of individual
calibration of each instrument and of a calibration of the total instruments system in flight
in order to determine and to correct for installation errors and for operational performance
errors.

32

BASIC GEOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

Introduction
Photographs taken from an aircraft commonly termed as aerial photographs have
come to play an ever-increasing role in the execution of cartographic mapping on various
scales and in evaluation of natural resources of a region. Uses of aerial photographs in other
fields are also manifold, in fact the scope seems limitless.
All studies of natural resources basically involve qualitative examination of the
terrain, the correct correlation of the observed data and finally the evaluation of the data.
The Orthodox method involve detailed study of the terrain with its attendant handicaps but
modern techniques of investigations make full use of the immense wealth of information
which is recorded on an aerial photograph and thus not only economize and expedite the
investigation but also offer more reliable results.
The aerial photograph offers possibilities of detailed of the terrain and its culture
suited to the need of the investigator, be he a geologist, forester, soil scientist, town
planner or any other kind of specialist. The only stipulation is that the specialist must know
what he is looking for and how the information, which he is seeking, appears in the aerial
photograph. The result of this qualitative analysis will depend upon the specialist's level of
specialization and experience.
The quantitative analysis which involves measurements of linear distances, angles
and height differences between terrain objects under investigation as well as the
preparation of base maps will only be possible if the geometry of photographs and technique
of photogrammetry are understood.
These notes will deal with those aspects of
photogrammetry, which should form the base of photogrammetric knowledge for photointerpreters in the disciplines of geology, forestry, soil sciences and town planning.
GEOMETRY OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
Projection
In order to understand the geometric qualities of a photograph it is necessary to
understand what projection means in terms of geometry. In the examples given (Fig. 1a, 1b
&1c) the triangle ABC and the line LL' on which the projection is made are in the same plane.
a)

Parallel Projection

In this projection, the projecting rays are parallel. The triangle ABC is projected on
the LL'. The projection of the triangle is `abc'. The projection rays Aa, Bb, Cc, are all
parallel in this case.
(Fig.1a)

33

Fig. 1(a)
b)

Fig. 1(b)

Fig. 1 (c)

Orthogonal Projection

Fig. 1b gives an example; in this case the projecting rays are all perpendicular to the line
LL'. This is a special case of parallel projection
Maps are an orthogonal projection of the ground on a certain scale. The advantage of this
projection is that the distances, angles and areas in the plane are independent of the
elevation differences of the objects.
c)

Central Projection

Fig. 1c shows a central projection. The projecting rays Aa, Bb, Cc, pass through one point O,
called the Projection Centre or Perspective Centre.
The image projected by a lens system is treated as a central projection, (though stringy it
is not, as the lens is not a single point).
TILT
It is the angle between the optical axis of the camera and the plumb line. It is also
the angle between the ground plane and the photo plane.
Tilt can be resolved into two components, one in the direction of flight (the X-axis)
and the other perpendicular to it (the Y-axis).
I.

The component about the Y-axis, i.e. in the direction of X is called Longitudinal Tilt
or X-tilt or Fore and Aft Tilt or Tip. It is denoted by letter (Phi).

II.

The component about the X-axis, i.e. in the direction of Y is called Lateral Tilt or YTilt or simple Tilt. It is donated by letter (Omega)

34

Fig. 2
In Fig. 2 the vertical ON through the perspective center meets the photo plane at point
`n' called the Photo nadir point and the ground plane at point N called the Ground nadir
point. These points are also called Plumb Point.
The foot of the perpendicular (p) from O on the photo plane is called Principle
Point. The length of this perpendicular (op) is called Principle Distance.
The approximate position of the principal point of a photograph is determined by
joining the opposite fiducial marks (or collimating marks) (Fig.3a). Line joining opposite
fiducial marks is known as fiducial axis. The point of intersection of the fiducial axes is
called fiducial centre (f) and is, for practical purposes, coincident with the principal point
(p) in a well-adjusted camera.

Fig. 3(a)

Fig.3 (b)

35

Figure 4. Locations of the principal point (PP), the nadir (n) and the isocenter (i) on a tilted
vertical aerial photograph.

Figure 5. Diagram of a tilted photograph illustrating the location of the principal point (PP),
the nadir (n), the isocenter (i), the axis of tilt, and the direction of tilt (up and down sides).
Reasons for Photo Tilt:

36

I.

Atmospheric conditions (air pockets or currents)

II.

Human error of the pilot fails to maintain a steady flight,

III.

Imperfections in the camera mounting, etc.

SWING
Swing is the angle measured in the plane of the photograph between the fiducial
axis in the direction of flight and the actual flight line (Fig. 3b). The angle is denoted by
(Kappa).
ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS
An aerial photograph, as already discussed, is a central perspective. In an ideal case
of an absolutely vertical photograph of a completely flat terrain the aerial photograph will
be geometrically the same as the corresponding map of the area. However, because of tilt
of the photograph and relief variation of ground photographed, an aerial photograph differs
geometrically from the map of the corresponding area.
The central perspective (a case of central projection) is characterized by the fact
that all straight lines joining corresponding points, i.e., straight lines joining object points to
their corresponding images, pass through one point. This point is known as the perspective
centre. Fig. 6 illustrates this relationship.

Fig. 6

37

Straight lines Aa', Bb' etc., joining corresponding points, e.g. A on the ground and a'
its image in the image plane (negative plane), are known as perspective rays and pass
through the perspective centre .
A plane between the perspective centre and the object is known as a positive plane.
The consideration of a positive plane does not involve any significant geometrical change in
the relationship.
The purpose of Photogrammetry is to produce an orthogonal projection of the image
of the object from its central projection(i.e., from perspective pictures-photographs) by
using the geometrical links between the object and its photo-image at the moment of
exposure.

Properties of Central Projection

To study the properties of an aerial photograph it is necessary to understand the
geometry of central (perspective projection). Some properties of this projection will be
dealt with in what follows : Plane I can be considered as ground plane and Plane II as
positive plane (photograph), see Fig. 7.
a) AB, the line of intersection of the object and image planes is known as the axis of
homology. It is also known as the axis of perspective.
b) SN and Sp are the perpendiculars from S on to the planes I and II intersecting plane I
at N and P and plane II at n and p respectively. The bisector of the angle PSN meets
the principle line (see subpara (f) EF in plane I and EH in plane II in I and i. These
points are ISOCENTRE is that angle measured at I in plane I are the same as
corresponding angles measured at i in plane II.
It is very important to remember that angles are true at the isocentres only when the
ground is flat.
c) A plane parallel to plane I and passing through the perspective centre `S' cuts the plane
II in a line CD that is known as the horizon line. Horizon Line and Axis of homology are
always parallel to each other. All horizontal lines parallel to the horizon line or axis of
homology are termed as plate parallel. The plate parallel passing through the isocentre
`i' is termed the isometric parallel or isoline. It can be proved that this is the only
parallel along which the scale = f/H, i.e., the same as in the case of a vertical
photograph.
A line through the perspective centre perpendicular to the principal plane (see para (f)
is called axis of tilt.
d) Image of all objects infinitely distant on the right of AB will be formed on the horizon
line. Points on the horizon line are known as vanishing points.

38

Images of parallel lines in the ground plane converge to a vanishing point. Thus, images
of all lines parallel to the principle line in the object plane will converge to a vanishing
point H, the point of intersection of horizon line and the principal line in the photoplane.
It is a fundamental property of perspective projection that a line in one plane projects
as a line in the other plane, the two lines meeting at the axis of homology, e.g. line XY in
ground plane projects as X'Y' in photo plane.
e) A plane, which is perpendicular to both the planes and passes through the perspective
centre is known as the principal plane. The lines of intersection of this plane with the
two planes are known as Principal lines. EF and EH are principal lines. Fig. 5a represent
the principal plane. The angle `0' between the principal lines is the angle between the
perspective planes. When this angle `0' is equal to Zero the plane II can be considered
as a vertical photograph. In normal vertical photography this angle should not exceed 3
or 4 grades.
f) Any point in plane I such as X has a corresponding position X' in plane II. Such pairs are
called homologous points.
g) If two planes are projectively related as in Fig. 8 certain important relationships exist
between the corresponding details in plane I and II.
Lines O'1, O'2, O'3 and O'4, on plane II are the images of lines O1, O2, O3 & O4 in plane I.
Let there be another line UV in plane I which cuts the lines O1, O2, etc. in 1', 2', 3' and 4'
then it can be shown that

12/13
-------24/34

1'2'/1'3'
---------- = r
2'4'/3'4'

This ratio is known as the Anharmonic ratio (or Cross-ratio) of the four distances. Because
of the constancy of this ratio, a unique position can be found for the line UV in plane II as
well so that 1' falls on line O'1, 2' falls on line O'2 and so on. This property is used in
graphical rectification.

39

Fig. 7 Geometry of a tilted photograph

fig: 8

40

SCALE, GROUND COVERAGE AND RESOLUTION OF AERIAL PHOTOS,

TILT AND RELIEF DISPLACEMENT
SCALE OF PHOTOGRAPHS
Scale is the relationship between distance on a map or photo and the actual ground
distance. Scale is represented in two says:
a) Equating different units of measurement on map and ground, i.e. 1 inch = 1 Mile, 64
inches = 1 Mile
b) As R.F. (representative fraction) in which the numerator is unity, e.g. 1:10,000 or
1/10,000, which means 1 unit on the map or photo, represents 10,000 units on the
ground.
Methods of scale determination
In decreasing order of accuracy these are :
i)

By establishing the relation of photo to ground:

If the distance between the same two points on the photo as well as on the
ground can be measured, R.F. can be set up :

R.F. =

Photo distance
---------------Ground distance

ii) By establishing the relation of photo to ground with the help of a map :
If the distance between two points on a photo which can be located on the map as well, is
measured, the horizontal measurements of these distance form a ratio, which when
multiplied by the R.F. of the map gives the R.F. of the photo. If `g' were the ground
distance between two points, `m' the map distance and `p' the photo distance then R.F. of
map is m/g and R.F. of photo scale is p/g.

R.F. of photo
_____________
R.F. of map

p/g p
--- = m/g m

41

Hence R.F. of photo = --------x R.F. of map

m
iii) By establishing the relation between focal length of the Camera and the flying altitude :
In a true vertical photograph of flat terrain the scale of photograph is the ratio f/H.

In figure 9(a) distance `AB' is imaged as `ab' on the photo.

photo distance
Scale of the photo = ----------------ground distance

ab
-AB

f
- .... From similar
H
triangles OAB & Oab

Fig. 9(a)
If the terrain is not flat, the scale of the photograph is not uniform. In Fig. 9(b),
Hm is the flying height above the average height of the terrain photographed. Then the
average scale of the photograph = f/Hm.

42

Fig. 9 (b)
The scale of photo for a point A which is at a height of `h' metres/ft. above the
average ground level

f
= -------- (the units of focal length and the heights
Hm-h being in the same terms).
Similarly, the scale for another point B which is at a vertical distance `d' metres/ft. below
the average terrain level

f
----Hm+d

Thus the scale of photograph is not uniform if there is irregular terrain. We can
determine either the average scale of the photograph as a whole or the scale of the
photograph at a particular point or elevation. Higher areas will be on a larger scale than that
of lower valleys.
In tilted photograph the scale is not constant. It is constant along any plate parallel (if
the ground is flat). The scale along isometric parallel (discussed earlier) is true, i.e., equal to
f/H.
The scale increases continuously on the nadir point side of the isocentre and
decreases continuously towards the principal point side of it.

43

Thus we arrive at an important result:

The scale of aerial photograph changes irregularly due to height difference in the
terrain but continuously due to inclination of the camera axis.
Resolution
Resolution of aerial photograph is expressed in lines pair per millimeter, i.e., nos. of
lines and equal size gap can be resolved. We can get approximately 20 lines pair per mm on
the scale of the original negative. For example if the original scale of negative is 1:10,000,
then the ground resolution will be 1
1
--------X10, 000 mm = ----- x 10,000 mm = 25 cm. on the ground.
(20+ 20)
40
IMAGE DISPLACEMENT
On a planimetric map all features/details are shown in their correct horizontal
position on a certain scale. This is not so in the case of aerial photographs due to image,
displacement or distortion.
A disturbance of the principle of geometry is called
displacement/distortion. There are three major sources of displacement/distortion, which
are due to : Optical or photographic deficiencies, i.e. lens distortion and aberration; relief
variation of the object photographed and tilt of the camera axis at the moment of
exposure.
(a) Lens distortion
Fig. 10 shows distortion due to a lens. Object point O is imaged at I' instead of its
correct position I on the image plane. d is the image displacement in this case. In the
modern aerial camera lens this type of distortion is negligible.

Fig. 10: Lens distortion

44

(b) Image displacement due to relief

Relief is the most significant source of image displacement. In Fig. 11, O is the
camera station. NA' is a flat plain on which stands a tower AB with its base at B. The
image of B on the truly vertical positive photographic plane is b. This is the correct
planimetric position (orthogonal) of the image of the tower AB. Top A is imaged at `a'. The
image of A is thus displaced from its correct planimetric position b, as `A' is vertically
above `B', on the photograph. This shift of `a' from `b' represented by distance ba is
called relief displacement. Let h be the height of the tower, H the flying height above the
datum plane, n and N is the photo and ground nadir points.

Fig. 11

na
The scale of photo along na is ---NA'
ab
The scale of photo along ab is ---BA'
Since the photograph is truly vertical and datum plane is truly horizontal the scale will be
constant.
ab
na
Hence ------ = ------BA'
NA'

45

or

ab
BA'
---- = --------- ........(1)
na
NA'

From similar triangles ONA' and ABA'

BA'
h
---- = ------,
NA'
H
ab
---na

Equation (1) becomes

Hence

ab

h
= --H

h
na.------H

If we denote `ab', the displacement by r and na, the distance between the nadir
point and the image of top of the object by r then we can write the above equation as
h
r
= r. ------H
From this relation we conclude :
I.

Relief displacement increases with increasing value of `r' i.e., it is zero at plumb
point and maximum at the edges of the photograph.

II.

Smaller the height of the object, smaller is the displacement and vice versa. If h =
o, i.e. for objects in the datum plane there is no displacement.

III.

With increasing value of `H' i.e. with highflying heights the displacement decreases.
The satellite pictures can thus be considered having very low relief displacement.
It can also be proved that the relief displacement is radial from the plumb point.

While relief displacement constitutes a source of error in the measurement of

horizontal distances on aerial photographs, it is the characteristics that make it possible to
study overlapping photographs stereoscopically and in the determination of height
differences between objects photographed.

(c) Image displacement due to tilt

46

I.

Flat Terrain - Let O (Fig. 12) be the perspective center I and II be the positive
planes for a truly vertical and tilted photographs respectively. The figure shows a
cross-section in the principal plane. For a point `A' which appears at a' in I and at a
in II, the displacement is equal to ia' - ia. It can be shown that it is equal to
ia2 . Sin
----------------------f - ia.Sin

and is radial from the isocentre. For a point b in plane II (Fig. 13) which does not lie
in the principal plane and is that an angle with principal line at the isocentre `i', the
tilt displacement which is still radial from the isocentre can be shown to be equal to

ib' - ib =

ib2 . Sin .Cos2

----------------------------f - ib.Sin . Cos

Fig 12

Fig. 13

The displacement due to tilt is outward from the isocentre when the point is on the
nadir point side of the isometric parallel and inward when on the principal point side. If the
tilt is small n and i will be closer to p and, therefore, for near vertical photographs we
assume that the relief displacement is radial from the principal point. (Principal point
coinciding with the nadir point and the isocentre for all practical purposes) and the
displacement due to tilt is negligible. This assumption is valid for all graphical methods of
plotting, mean height of relief being less than 10% of the flying height.

47

The only mark easily available on the photograph, is the principal point, which can be
easily plotted and is convenient to use. The isocentre or the plumb point, though easy to
define is difficult to locate on the photograph.
II.

Accidented Terrain - We know that displacement due to relief is radial from the
plumb point and that displacement due to tilt, in case of flat terrain, is radial from
the isocentre. There is, however, no such point on the photograph where angles are
true to the corresponding angles on the ground in the case of accidented terrain, i.e.
terrain in which there are elevational differences.

48

STEREO VISION, STEREOMODEL, AND STEREOSCOPES

For deriving maximum benefit from photographs they are normally studies
stereoscopically. A pair of photographs taken from two camera stations but covering some
common area constitutes a stereoscopic pair which when viewed in a certain manner gives an
impression as if a three dimensional model of the common area is being seen (Fig.14). The
basis of this subjective impression is dealt in the end of this lesson.
Depth Perception
Human beings can distinguish depth instinctively. However, there are many aids to
depth perception, for instance, closer objects partly cover distant objects or distant
objects appear smaller than similar objects nearby. These aids apply to monocular vision.
For short distances binocular vision is more important and is of interest to
Photogrammetrists, for it is binocular vision which enables us to obtain a spatial impression
of a MODEL formed by two photographs of an object (or objects) taken from different
view points.
Normally, our eyes give us two slightly different views, which are fused
physiologically by the brain, and result in a sensation of seeing a model having three
dimensions. This three-dimensional effect, due to binocular vision, is very limited however,
decreasing rapidly beyond a viewing distance of one metre. Thus it may be concluded that
binocular vision is primarily an aid in controlling and directing the movements of one's limbs.
A small percentage of the people do not have the facility of binocular vision and no
amount of training will give it to them. Unfortunately, there is no known physical aid to
provide stereoscopic sight to such person who does not possess it naturally, but training can
help those having weak fusion.
Requirements of Stereoscopic Photographs
If, instead of looking at the original scene, we observe photos of that scene taken
from two different view points, we can, under suitable conditions, obtain a three dimensional
impression from the two dimensional photos. This impression may be very similar to the
impression given by the original scene, but in practice this is rarely so.
In order to produce a spatial model, the two photographs of a scene must fulfill
certain conditions:
a) The camera (spatial) axes should be approximately in one plane, though the eyes can
accommodate the difference to a limited degree.
b) The ratio B/H, in which B is the distance between the exposure stations and H is the
distance between an object point and the line joining the two stations, must have an
appropriate value. In aerial photogrammetry this ratio is called the base-height ratio.

49

If this ratio is too small say smaller than 0.02, we can obtain a fusion of the two
pictures, but the depth impression will not be stronger than if only one photograph was
used. The ideal value of B/H is not known, but is probably not far from 0.25. In
photogrammetry, values upto 2 are used, although depending on the object, sometimes
much greater values may be appropriated.
c) The scale of the two photographs should be approximately the same. Difference upto
15% may, however, be successfully accommodated. For continuous observation and
measurements, differences greater than 5% may be disadvantageous.
d) Each photograph of the pair should be viewed by one eye only, i.e., each eye should have
a different view of the common overlay area.
The brightness of both the photographs should be similar.
Such a pair of photograph is known as stereoscopic pair or stereogram.
Stereoscopic vertical photography is the most commonly used one in aerial survey.
The terrain is covered with strips of photographs. Overlap between two photographs in the
same strip varies from 55 to 90%. Overlap of adjacent strips varies from 5 to 55%. The
most usual overlaps are, in the strip, 60% and between two adjacent strips, 25%.
Binocular Observation of Stereoscopic Photographs
Accommodation and convergence
If we have a pair of stereoscopic photographs in front of us, on paper, glass plates
or projected with projectors and they are oriented in such a way that epipolar lines are
situated in the way described before we can observe them in different ways.
In order to evaluate the different ways of observation, we have to use the terms
accommodation and convergence.
Accommodation refers to focussing of eye-lens to see objects sharply at different
distances. An un-accommodated eye is considered to be focussed at infinity.
Convergence refers to the directing of lines of sight (i.e., the optical axes) of the
two eyes to the same point. The optical axis of the eye can be changed in direction by
rotating the eye in its socket. The angle the eye base subtends at the point is called angle
of convergence or parallactic angle.
Normal reading distance is 250 mm, i.e., while reading we accommodate and converge
the eyes at this distance. As the eye-base is one an average about 65 mm (2.5 inches) for
human eye, the angle of convergence them is approximately 16 degrees. (The line joining the
nodes of the eyes is called eye-base or the interocular or interpupillary distance (Fig. 15).

50

The relation between the accommodation distance (d) and angle of convergence (in radians)
is given by

E
--d

E being the interpupillary distance

Fig. 14

Fig. 15

Normally accommodation and convergence are automatically linked up. If we look at

a point at a certain distance, accommodation and convergence are set for that distance. We
can disconnect this link but not without much strain on eyes. A lot of practice is required
for accommodation at a distance other than the distance of convergence.
There are three ways of observation of stereoscopic photographs:
a)

Observation with Crossed eye axes

This involves looking with the right eye at the left photograph and with the left eye
at the right photograph (Fig. 16(a). The convergence and accommodation are at two
different distances, and this type of observation is, therefore, very tiring. Large
photographs can be used conveniently by this method, but due to strain on the eye,
this method is not used in practice.

b)

Observation with parallel eye axes

This method is possible without any optical aids, but is tiring as well as the eyes are
converged on infinity, yet accommodating at approximately 250 mm (Fig. 16(b). It is
less tiresome if positive lenses are placed between the eyes and the photographs so
that the photos are placed at the focal length of the lenses. The accommodation

51

then corresponds with the convergence and the eyes are viewing naturally. The
`pocket-stereoscope' was developed on this principle.
c)

Observation with convergent eye-axes

When the accommodation and convergence are at the same distance the viewing is
least tiring and this is the normal method of viewing. But in order to view the
photos stereoscopically they must be superimposed, such that the point A and the
corresponding point A' on the other photo lie at the point of convergence (Fig.16(c).

The images have to be separated so that left eye sees only the left hand
photographs and the right eye only the right hand photograph. The resulting stereoscopic
perception is similar to that of normal 3 dimensional perception. The separation may be
achieved by colour filters or by polarized filters.
There is an interesting phenomenon in Stereoscopy. In viewing terrain in aerial
photography a reversal of the relief is sometimes obtained by the eyes. Such a phenomenon
is known as pseudoscopic illusion or Pseudoscopy. Such an impression can be obtained by
viewing the photos with crossed eye axes. Sometimes, viewing with the shadows in case of
excessive relief (e.g. hills) away from the observer can also result in pseudoscopy. So, in the
initial stages, to avoid pseudoscopic view, it is desirable to view the photographs with
shadows of objects falling towards the observer.
Separation by colour filters
The photos are either projected or printed in two different colours.
filter of the same colour over each eye corresponding picture is observed by
In practice this problem is difficult to solve completely. The human eye is
light with wavelength from 400 to 720 millimicrons (mu). Fig. 17 shows
sensitivity curve of eye. The vertex lies at about 560 mu.

By placing a
one eye only.
sensitive for
the spectral

A possibility for separation of the two superimposed images would be to use filters
of which one cuts off all wave length over 560 mu (its colour would be blue-green) and the
other all under 560 mu (orange-red).
The image projected in orange-red can be observed with an orange-red glass in
front of the eye. With the blue-green image it is just opposite. This means, we have on one
of our retina at bluish image from one projector, and on the other a red one from the other
projector. We seem to be able to fuse these different images to one stereoscopic whiteblack image.
In the case of anaglyphs printed on paper the condition is different from that
described above. The two images are printed in red and blue. The eye covered with the red
filter sees both the red image is indistinguishable and only the blue image is visible as
varying shades of gray. Similarly the eye covered with the blue filter seems the red image

52

only. If the spectacles are reversed, we see the LH photograph with the right eye and vice
versa. A pseudoscopic image will result.
Separation by polarized filters
Light has the characteristics of a wave motion in which the waves vibrate in all
possible planes perpendicular to the direction of prorogation. These are called transverse
waves. It is possible to analyze the transverse waves into separate components along two
axes perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation by means of filters.
For stereoscopic vision the filters are placed so that polarized light rays forming
the left image are at right angles to the light rays forming the right image. There are
several advantages in using polarized light :
- light loss is about 50% only in both projections,
- there is not colour contrast between the two picture, and
- it is possible to use colour photography on this principle.
However, there is one big disadvantage in using the method, which has so far
prevented its use in photogrammetry. With the type of plotting instrument, which uses this
system, it is important, that the screen on which the image is projected be diffuse, so that
it can be viewed equally well from all directions but a diffuse surface acts as a depolarizer
and so no stereoscopic image would be apparent.
STEREOSCOPES
The function of a stereoscope is to deflect normally converging lines-of-sight so
that each eye views a different photographic image.
Stereoscopes are grouped into 2 basic types :
i)
ii)

Lens stereoscopes
Mirror prism stereoscopes

Pocket Stereoscope
By far the most popular is the lens stereoscope commonly known as pocket
stereoscope. The pocket stereoscope usually has plane-convex lens, upper side flat with a
focal length of 100 mm. The rays entering the eyes are now parallel and converge at infinity
and have been accommodated (focussed) at 100 mm distance (Fig. 18). Since the normal
viewing distance is 250 mm, a closer view., i.e. at 100 mm result in a magnification. The
magnification is then 250/100 = 2.5. More expensive types have a changeable eye base.
Such a refinement is not necessary for operators with an average eye-base range of 60 to
68 mm. The pocket stereoscope is cheap, transportable, and has a large field of view. It has
two big disadvantages:

53

Fig. 16

Fig. 18

Fig. 17
a) Limited magnification. Pocket stereoscopes with more than three times magnification
cannot be equipped with simple plane-convex lenses, due to the too large an increase in
lens aberrations. In addition the distance between the head and the photos becomes to
small for adequate illumination without undue complications.
b) The distance between corresponding points on the photos must be equal to or smaller
than the eye base. With normal size photographs this becomes difficult or impossible
without bending or folding the photos.
It should not be forgotten, however, that due to the simple optical system the
image quality of the pocket stereoscope is very good.

54

Mirror Stereoscope
The two above mentioned drawbacks have led to the development of the mirror
stereoscope. The normal size photos (23 cm x 23 cm) can be separated and seen under the
stereoscope without folding them. The path of the bundle of rays has been diverted and
brought to the eyes at 65 mm separation. This is achieved by reflecting mirrors. Normally
the distance between corresponding points is kept at 240 mm so that photographs are
placed separately, i.e., it effectively increases the eye base from 65 mm to 240 mm. As in
pocket stereoscope the picture must be at the focal plane of the lenses in order to have
convergence at infinity. The mirrors M1 are placed in such a way that the picture distance
via the small mirrors M2 (generally prisms) become equal to the focal length of the lens,
usually 300 mm (Fig. 19(a). This gives approximately 250/300 = 0.8 x magnification, or
rather reduction the picture observed. to magnify the image additional oculars of
magnification 3x to 8x can be used over the prisms or a lens placed before each prism (See
Fig. 19(b) giving a magnification of about 1.8x.

Fig. 19 (a)

Fig. 19(b)

SUBJECTIVE SPATIAL MODEL

The subjective spatial model observed with a stereoscope when photographs having
overlap are viewed is termed as Stereo-model. If one observes the ground from an
aeroplane one does not see a spatial model. The eye base is so small (65 mm average)
compared with the flying height of the aeroplane that the two-retine image is virtually the
same.
Therefore, there is no true comparison between the natural view and the
stereoscopic view of a model.
It may be assumed that we see natural relief if we observe an object with a normal
base-height ratio. In the light of what has been said before, i.e. that binocular vision was
mainly an aid in controlling the movements of the limbs, we could say that a normal baseheight ratio is near about 65/250, i.e. about 1/4 to 1:1 or even 1:0.6, this could lead to the
conclusion that the stereoscopic image formed by aerial photographs is always different
and distorted. However, there are other factors, which influence the subjective model.

55

Assume that the photographs are taken with a vertical optical axis and that they are
observed flat on a table, oriented according to the epipolar rays.
a) The first difference is that the eye-base has been changed from say 800 mm to 65 mm.
This change only alters the scale of the model and the two views remain similar in every
other respect.
b) The second difference is that the photographs are observed at a distance, which is not
equal to the principal distance. This, not only, alters the magnification of the model but
simultaneously alters the ratio between the x, y scales against the z scale. We get an
affine flattened model if this distance is smaller than the principal distance and
exaggerated if it is greater than the principal distance. This corresponds with what one
finds in practice.
c) The third difference is that our eyes are moved away from the vertical through the
principal points. This produces deformations difficult to construct or visualize in a
diagram.
d) The fourth difference is that one of the photographs is moved during observation, so
that the corresponding points are seem vertically. This shift is equal to the stereoscopic
parallax (P), and makes the rays from the corresponding points to the respective
observation. However, this parallelism renders the construction of the spatial image
impossible as it means that the spatial model should be formed at infinity. In practice
the image does not appear at infinity but an indeterminate distance varying from 250
mm to 1 meter according to the personal idiosyncrasies of the operator.
e) Lastly the shape of the object, the shadows, the natural association of the observed
data and relative distance all influence the process of depth perception.

56

MEASUREMENT OF HEIGHT FROM AERIAL PHOTOS, PARALLAX

AND PARALLAX MEASUREMENT
Parallax
The feasibility of finding height differences of objects with the help of
measurement on photographs of the area concerned is the most important quality of
photographs.
This is achieved by measuring parallaxes on the photographs. What then is parallax ?
The term parallax is applied to the apparent change in the position of an object
caused by change of position in the observer. The term is widely used in optics, astronomy
and other sciences and has different significance in each case. In photogrammetry we are
generally concerned with stereoscopic parallax. The aerial camera does not take aerial
photographs continuously but takes them at certain exposure intervals. suppose instead of
the negative film there was a ground glass on which ground images could be seen, then it will
be seen on changing with respect to the camera frame.
Consider that at one instant the airplane is at 01, vertically above a point P. The
image of P will appear at p on the ground-glass (Fig.20). After sometime when the plane is
at 02, it will appear at p'. This shift pp' in the position of the image of P on the ground glass
is the parallax of P. Similarly for any other point Q will be qq'.

Fig. 20

57

Again it will be seen that images of the higher points in the terrain will move across
the ground glass more rapidly than the images of lower points in the valley. Thus the
separation (Parallax) of the images of a higher point would be more than the separation
(parallax) of lower points (during the same interval of time). That means, points at higher
elevation exhibit a greater parallax than those at the lower elevation.
X- and Y- Parallaxes
In Fig. 21, P1, p2' and p2 p1' are the photo bases of the left hand and right hand
photographs respectively. a1 and a2 are the corresponding images of an object point A p1 a1
and p2 a2 can be resolved into two mutually perpendicular directions - one along the
direction of flight (X-direction) and the other perpendicular to it (Y-direction). Then, if X1,
Y1 and X2, Y2 are the resolved parts of p1 a1 and p2 a2 respectively in the two directions.

Fig. 21: Parallax of principal points

X1 - (-X2) = (X1 + X2) is the X- parallax or absolute stereoscopic parallax or horizontal
parallax and is defined as the algebraic difference in the direction of the air base of the
distances of the two images of an object from their respective principal points.
(Note:- Minus sign is given to X2 as the distance from the principal point is measure in the
negative X-direction, i.e., opposite the flight direction).
Similarly (Y1 - Y2) is called Y-Parallax or Vertical Parallax. If the paired
photographs are assumed to be vertical and taken from equal altitude above the datum, the
Y-Parallax is absent.

58

Parallax of principal points

If we transfer the principal point P1 of the left hand photograph of a stereo pair on
the right hand photograph at p1' (Fig. 21), then by definition p2 p1' is the parallax of
principal point of the left photograph and is the distance between the exposure stations
(air-base) on the scale of the right hand photograph.
Similarly, p1 p2' is the parallax of the principal point of the right hand photo and
represents the air-base on the scale of the left hand photograph.
If the terrain is flat and flight is level and flight altitude does not change the scale
of the two photos will be exactly same and hence the two photo-bases will be exactly equal.
It is, therefore, simple to find out the parallax of either of the principal points by
measurements on the photographs, provided the assumption do not deviate much from ideal
situation, viz.
i)
ii)
iii)

focal length in both cases same, which is always the case

flying height is the same
optical axis vertical

In practice we tolerate tilts of about 3 degrees; of course, flying heights are within
reasonable limits.
Parallax Difference
Assuming that there is no tilt and flight is level, two photographs are taken with
image of an object point A a1 and a2 on them respectively. If the two photographs are put
on top of the other with their principal points p1 and p2 and flight direction in coincidence,
then by definition a2 a1 is the absolute stereoscopic parallax (Fig. 22a).

Fig. 22(a)

Fig. 22(b)

If now we put the pair of photographs under a stereoscope for fusion, they will have
to be separated at a convenient distance p1p2 say a distance represented by `S' (Fig. 22b).

59

The parallax of A, PA = p1 p2 - a1 a2
= S -a1 a2
Similarly parallax of another point Q,
PQ = S - q1 q2
Considering `A' as the reference point, the parallax difference between `A' and `Q' is
p = PQ - PA
= a1 a2 - q1 q2
In practice, direct measurement of parallax is seldom done, instead we measure the
parallax difference ( p) with the help of parallax bar or parallax wedge.
Generally, graduations on parallax bar are marked in such a way that if the
separation between corresponding images decreases (i.e. `d' decreasing - Fig. 22b), the
reading on parallax bar increases - the point with larger parallax gives a higher reading, and
correspond to a point of higher elevation. In such a case the parallax difference

(Parallax bar reading for Q - Parallax bar reading

for A)

q1 q2 - a1 a2

Parallax Formula

Starting with the assumption that:

I.
II.
III.
IV.

photographs are free from tilt,

the flight altitude above the datum remains unchanged,
the photographs are a central projections, with centre of projection at the
perspective centre, i.e., there is no lens distortion,
there is no distortion in the photographic material

60

Fig. 23
We have from figure 23: O1 and O2 is the air-base B at a vertical distance of ZA and ZQ
above terrain points A and Q respectively; a1 and a2 are the corresponding images of about
points A on the photograph. Focal length of the aerial camera lens is f.
From O2 draw a line O2 a1' parallel to O1 a1. Then, by definition parallax of A is :
PA

a2 a1'

From similar triangles O2 a2 a1' and A O2 O1

ZA
---- =
f

B
----- =
a2a1'

B
--PA

ZA

B.f
_____
PA

........(1)

Similarly for a point Q, ZQ

B.f
------- ........ (2)
PQ

From equations (1) and (2)

1
ZA - ZQ = B.f ( ----PA

1
----- )
PQ

61

PQ - PA
= B.f --------------PA.PQ

B.f
---- . X
PA

PQ - PA
= ZA . --------PQ

PQ - PA
---------PQ

.... by substituting for B.f from equation(1)

----PA

p
= ZA . ----------- .............................(3)
PA + p
where p = PQ - PA

Then

Let hA and hQ be the mean sea-level heights of object points A and Q respectively.

ZA + hA

ZA - ZQ

Flying height of the aircraft above datum

plane (MSL)

ZQ + hQ

hQ - hA

differences of heights between terrain points

Q and A

h.

Equation (3) now can be written as

h =

ZA. p
-------PA + p

......................(4)

Relation (4) is the fundamental parallax equation.

Equation (4) can be put in the form (by cross-multiplying and rearranging)
PA .

62

p = ----------ZA - h

........................(5)

We have assumed that these parallax equations (equations (4) and (5) are valid only when
the photography is vertical and the flight is level. However, it may be applied for small
variations from these ideal conditions. If h values are small (e.g. height of tree,
embankment), the simplified formulae

h =

ZA . p
---------PA

can be used and similarly

PA . h
p = --------ZA

For reasons of convenience for the absolute parallax of the principal point of the
left hand photograph (PA) the length of photo-base on right hand photograph, is commonly
measured and substituted in the solution of parallax equations. For near vertical
photographs or relatively flat terrain, the use of average photo-base of the stereo-pair
gives reasonably accurate results. For formulae then become

Z . p
bm . h
--------- and p = -----------bm + p
Zh

and the approximate formulae can be written as

Z
bm
h
=
---. p and p = ---- . h
bm
Z
Where Z is the average flying height above the terrain and bm the average photo-base.
Image displacement due to tilt of any one of the two photographs causes false
parallax across the overlap. Similarly the slope of the air base affects the parallaxes. As
such the parallaxes observed on such photographs are burdened with errors. For the two
points, between which the height difference is required, if not far from each other, the
effect on parallax due to tilt and inclination of air base is nearly the same and will cancel
each other.

63

Floating Marks
Floating marks are also known as the Measuring marks as these are used for precise
measurement on stereo photographs. These are defined as pairs of identical reference
marks when viewed stereoscopically in conjunction with a photographic overlap combine to
form a single floating image.
If we put two dots, A1, A2 (Fig. 24) about a mm in diameter at a distance of about
65 mm on a piece of paper and see them under a pocket stereoscope (the eye base kept
parallel to the line joining the dots), they will fuse into one dot. Now if we put another set
of dots B1, B2 close to them and such that the line joining them is parallel to the eye base
and spaced closer than the first set and seen under stereoscope, we find that this set also
fuses into one mark, but floating i.e. higher above the first one. The vertical distance `AB'
is known as stereoscopic depth. That means if the mark has a different parallax from that
of its surroundings, it will appear higher or lower. But if no parallax exists between the
dots and the object images, the fused dot appears in contact with the fused image. At this
moment quite accurate measurement may be made of the distance between these reference
marks.
Measurement of Parallax Difference
Parallax difference can be measured with ordinary ruler but it cannot give
accurate/precise results. For accurate results the principle of floating marks is used in
parallax bar or parallax wedge Thus the function of these stereo meters is to measure
changes in parallax that are too small to be determined with the ordinary rulers.
Parallax bar
A parallax bar consists of two glass plates, A and B, engraved with identical
measuring marks, connected by a bar (Fig. 25). The separation S between the marks can be
changed by a micrometer screw. M, graduated so as to give reading upto 0.01 mm. Glass A
can be shifted along the rod and can be clamped by screw C. Graduation on the bar are
arbitrary and do not refer to the actual separation S of the measuring marks. The
graduations on the micrometer and the bar are usually numbered increasingly as the
distance between corresponding points, i.e., the separation S, is decreasing.

Fig. 24

Fig. 25

64

Parallax wedge
This is a sheet of transparent material with no converging rows of dots. The wedge
is slid backwards and forwards in `Y' direction until two dots fuse as one dot on the ground,
the reading then being noted. The dots are numbered in accordance with corresponding
parallax values. (Fig. 26).

Fig. 26

65

STEREO IMAGES FROM SATELLITES

Stereo images can be obtained from satellites also in the same way as the are
collected from an aircraft, and the study is called as satellite photogrammetry or
satellitegrammetry. In case of stereo photography from satellites the basic mathematical
and geometrical aspects remain same as in aerial photogrammetry. However in case of
satellite photogrammetry, the flying height is of order of some hundreds of kilometers in
comparison with, a few kilometers, in aerial photogrammetry. As a result of this, the earth's
curvature plays more than usual role in geometry. The ratio of earth's relief with flying
height also becomes too small in satellite photogrammetry, thus seriously effecting the
perception of relief in stereo images, obtained from satellites. Cameras as well as scanners
have been used in satellites to obtain stereo images. During early stages of manned and
unmanned satellite missions, small 70mm cameras were used to take photographs, at very
small scale and low resolution. Later, attempts were made to obtain better stereo images
from satellites using large format cameras and scanners, which are described, in the
following sections.
STEREO IMAGES FROM LARGE FORMAT CAMERA
The Large Format Camera (LFC), a special purpose camera with high resolution and
high geometric fidelity, was flown in NASA Space Shuttle mission in October 1984. The
LFC in Space shuttle mission is a precision cartographic camera, with image format 230 X
460 mm and focal length 305 mm and advanced image motion compensation mechanism to
account for the shuttle ground velocity of 27000 km per hour. The photographs were taken
from varying flying height of 235 to 375 km above earth. Stereoscopic coverage was taken
with variable overlap ( 20 to 80 percent) in the same way as in aerial photography. The
photographs retained sharp details even after enlargement and were found to have high
cartographic value. The original photos were at scale of 0.8 million to 1.2 million.
On another mission, a 230 X 230 mm format photogrammetric camera with 305 mm
focal length lens was also used with a colour infrared film. The ground resolution was found
to be of order of 25 meters.
Skylab, a manned satellite, carried an Earth Terrain Camera (ETC, S-190B
Experiment) had a 457 mm focal length lens and acquired photographs with a ground
coverage of 109 by 109 km. The photographs were collected in normal color, black and white
and IR colour at a scale of 1:950,000on 11.4 cm square film. The overlap was 60 percent,
which is well suited for photogrammetric purposes.
The satellite images taken from Russian Satellite during mid eighties, from a camera
with focal length of one meter and ground resolution of about two meters are now available
for the most part of world.
The photographs taken from satellites at altitude of few hundred kilometers on a
photographic film are seriously effected by atmospheric haze. Therefore either color
infrared, or panchromatic films are used with minus blue filter to cut the blue haze.

66

ACROSS TRACK SCANNERS FOR STEREO IMAGING

The common optical mechanical scanners, using a mirror, sweeping the small area
(pixel) being viewed, across the flight path are known as Across Track Scanners (and also as
whiskbroom scanners). The Multi Spectral Scanner (MSS) used in Landsat series of satellite
comes under category. The orbit of Landsat and other similar satellites is such that, at
equator adjoining images have about 14 percent overlap. This overlap increases towards
Polar Regions to as much as 85 percent. In such areas of high overlaps, the two images
taken from adjoining satellite path could be used as stereo images. The base to height ratio
varies from 0.174 at the equator to 0.031 at polar regions. In such images obtained by
across track scanners, the relief displacement is in cross track scan direction, (outwards
from the center of the scan line in each scan line). However, due to limited ground
resolution, and unsuitable base to height ratio, the relief perception is not suitable for
cartographic application.
ALONG TRACK SCANNERS WITH STEERING CAPABLITY
The along track scanners are also known as pushbroom scanners. They consist of
linear arrays of numerous Charge Coupled Device (CCD). High Resolution Visible (HRV)
imaging system used in SPOT satellite series and PAN (a panchromatic camera) in IRS-1C
satellite belong to these type. The satellites are provided with steering capability to tilt the
sensor with an angle towards right or left. Thus, off nadir view could be obtained, covering
the same area from a different orbit. The amount of tilt is variable to plan for a suitable
look angle from available orbits to cover the area of interest. In these scanners also, the
relief displacement is normal to the ground track. The stereo images are found to be
suitable for medium scale mapping. Many researchers have found that SPOT image (PAN)
with 10 meter resolution in stereoscopic mode, can be used for topographic mapping at
1:50,000 scale with 20 meter contour interval.
Geometry of PAN camera in IRS-1C Satellite
This uses reflective optics along with 4096-element CCD linear array (7 micron X 7 micron)
for imaging. A special arrangement, comprising of an isosceles prism reflector, is used for
covering full swath of 70 km. spatial resolution at nadir is 5.8m. The swath steering range is
26 o, the step size of 0.09 and the repeatability for stereo coverage is 0.1o. The data is
collected in panchromatic mode having spectral band 0.50 m to 0.75 m. The space
segment specifications are given in Table 1. PAN data is encoded in 6-bits.

67

Table-1. Space segment specifications of IRS-1C

Orbit type

Polar Sun synchronous

Altitude

817 km

Inclination

98.69o

Distance between adjacent traces

117.5 km

Repetivity for LISS-3

24 days

Repetivity for WIFS

5 days

Off-nadir coverage 26o for PAN

398 km.

Stereo viewing capability

5 days

Geometry of HRV camera in SPOT Satellite series

SPOT pushbroom scanning system does not employ a scanning mirror, rather, it
employs a linear array of CCDs arranged side by side along a line perpendicular to the
satellite orbit track. The HRV contains four CCD subarrays of 6000 elements each,
acquiring data in panchromatic mode to record 10m resolution data. Three 3000 element
subarrays are employed in the multispectral mode at 20 m resolution. HRV optical system
has a plane mirror, which can be rotated to either side by, ground command, through an
angle of 27o (in 45 steps of 0.6o each). This allows each instrument to image any point
within a strip extending 475 km to either side of the satellite ground track. At latitude of
45o, there are six possible occasions during the 26-day orbit cycle on which successive day
stereo coverage may b e obtained. At the equator, only two stereo viewing opportunities on
successive days are possible. The base height ratio also varies with latitude from
approximately 0.50 or 45o to approximately 0.75 at the equator. If stereoscopic coverage
need not be acquired on successive day basis, the range of possible viewing geometry
greatly increases. The specifications of the orbit of the satellite is given in Table 2.
Table-2. Orbital characteristics of SPOT series satellites
Altitude
Orbital period (min)
Inclination (degrees)
Equatorial crossing time
Sensors
Repetivity
Stereo viewing capability

832 km.
101
98.7
10.30 AM (local sun time)
HRV
26 days
5 days

68

ALONG TRACK SCANNER WITH FORE & AFT LOOKING

Some pushbroom scanners employed fore and aft looking mode with the help of
external mirror to produce stereo images. This external mirror attachments provides
forward looking and an aft looking channel in addition to the normal downward looking (nadir
looking) channels. In Multispectral Electro-optical Imaging Scanner (MEIS II), which was
developed for the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, acquired data in eight spectral bands
ranging from 0.39 m to m1.1 m, with an IFOV of 0.7 mrad and a total field of view of
40o. This was the first airborne pushbroom scanner to be used operationally.
RADAR STEREO IMAGES
RADAR is acronym to Radio Detection And Ranging where microwave pulses are transmitted
to illuminate the terrain and back-scattered pulses from the terrain are received to
produce images of the terrain. The operating principle and other details are discussed
separately in other sections. Stereo images can be acquired using Radar also in the same
way as the across track scanners are used i.e. images are collected from two adjacent
paths. However, because the Radar side lighting effect will be reversed on the two images
of the stereo pair, stereoscopic viewing is little difficult using this technique. Radar can
acquire stereo images by varying the flying height also, if it is airborne, or by having two
antennae with two different look angles. There are so many other parameters are to be
considered in reproducing stereo models from these type of Radar stereo pairs other than
from photogrmammetric point of view. Measuring parallax and feature heights and the
related study, from these images is called Radargrammetry. Among Space borne Radar
systems, SIR-B and SIR-C, the space shuttle imaging Radars and RADRASAT, a Canadian
satellite presently in the orbit, collected stereo images. SIR-B Radar experimental mission
flown during October 1984, collected stereo images in L-band, HH polarization, with varying
look angles from 150 to 60o. The azimuth resolution was 25 m and the range resolution
varied from 14 m at a look angle of 60o to 46 m at a look angle of 150. SIR-C collected
images in mutli-frequency, multi-polarization modes with varying look angles ranging from
15o to 55o. Radarsat SAR is a C-band system operating with HH polarization. The system
can be operated in a variety of beam selection modes providing various swath widths,
resolutions and look angles.
The Modular Optoelectronic Multispectral Scanner (MOMS) was developed in
Germany and works like pushbroom scanner with linear array of CCD.
The size of actual ground swath covered varies with pointing angle employed. At the
27o maximum value, the swath width for each instrument is 80 km. When the two
instruments are pointed so as to cover adjacent image fields at nadir, the total swath width
is 117 km and the two fields overlap by 3 km. While each HRV instrument is capable of
collecting panchromatic and multispectral data simultaneously, resulting in four data
streams, only two data streams can be transmitted at one time. thus either panchromatic or
multispectral data can be transmitted over a 117 km wide swath, but not both
simultaneously.

69

TABLE 4 Salient features of Future SAR systems planned for launch after (1993)

Mission Year

Freq.

Pol.

SIR-C 1994
(USA/
GERMANY)

L, C &
X-Bands

HH&VV
HV&VH
VV

ERS-2 1994
(EUROPE)

C-Band

VV

1996

--

ALMAZ-2
(RUSSIA)
RADARSAT
(CANADA)

1995

C-Band HH

EOS
(USA)

1998 L, C &
X-Bands

ENVISAT
(EUROPE)

1998

VV,HH
HV&VH
HH&VV

C-Band VV,HH

Look angle
(deg)
15-55

23.5

--

Swath
(km)

Resolution
(m)

15-90

30

80

25

--

--

20-40
20-40
37-49
49-59
49-59

100
150
45
300/500
75

25
35
10
100
30

15-55

30-120
700(Scan)

30
15

20-50

100-400

30

70

PRINCIPLES OF STEREOPHOTOGRAMMETRY
1.

Introduction

A photograph is formed by a bundle of rays through the camera lens. In

stereophotogrammetry the photograph itself is not used, but the bundle of rays that made
the photograph. We reconstruct such a bundle with the help of a photograph and a
perspective centre. In a stereo-pair we have two such bundles covering a common area.
If we reverse the process by using replicas of the lens of the taking camera and
place them at the air stations O1 and O2 (Fig.1) and pictures placed in the positions with
correct orientation as they existed at the time of photography and illuminated from behind
by a powerful light source, we can recreate the terrain model. This model will be formed at
a distance as it physically existed at the time of photography, i.e., at a distance of flying
height and on scale 1:1. In practice, it is not feasible to recreate such a model.
By reducing the air base, we can reduce the model to a convenient size. The
reduction in size of the model will be in the same ratio as the reduction of the air base.
This principle is made use of in recreating ground model on suitable scale with the
help of stereo-pairs of photographs of the terrain and a restitution instrument.
2.

Inner Orientation

Inner orientation is the process by which the image-forming bundle of rays for each
photo is reconstructed, true in its geometry.
If we put the developed negative/diapositive in a projector and place a light source
behind it, we reconstruct the same bundle of rays, provided we use the same lens and the
same principal distance as used for taking the photography.
If we change the principal distance in the reconstruction, the geometry of the
bundle is completely disturbed - the height and plan scales will differ. If the position of
the principal point relative to the optical axis of the projection lens is changed, the
geometry of the bundle is again disturbed. Figure 2 shows the disturbance in the geometry
of the imaging rays.
From the above it is clear that in order to reconstruct the true bundle of rays, the
picture must be correctly positioned in the projector.

71

3.

Exterior Orientation

By inner orientation, the central projection in the image space is completely fixed.
Its relation to the object space is not yet known. This is provided by what is known as
exterior orientation. To understand this consider following :
The motions, which can be given to, a projector are: a) 3 translations along the X, Y and Z-axes. Small shifts of the projector in these
directions are represented by bx, by and bz respectively.
b) 3 rotations around these axes. The rotation around the X-axis is called transversal tilt
and is denoted by ; the rotation around the Y-axis is called Longitudinal tilt and is
denoted by and the rotation around the Z-axis is called Swing and is denoted by .
Fig. 3 shows the six motions of a projector, which are generally known as the
elements of orientation.

Fig. 1

72

Fig:2

Fig. 3: Motions of Projector

If we know the inner and outer orientation of a single photograph, the pencil of rays for all
points in space are directed towards the proper object points but the object cannot be
recreated. Double image photogrammetry is able to give complete information about the
objects. For this we use a pair of stereoscopic bundles, of which exterior orientation is
determined by 12 elements, 6 of each bundle.
Exterior orientation is achieved in two steps
a) Relative Orientation
b) Absolute Orientation

73

Relative Orientation
It is the process of establishing the angular relationship between the two
consecutive photographs as it existed at the instant of exposure. In other words, one
bundle is placed relative to the other in space in the same way as they existed at the time
of photography.
Relative orientation is obtained when all the corresponding rays from both the
projectors intersect simultaneously. The condition of intersection of such pairs of rays is
attained when the X- and Y- parallaxes are zero, in a three dimensional model.
In Fig. 4 corresponding rays O1 p1 and O2 P2 meet the projection plane at P1 and
P2. The separation of the images, P1P2, is the parallax, which can be resolved into two
components:

(i) In the flight direction (X-axis) and is called X-parallax

(x)

(ii) In a direction perpendicular to the flight direction (Y-axis) and is called Y-parallax
( Y)
Y-parallax is eliminated if the rays O1P1 and O2P2 are made to lie in the epipolar
plane of point P. This can be achieved by operating any of the elements of the projector by,
bz, , or (except bx) depending upon the location of point P in the model.
The X-parallax can be eliminated either by lowering or raising the projection plane
or by reducing or enlarging the instrument base (which represent the air base) O1O2
(Fig.5). X-parallax is, thus concerned with height or scale only.
From Projective Geometry it can be proved that if 5 pairs of corresponding rays
intersect simultaneously in the overlapping are, all the corresponding rays of the two
bundles will intersect. Therefore, it involves eliminating Y-parallax at five points.
From practical point of view the solution or removal of y-parallax at the chosen
points in the model must be brought about by those elements of the orientation, which have
maximum influence on y-parallax.
Model Points:
From the six patterns of the effects of the linear and rotational movements of the
orientation elements, in the projected images it is possible to select suitable locations for
the elimination of y-parallaxes in the model. Model points 1 to 6 (Fig. 6) are found most
suitable for this purpose. Five of these are usually chosen for relative orientation and the
sixth point for a check. According to general practice we consider two nadir points (points 1
and 2) and four corner points symmetrically located (points 3,4,5 and 6) as model points.

74

By changing the base length by `bx' element of the projectors we change the scale
of the model only. Therefore, element `bx' cannot be used for relative orientation. We are
now left with 10 elements (5 of each projector) to affect the relative orientation. Out of
these, we have to select five, which are most suited for elimination of y-parallax.

Fig. 4

Fig. 5

Fig.6: Model Points

Although many combinations are possible, the two most commonly used ones are
:(figures 1 and 2 with an element of orientation indicate the particular projector used)
I.

1, 2, 1,2, and 1 (or 2), i.e. only rotational elements of both the projectors.

II.

All the five elements of one projector, the other projector remaining fixed, e.g. , ,
, bz and by of one projector or the other.

Absolute Orientation:
Absolute Orientation of a model involves horizontalisation and scaling which so far
have remained undetermined.
(i)

Levelling the model:

At lease 3 points within the overlap area suitably located (e.g. points 3, 4 and 6 in Fig.
6 or other suitably located) must be known in height (above m.s.l.). Both the cameras
are suitably moved simultaneously until height differences in the model correspond to
true height differences. A fourth point of known height (e.g. point No. 5) provides a
check on leveling.

(ii)

Scaling the model :

At least two points of known planimetric co-ordinates, well separated in the
overlapping area must be known. By comparing the true distance between these
points and that measured in the model, a scale factor can be calculated and the
instrument base corrected to set the model at the desired scale.

It is now clear that for absolute orientation at least the complete coordinates of 2
points (i.e. X, Y and Z) and the height (i.e. Z coordinate) of a third point must be known.

75

The necessity of orientation is inherent in all photogrammetric survey work where

approximate solutions do not suffice,, i.e., where high precision is required.

MODEL DEFORMATION
When corresponding rays from two projectors do not intersect correctly, there are residual
positional errors in X,Y and Z coordinates of points after absolute orientation of the model
framed. These results in a model, which is deformed. The errors in X and Y directions are
small and have negligible effect on planimetry. The errors in X-parallaxes of points show up
as appreciable height differences (the heights are measured in absolute terms instead of
being plotted).
The parallax formula derived in earlier, which is used for determination of heights,
is derived on the assumptions that:
a) the photographs are central projections. In actual reality, it is not so strictly. The lens
system introduces distortions.
b) the base `B' is exactly horizontal. In actual practice the two exposure stations are
seldom at same altitude.
c) c) the camera axis is vertical at the time of exposure.
practice; at best the axis is near-vertical.

It is seldom the case in

and thus X-parallaxes results from I.

non-fulfillment of the above stated conditions,

II.

the paper on which photograph is made is not being

III.

The two photographs forming a model are seldom in their exact relative positions
with respect to each other and this shortcoming introduces additional parallaxes,
which vary in different parts of the model and give rise to various deformations.

dimensionally stable, and

Thus a model of a flat ground under these circumstances would appear warped.
Deformation due to Orientation Elements
Consider a perfectly oriented model, in which corresponding rays 01 P and 02 P
(Fig.7 intersect at P on the projection plane. One of the orientation elements of the right
hand projector is disturbed slightly, introducing X-parallax. It will be seen that the
projected image of P will shift to, say, P' on the projection plane, while that from the lefthand projector remains at P. The corresponding rays instead of intersecting at P now
intersect at P' which is different level in the model. Thus, the X-parallax, X, introduced

76

by slight movement of one projector results in the deformation

Z at P. The pattern
and extent of deformation can best be studied by keeping one projector (say, Left-hand
projector) fixed and by considering the effect of one element of exterior orientation of
the other projector at a time.

a)

Influence of bx:
Fig. 8 shows the effect of bx movement of the right hand projector to right hand
side. There is a constant shift of all the points and results in the datum plane being
lowered down.

b)

Influence of by:
Fig.9 shows the effect of by. It gives a constant shift in all points in Y-direction
and has no effect on X- parallax, and hence does not result in any deformation.

c)

Influence of bz:
This results in reduction of enlargement of the scale of the projection. In Fig. 10
the X and Y components of the shifts are shown. The model shows tilted in Xdirection.

d)

Influence of k

It will be seen that there is no X-parallax at points 1 and 2 (Fig.11), while that at
points 3 and 4 is equal and opposite to that at points 5 and 6. The model will,
therefore, be deformed with one end elevated and the other depressed about the
axis joining 1 and 2.
e)

Influence of :
The X-parallax at points 3 and 5 is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
Consequently one point will come up and the other lowered. There is no X-parallax in
points 1,2,4 and 6. The deformation is, therefore, a twist and has the shape of a
hyperbolic-paraboloid (Fig. 12)

f)

Influence of :
The effect of is shown in Fig. 13. The X- parallaxes at points 1,3,5 are equal and
at points 2,4,6 are also equal but in the section 1-3-5 these are more than in section
2-4-6. The variation of X- parallax is quadratic (and not linear) in X- direction. The
deformation has the shape of a parabolic cylinder .

77

Model deformation is particularly important for observations with a parallax bar. In

this case the photographs are both placed flat on the table. The only orientation carried
out is, by the elements k and 'by. The remaining three elements, and 'bz, which are not used
in the orientation procedure cause model deformation. As such the model that we view
under the stereoscope is deformed and the heights obtained by parallax bar may be
burdened with errors.

From the deformation patterns explained in the above figures, it will be seen that
the deformation is linear in Y-direction in all cases. This property can be made use of in
constructing a correction graph with the help of a few height control points in the model
area for adjusting the discrepancies in heights obtained by parallax bar.

Fig.7

Fig. 8: bx alters the datum height

(Model is not deformed)

Fig. 11: Influence of

Fig.12: Influence of

78

Fig.9: by has no effect on model form

Fig.13: Influence of

Fig.10: Influence of bz

79

SATELLITE PHOTOGRAMMETRY
Satellite
photogrammetry
imaging-systems
designed
for
photogrammetric geodesy can be characterized as stereoscopic imaging
systems capable of producing data from which a photogrammetrical can
determine 3-dimensional coordinates, and related topographic information.
The users requirements must play a key role in the design of an earth,
moon or planetary mapping system. Before attempting to specify a system,
which would collect data that would permit useful topographic mapping from
space of the earth or extraterrestrial bodies, it is necessary to examine
some of the essential factors involved.
1. A topographic map contains three kinds of information (Doyle 1973).
2. Content the cultural and natural features represented on the map
3. Horizontal location the reference graticule, grid, datum.
4. Elevation spot heights, contour lines, profiles and elevations.
A satellite photogrammetry imaging-system designed for mapping must be able to
provide all three kinds of data.

Map content is determined, in part, by photographic resolution and

scale, or more directly from resolved distance on the ground (resolution). It
is difficult to establish a linear relation between map scale and resolution
required, because some features, like roads and railroads, must be shown on
a map regardless of its scale. Hence, these features are nearly independent
of map scale; and therefore resolution required is not linearly related to
scale. On the moon and planets, however, cultural features have, so far, not
been detected so that a linear relation seems more justified. Considering
the photograph as a base (photo mosaic or orthophotograph) for the map, a
useful criterion can be produced.
The smallest feature, which can be depicted on a map, is assumed to
have a least dimension of 0.25-mm (.010 inch). In order for an object to be
photographically identifiable it must be imaged by about 5 resolution
80

elements. It follows; then, that the resolution required for photography can
be estimated as:
Ground Resolution = 0.2 x 0.25 mm x map scale number
or

Rg = 5 x 10-5Sm

where;
Rg = ground resolution required (metres) for the sensor
Sm = map scale number
The second kind of map information is horizontal location in an
absolute coordinate system. For mapping the earth, this is generally
provided by reference to ground control points. But such control does not
exist on the other planets. However, orbital-tracking data can provide
spacecraft position to a high order of accuracy. When this is coupled with
precise data on attitude, and time of exposure, an independent means of
determining absolute horizontal location is available. This removes the need
for ground control. Within a stereoscopic model, or a photogrammetric
triangulation, the internal (relative) positional accuracy is approximately
equal to the product of the scale of the photograph and the error in
measuring, or identifying a point on the picture:
p = Sp m
Where;
p
m
Sp

=
=
=

standard error in relative position of a ground point

precision of measuring an image point
photo-scale number

An imaging system designed for photogrammetric surveys must be

concerned with two basic categories. The first is the metric characteristics
of the system and spacecraft, which are as follows.

81

1. Coordinate (X, Y, Z) on the orbit as a function of time. If the Global

Positioning System is used to determine the orbit, an accuracy of 10 m
may be expected.
2. Time (tt) of exposure correlated with the coordinates. One millisecond
precision (.001 sec) was achieved with Apollo 15, 16 and 17.
3. Attitude Orientation angles (, , K) can be obtained from stellar
sensors such as those on Apollo 15, 16, and 17 with accuracy of the order
of 5 to 10.
4. Altimetric distance Radar and laser distance measuring devices that are
aimed down the optical axis of the mapping camera produce distance from
the spacecraft to the ground with a precision below 1 m.
5. Calibration Determination of the radial and decentering distortion
should reduce distortion errors to less than 10 micrometers in the image
plane of the sensor.
The second category is the geometrical configuration of the sensor.
This takes into account the stereoscopic coverage of the surface,
considering both forward and side-lap of the imagery. Also, the mode of
operation whether it be vertical or convergent and its overall effect on
precision in extracting relative height measurements (h) from the
stereoscopic pairs is important.

ELEMENTS OF SATELLITE PHOTOGRAMMETRY

In satellite photogrammetry, the perspective centres of the imaging

systems may be assumed to be on the satellites orbit. It follows, then, that
the satellite must be observed to determine the imaging systems position in
the orbit as a function of time. Examples of equipment used for observing
satellites are the tracking stations of Deep Space Network and the Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network. These stations are distributed around
the globe.

82

These tracking stations determine direction, distance (range) and/or

radial velocity (range rate) of the object being tracked. These data are
converted, by a process called orbit determination, to a set of six constants,
called orbital elements, that specify the orbit. The orbital elements most
commonly used are so-called Eulerian elements.
The satellites coordinates are then usually the radius vector r, whose
components are the radial distances from geocenter, and the true anomaly f.
For satellite photogrammetry, the Eulerian elements are usually replaced by
another set: the location and velocity of the satellite at a specific time. The
satellites coordinates are then its rectangular Cartesian coordinates.
Thus the coordinates (X, Y, Z) of the perspective centres of the
camera (imaging system) along an orbital and are not independent quantities,
but instead are functions of the six orbital elements and time. A list of
coordinates and corresponding times is called an Ephemeris.
The other important quantities in satellite photogrammetry are the
three angles of orientation (attitude) of the camera at the time tI of
exposure.
In summary, the tracking data are converted to an ephemeris of (X, Y,
Z) coordinates as a function of time t. The steller camera provides three
orientation angles based on the stars positions. These are the six elements
required to solve a photogrammetric problem. They may be used as first
approximations in strip and block adjustments.

83

BASICS OF RADARGRAMMETRY

BASIC GEOMETRIC CONCEPTS

Radargrammetry initially requires a mathematical model relating an
object point in some three-dimensional world coordinate system to the time
and range coordinates, t and r, measurable from the side-looking radar
record. Radargrammetry begins with the SLR image, not with the raw
electronic signals acquired by the antenna. A second radargrammetric issue
is the so-called sensor model that relates the radar recording to time t and
slant range r. Each specific SLR system will have a unique model.
DEFINITIONS

Let us assume first that we deal with a radar image as presented on

film. The coordinates along the SLR film are denoted by x, the y coordinates
are defined across the film. The origin of the x coordinate may be defined
arbitrarily; for example, at the beginning of the flight line. The coordinates
relate to the time at which an object point has been imaged. The x
coordinates axis is called the along-track or azimuthal axis. The y-axis is
the cross-tract or range direction. The x coordinates are proportional to
the time of flight, the y coordinate relates to range between the antenna
and an object or target.
VIEWING GEOMETRY

Viewing geometry is a team used to describe the basic imaging

geometry of a sensor without consideration of imaging errors due to
platform motion, system defects, the atmosphere, and so on. Thus, only an
idealized SLR image is considered. Figure.1 reminds us of the manner in
which an electromagnetic pulse illuminates the terrain and creates an image
line. It is evident that ground objects will be imaged into locations on the
image line as a function of their distance from the antenna. This permits us
to define the radar projection and relate it to the geometry of a map or
camera photograph, as in Figure 2.

84

For the present purpose, a map at scale 1:1 can be assumed to be an

orthogonal projection of the object or terrain. This is defined by the fact
that the lines connecting image and object are all straight, parallel, and
normal to the projection plane (see Figure 2 a). Similarly, conventional
camera photography presents a central perspective projection; that is, the
projection lines connecting image and object points are all straight and all
pass through one point, namely, the projection center (see Figure 2 b). The
SLR projection (at scale 1:1) is basically different. The projection lines in
this case are concentric circles around the antenna (see Figure 2 c). The
basic property of the SLR projection, which sometimes also is referred to as
range projection, leads to a number of differences between SLR imagery and
an orthogonal projection of the imaged object.

IMAGE OF A DISTANCE

Consider first the image o9f a distance Eg, extending from point A to
point B in the object space (Figure 3). The distance Eg would be represented
in its correct dimension; but in a slant range projection, we would obtain Es.
Having given a slant range presentation, the scale number f was defined as a
constant for the imagery. If, however, the scale number of a slant range
presentation is defined as the ratio between a distance in the image and the
corresponding distance on the ground, then we obtain from the distance eg
and es at the image scale (es = Es/f, ef = Eg/f).
IMAGE OF A VERTICAL STRUCTURE RELIEF DISPLACEMENT

Let us now consider a point, A, that does not lie in the datum or
reference plane above which the flying height, H, is measured (Figure 4) but
is situated on top of a vertical structure of some height.
It is obvious that, in both the ground range and slant range
presentations, relief displacement, pg and ps is introduced for any point not
in the reference or datum plane. From figure 3.8 we can conclude that the
auxiliary angle is nearly equal to the depression angle . Therefore, we
obtain, in ground range presentation, and with slant ranges.

85

IMAGE OF A VERTICAL STRUCTURE LAY OVER

Another interesting fact to note is the direction of the relief

displacement. From aerial photography, interpreters are used to the fact
that vertical structures, like houses, fall away from the nadir point. In
radar the situation is the opposite: relief displacement is towards the nadir
line, N. If AB in Figure 5 is a solid vertical structure, then A, B will be its
image in a ground range presentation. This is inverted when compared to
photography: the top of the structure is closer to the nadir than the
bottom, and we obtain the so-called radar lay over.
IMAGE OF A VERTICAL STRUCTURE SHADOWS

Finally, there are shadows in SLR images. From Figure 4 we see that
no reflections will be received at the antenna during the time that signals
should be returning from the area between points A and S but no objects
are hit between these two points. Because the radiation is blocked by the
vertical structure, no reflections are received from the ground points
between A and S. On the image, area AS will be black, called a shadow of
the vertical structure. The length of this shadow area is given sg in the
ground range and as ss in the slant range presentations. We find
Sg = h/tan
And
Ss = h/tan
From these formulas we easily can see that shadows get longer if the
structure is at smaller depression angles (if the aircraft flies at a lower
altitude, H, or the distance to the object is larger) or if the height, h,
increases.
IMAGE OF A SLOPE

Let us now consider the images of slopes. Because the relief

displacement is directed towards the nadir line, slopes directed towards the
antenna will appear foreshortened, laid over, or, as a limiting case
between foreshortening and lay over, a slope might appear as a line in the
image. This last possibility exists only for slopes that are parallel to the
flight line and occurs if the slope angle equals the elevation angle = 900 - .
86

Three possibilities exist for slopes facing away from the flight line.
First, they may be in the radar shadow; second, the radiation may only just
strike the slope: or finally, it may be fully imaged. Slopes facing away from
the flight line always will show a longer image than in an orthogonal map
projection.
SQUINT

Radar pulses do not propagate along a plane vertical to the antennas

longitudinal axis but along a conical surface of which the antenna is the axis.
This always will occur if the real aperture antenna is end-fed, or if a
synthetic aperture is created using nonzero Doppler frequencies. Radar
engineers often denote any imaging mode by squint, in which imaging is
systematically not done in a plane normal to the flight direction. We
therefore may find the concept of squinted-mode imaging used for imaging
with an antenna that is swung around a vertical axis. This can be
accomplished only with real apertures; with synthetic aperture the beam
always is a cone with the velocity vector is as its axis. The cone degenerates
to a plane when the zero Doppler frequency is used for image formation.

87

PLOTTING INSTRUMENTS - SIMPLE AND STEREO PLOTTERS

Introduction
In this chapter we will describe few simple photogrammetric instruments, designed
for plotting detail from photographs in preparing base maps for natural resources survey.
We will not go in detail but cover the basic principles and characteristics of these
instruments.
These simple instruments are classified into two broad categories :
a)
b)

Instruments for plotting planimetry

Instruments for plotting planimetry and altimetry

Simple Plotting Instruments for Planimetry

These instruments are essentially tracing devices by means of which planimetric
detail may be compiled on control points or new details inserted on existing maps. They
incorporate means of changing scale and in some types provision is made for an approximate
rectification.
SKETCHMASTERS
Principle of Sketchmaster:
The simplest way to get a rectified image of a photograph with tilt is by
sketchmaster. The instrument is sometimes called single photo plotter. The rectification is
done optically. Sketchmaster consists of an optical device, which allows one eye to receive
two superimposed image, one from the photograph and other from the manuscript. Fig. 1
shows the principle of sketchmaster. In looking downwards through the aperture the image
of the photograph appears to be in a plane directly below the eye through a semitransparent mirror M, at a distance equal to the distance of the photo from the eye along
the optical path EMP. If we place a map at this distance, the image of the photograph will
coincide with the map in respect to common points, provided the scale of the two are equal.
The effect of tilt can be corrected by tilting or rotating either the photograph or the map
plane or both, relative to each other.

88

Fig. 1: Principle of sketchmaster

If the photo image and map do not lie in the same plane, optical parallax will result.
Scale error and parallax can be eliminated by inserting a lens, positive or negative,
depending upon the required enlargement or reduction, between the map and the mirror.
The function of this lens is to bring the map image into a sharp focus at the plane of the
photo-image.

Zeiss Aero-Sketchmaster:
The main parts of the instrument are:
i)

Plate carrier which can be tilted or rotated in any direction

ii)

ii) A double prism with semi-silvered surface, which permits viewing of, photograph
and map sheet simultaneously through an oblique eye-piece (Fig. 2).

Together with the prism the plate carrier is vertically adjustable above the
map sheet on the tabletop, i.e. photo-prism and map-prism distances can be
varied to suit the scale solution.

89

Fig. 2: Aero - Sketchmaster

By tilting the photograph and changing the prism-photo and prism-map distance
relationships, the operator sees the photo-image superimposed on the map. To compensate
for the difference between the eye-photo and eye-map distances, the instrument is
inserted in the double prism in between the prism-map and prism-photo. The operator sees
coincidence between the plotted control points on the map and corresponding photo points.
For flat areas this number can be larger than 3, but for hilly terrain it is generally not
possible to obtain coincidence on more than 3 points unless all points are at the same
elevation. So, in practice the instrument is moved from one group of 3 points to another and
details are traced directly on map sheet.
The instrument is also provided with smoked glasses with light transmitting power
of 25%, 50% and 75%, which can be inserted in the double prism near the lenses. These
facilitate balancing of illumination of the photo and map. Better effect is perceived, if they
are equally illuminated.
Use of Sketchmasters:
Sketchmasters are used for transferring details from vertical or near vertical
photographs to map by tracing, in areas where many changes have taken place since the map
last prepared. They are also used for original compilation or small-scale planimetric charts
provided the relief of the terrain is low (depending upon the mapping scale accuracy
desired).

90

SIMPLE PLOTTING INSTRUMENTS FOR PLANIMETRY AND ALTIMETRY

A.

Simple Stereometer Type of Instruments:

These instruments provide capability for making stereoscopic measurements on

aerial photographs. From parallax formula
ZA + P
h = -------------------PA + P
It is clear that height difference is the function of the parallax for a known point, parallax
difference and the flying altitude above the known point. In instruments, which provide
plotting of the altimetry, the device for measuring parallax difference is essential. Such
instruments are essentially a combination of (i) Stereoscope and (ii) Stereometer.
The difference in elevation can be obtained by the parallax difference.
Model deformations and image displacements, due to tilt and relief, are inherent as
the instruments only make copy of one of the photographs. No provision is made for their
correction. This is a serious draw back. The condition for plotting is only that the parallax
bar is equipped with a pencil holder. Parallel guidance mechanism is provided in some
instruments to facilitate movement of the parallax bar parallel to itself (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3: Principle of Stereometer - type of Instruments

In some instruments y-displacement mechanism on one of the floating marks is also
provided so that the bar can be used on parallel guidance mechanism and allowance for
removal of y-parallax without moving the photos.
The pencil point moves on the map sheet. The plotting is done by following the detail
with floating mark and detail is traced by pencil. Contours are plotted by moving the

91

parallax bar in such a way that the floating point remains in contact with the terrain
(without changing the spacing of the floating marks).
STEREOPRET (Zeiss)
This instrument is based on the above principal and is the most complete outfit of
this type. The pencil point is fixed to the left hand floating mark. Thus, whatever is the
height of the point in question, the distance between the pencil point and the left hand
floating mark remains same. That means for planimetry, a copy of the left hand photo is
made. The photographs are fixed under glass plates on a parallel-guided double plate
carrier. Parallax bar, stereoscope and illumination units are fixed but the plate carrier is
moved to scan the overlap. Right hand plate carrier can be moved with the help of screw to
eliminate Y-Parallax, if any. Pantograph is provided to facilitate plotting at scales other than
photo scale. For contours and heights the right floating mark is used.
Stereopret has no special advantage over other instruments except that it is easier
to operate.
Accuracies of map plotted on these instruments
The maps prepared in these instruments are burdened with the following errors :
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

Relief displacement
Tilt displacement
Distortion due to lens, and
Distortion in paper prints

Errors due to relief displacement always are present on such maps. Errors due to
tilt can be avoided by using rectified prints.
Lenses used in modern cameras exhibit negligible distortion but old Eagle IX type
camera lenses show larger distortion which influence the accuracy in plan as well as in
height.
Shrinkage of paper prints is overcome by using prints on stable material, e.g. D/W
paper, correctostat paper, the size of which does not alter with temperature and humidity.
The best is to use diapositives on glass or stable film. They also allow a better definition of
the images.
Tilt, shrinkage of paper print and lens distortion also influence the x-parallax and
hence the heights. Effects of tilt and difference in scale of the stereo-photos result in
deformation of the model. Heights obtained will be reliable only if rectified prints on
stable material is used.
The operation of these simple stereometer-type of instruments involves
computations and the results are burdened with errors. Though, these instruments are

92

simple and inexpensive, it is not justified to use these in practice. More complicated
instruments, though expensive, are much easier to operate and give better precision and
output in shorter time.
PLOTTING INSTRUMENTS - PRECISION STEREOPLOTER
For the purpose of measurement, mapping and aerial triangulation work, various
types of photogrammetric Stereoplotters are available in wide range of variety in design,
application, precision and cost. The most basic types are i) Optical Projection type:
In this the photograph diapositive is optically projector through a
photogrammetrically matching lens. In older models (e.g. Multiplex of William Ross of U.K.,
and Balplex of Baushc and Lomb of USA, both being obsolete now), the original photograph
of 23 cm x 23 cm was reduced 4 to 3 times for easy handling in a smaller size projector,
resulting into loss of details and precision. In another model (Kelsh Plotter of keuffel and
Easer of USA) the original size diapositive is used but only a small part of diapositive is
illuminated for observation in order to reduce the weight of projector. Scale of stereo
model, being large in this case, and a pantograph is used for plotting at reduced scale. The
instruments of optical projection type are usually poor in precision (2nd or 3rd order rating)
and require a semi dark room conditions for working. However, they are usually universal
type of instruments, which can be used for all photogrammetric application e.g. aerial
triangulation (by bridging, and stereo plotting.

ii) Mechanical Projection type

The more recent type of steroplotters have been designed as Mechanical Projection
type, in which, function of optical projection are performed by mechanical components, e.g.
a universal joint replaces the perspective centre, a straight rod replaces the patch of ray of
light from image point through perspective centre, distance between universal joint and
image plane represents the principal distance, and intersection of two space rods as the
point of stereo model. Tilt and translatory movements are provided or simulated
mechanically (e.g. Zeiss parallelogram in Wild Autograph A-7 and Zeiss Stereoplanigraph C8, both of universal type, I order rating, and out of production now). The II order precision
instruments in this category are Wild Autograph B-8, Zeiss Planitop, Planicart, Kern PG-2,
Wild Aviograph, all being non universal type. The I order non universal type instrument in
this category are Wild Autograph A-10, Wild Aviomap, Zeiss Planimat.
iii) Analytical Projection type
The new generation of photogrammetric stereo plotters is of Analytical Projection
type, using a digital computer. The position of image points in photograph is sensed by
transducers and the data like principal distance, and coordinates of ground control points
are fed to the computer by operator. Computation of values of all the orientation elements

93

is carried out by computer and incorporated in the stereo model. The accuracy of all such
systems is of I order as the mechanical design is very simple, and complicated computations
are carried out by computer including Relative and Absolute Orientation as well as Aerial
Triangulation. This category includes the instruments Wild Aviolyt AC-1 and BC-2, Zeiss
Planicom C-100, Optical Mechanical Italiana (OMI) -APC-4, Kern DSR-11, DSR-15.
They are all of universal type as they can carry out all photogrammetric applications.
The instruments of optical or mechanical projection type or analytical type
incorporate an exact solution to the problem of reconstruction of stereo model, and come
under the category of precision instruments.
Very high precision can be attained with photogrammetric instruments but such
instruments are very expensive, i.e., cost is high, maintenance is costly, require airconditioned rooms and specially trained staff for operation and maintenance. These
precision instruments are grouped into 3 categories; a few important ones are mentioned
herewith planimetric and height accuracies.
1.

Analogue Instruments
a)

First order instruments Wild Autograph A-7

Zeiss Stereoplanigraph C-8
Wild Autograph A-8

The first two of these are universal instruments. Planimetric precision of these
instruments is about 10-15 m on the scale of negative and the height precision is about
0.15%. H.
b)

Second order instruments Wild Aviograph B-8

Wild Aviograph B-9
Kern PG-2
Planitop

The planimetric precision of this group is about 15 to 30 on the negative scale and
the height precision is about 0.025%. H.

2.

Analytical Instruments
Planicomp C-100, P-3 (Carl Zeiss)
Aviolyt BC-1, AC-1, BC-4 (Wild)
DSR 11, DSR-15 (Kern)
Intermap (Intergraph)

94

3.
Auto correlator Type Digital photogrammetric workstation available from Carl
Zeiss, Leica, Intergraph.
The planimetric and height precision in such instruments depends upon the
resolution (pixel size) at which the photographs are scanned, as well as the precision of
camera calibration and ground control points.
Present trend in photogrammetric instrumentation is toward digital photogrammetric
workstations. Due to increase in cost of precision optics and mechanical systems, many large
manufactures have stopped producing precision optical mechanical and even analytical
systems. However, the digital photogrammetric systems require the data in digital form, for
which aerial photographs are to be scanned on a high precision photogrammetric scanner
(pixel size of 5 to 25 microns). The cost of such scanners is often prohibitive and even more
than the cost of digital photogrammetric plotters

95

AERIAL TRIANGULATION, CONTROL AND MAPPING

Introduction
To produce an accurate map, a number of carefully determined points are required
to be fixed in the area to be mapped. These points form a framework on which the survey
of physical details in the area is based and are termed as control. This control prevents
the accumulation of any system of errors in the measuring operations.
Control may be horizontal (plan) or vertical or both. Horizontal control is
needed to maintain correct scale, position and orientation of map while vertical control is
needed for location of contours or leveling of a stereo model in photogrammetry.
A coordinate system is essential to define the position of a point. Commonly used
systems are :
a) Spherical coordinate system: The position of a point is denoted in terms of latitude
( ) and Longitude (L).
b) Rectangular plane co-ordinate system: The position of a point is defined in terms of
Easting Northing from a reference point is called the origin of co-ordinates.
For heights the datum is the mean sea level. In mathematical terms the
coordinates of a point is generally denoted as (X, Y, Z). The first two of the three
are for planimetric coordinates and the third is for height.
GROUND METHODS OF PROVISION OF CONTROL
There are many methods of provision of horizontal and vertical control by
ground methods. The principles of important ones are being mentioned below :
a)

Horizontal or Planimetric Control

i) Triangulation
It is the process of measuring the angles of a chain or network of triangles
formed by stations marked on the surface of the earth. The calculation involved is
the trigonometrical proposition.
Sin A
Sin B
Sin C
------- = ------ = ------a
b
c

Hence if any side of the triangle is known, the triangle can be solved. In
decreasing order of the quality, precision and instruments used, triangulation is classified
as:

96

a) Primary or First Order

b) Secondary or Second Order
c) Tertiary or Third Order
ii) Traverse
In this process the lengths and directions of azimuths of a series of connecting
lines, from a point of known position to the point whose positions is to be
determined, are measured.
Like triangulation, traverse is also classified as Primary, Secondary and Tertiary.
iii) Astronomical fixings (Astro-fix)
Latitudes and Longitudes of a point are determined by astronomical observations.
The method is very fast but the degree of accuracy with which the coordinates are
determined is quite low and is not suitable for accurate work. However, it is
used in exploratory and reconnaissance surveys.
iv) Using Doppler or GPS
Latitudes, longitudes and heights can be fixed for a point using a Doppler or
Global Positioning System using a artificial Geo-satellites. GPS are getting more
popularity these days.
b)

Vertical Control
Leveling is the method of providing vertical control and can be subdivided into 3
main groups.
i) Spirit Leveling
It is the process of determination of elevation of points (usually called Benchmarks) with respect to each other or with respect to a common datum by means of
instruments using a spirit level or a precision pendulum. This is the most accurate
method of providing vertical control.
ii) Trigonometrical Leveling
In this method the elevation difference between two points is obtained by
means of observed vertical angles combined with the length of the line joining the
two points. This method is combined with triangulation and traverse procedures
and is the commonly used method.
iii) Barometric Leveling
The method is based on variation of the atmospheric pressure with height.
Heights of points can be determined with great rapidity but the degree of

97

accuracy is quite low and is unsuitable for accurate work.

preliminary reconnaissance and exploratory surveys.

It is used for

DENSITY REQUIREMENS OF CONTROL FOF PHOTOGRAMMETRIC MAPPING

Requirement for Stereo plotting
It has been discussed earlier that in order to fit the stereo model with the ground
at certain scale, a few control points are required. For scaling at least two plan (horizontal)
control points are needed but third is needed for a check. For leveling 3 points at suitable
locations are required and a fourth point for a check. Thus, we require 4 height control
point and 3 plan control points. If these points are plan and height control both, then we
need 4 such points located at the corners of a model. A fifth point is always required to
check for the deformation. The suitable location for this point is the centre of the model.
A model once oriented absolutely in these points enable other detail in the model
accurately surveyed in plan as well as in height.
Requirement for Rectification
Four or more planimetric control points are required at the corners of the
photograph for its rectification.
EXTENSION OF GROUND CONTROL BY PHOTOGRAMMETRIC METHODS
If a service dealing with natural resources inventory has to work in an area where
no maps exist, it is necessary for the construction of its own base map to have a
framework of control. Even if the survey is carried out in an area with a denser network
of secondary or tertiary triangulation, generally it will be found that pass-points will not
be in a proper location on the photograph or model. In both cases provision of control has
to be made.
It is now clear that whether compiling a line map from a single photograph or
from a stereo pair or rectifying a photograph or preparing an aerial mosaic, a sufficiently
dens network of control at suitable locations is required to orient the photograph or
the stereo model. Provision of such a dense control by ground methods would be very
expensive and time consuming.
Fortunately, methods have been
control by photogrammetric methods called.

developed

for

the determination of this

AERIAL TRIANGULATION
A small number of ground control points are, however, essential in the execution of
these methods.

98

We distinguish two methods:

a) Radial Triangulation These methods are based on angular measurements
in only planimetric coordinates X and Y.

on

the photographs resulting

The control, obtained by these methods, has proved to be highly satisfactory substitute
for ground control. With only a few ground control points around the periphery of the
area of survey, a network of supplemental control can be established at the desired
locations which is suitable for many types of mapping.
This can be done by simple methods wherein no calculation or measurement is involved.
Photo-interpreter often requires the extension of control for planimetric survey.
These simple methods are, therefore, very suitable for him in the making of his base
maps.
The methods may be:
i) Graphical method
ii) Slotted template method, if better accuracy is required.
iii) Analytical method
In case a natural resource service needs 3 coordinates, X, Y and Z, of all control
points, it will be better to ask for assistance of a photogrammetric service.
b) Aerial Triangulation in Space
Aerial Triangulation in Space resulting in X, Y and Z coordinates of each point. This
triangulation is carried out in precision stereo plotting instruments (or in analytical plotters)
wherefrom coordinates of points fixed are obtained in machine coordinate system. These
are transferred into ground system with the help of ground control points. There are three
types of aerial triangulation in space:i) Bridging Method
ii
I.M.T. (Independent Model Triangulation)
iii) Bundle Block Adjustment (Plate Coordinates)
I.

Bridging Method

The another type of triangulation (Spatial Aerial Triangulation) is carried

out on Precise Photogrammetric Stereo plotting machines. This involves, reconstruction
of exact stereo model, on which measurement of model coordinates of control points is
carried out along the three axes. Once first stereo model in a strip is absolutely
oriented, and measured, the second stereo model is constructed by orienting the third
projector (photograph) with respect to the second projector, (which is already in
absolute orientation), and thus the second stereo model, so generated is also in Absolute

99

Orientation. After measurement of second stereo model, the third stereo model is
generated in the same way and so on. This method is knows as Bridging, and is adopted on
instruments, which have the provision of constructing successive stereo models with the
help of projectors. This type of instruments includes the most basic ones e.g. Multiplex,
having a large number of projectors (one for each photograph) as well as more recent
ones e.g. WILD Autograph A7, with only two camera projectors, used for first model with
first photo on left and second photo on right projector. The second model is created by
second photo on right and third photo on left projector, and third model is created with
third photo on left and forth photo on right projector, and so on. The first, third, fifth
models etc. are observed with some changes in observation and measuring system (known
as base out condition).
II.

IMT Method

Another technique of spatial aerial triangulation is known as Independent Model

Triangulation, in which each stereo model, after Relative Orientation on stereo plotter,
is measured independently for all the control points for X, Y and Z values. These models
coordinates of all of the stereo models, are later on used to connect the stereo models to
form a full strip, which is operated upon for Absolute Orientation with the help of ground
control points by mathematical solution. As in this method part of work is done on stereo
plotter and rest by computation, it is also known as Semi Analytical Method.
III.

Bundle Block Adjustment (Plate Coordinates)

In case of purely Analytical Method, the precise image coordinates are

measured on each of the photograph, by using either a stereo comparator or a mono
comparator, for all the points, and entire rest of operation is done by mathematical
computations, finally to yield the ground coordinates of all the control points. This involves
huge amount of computations, for which a computer is indispensable.
ADJUSTMENT OF ERRORS
While carrying out aerial triangulation over a large area, covered by a number of
strips, and specially while using analytical or semi analytical approach, the ground control
point requirement can further be reduced, if all the strips are triangulated together
in one block. This process is termed as Block Triangulation, while triangulation of
each strip individually is known as Strip Triangulation.
While the minimum ground control points required for Absolute Orientation is
just three number of points, it is a usual practice to use much more number of ground
control points for this purpose. The ;surplus points are used to check and control the
accuracy. Care is taken to make sure that all the ground control points are uniformly and
properly distributed throughout the area. After ground coordinates of all the points are
computed, the residual errors at check points (surplus ground control points) is determined,
and corrections are applied to all the points by a suitable mathematical model, in order to
make the combined magnitude of residual errors to be minimum. This operation is known as

100

Adjustment of errors.
In most of the adopted practices, in Analytical Aerial
Triangulation, this operation is carried out along with other photogrammetric
computations, and entire computing operation is known as Block Adjustment.

Modern Workstations
Modern analytical Photogrammetric Instruments usually contain a microcomputer
with entire measuring, recording and data storage system with computation, analysis and
error adjustment programs, and in a system. This facilitates the entire operation at a
single workstation and thus much faster in delivering the final output.
GROUND CONTROL FOR PHOTOGRAMMETRIC TRIANGULATION
From above discussions it is clear that a few ground control points are essential to
carry out photogrammetric triangulation, which ties the photogrammetric survey to the
ground. Actual amount of control varies with the scale and accuracy requirements.
For aerial triangulation in stereo-plotting instruments, if ground control points are
available in every fifth or sixth model in each strip, they enable in determination of
supplemental control points in each model.
For graphical methods the density of ground control should be about 20 cm apart
on the plot sheet on the scale of survey, while in slotted template method about 40% of
the above is sufficient.

The ground control for photogrammetric triangulation may be provided :

a) By carrying out control survey on the ground viz., triangulation, traversing, leveling etc.
b) By making use of trigonometrical framework existing in the country. This may often
require supplementation on the ground.
c) By making use of certain types of surveyed detail appearing on the existing maps,
depending on the accuracy requirements of the photogrammetric triangulation. This
type of control may be a good substitute for supplementation control for rectification,
mosaicing and even for base map compilation depending on the accuracy desired.
Accurate identification and proper description of ground control on the
photograph is an important step. Any error in the identification or in marking on a
photograph is equivalent to an error in fixing the point on the ground. The ground
points should, therefore, show up beat in plan, i.e., they should be distinctive both on the
ground and photograph, e.g. road intersections; rail road crossings; fence corners;
isolated huts, trees, unobscured by vegetation or shadows.

101

DIGITAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY
Digital photogrammetry or Soft Copy photogrammetry is the latest development in
the field of Photogrammetry. This has a lot of similarity with the already existing analytical
Photogrammetry. Until last two or three years analytical and digital Photogrammetry terms
were used synonymously, since the internal processes use the same mathematical models
used for solving unknowns are same in both. Also in both the systems most of the end
products are same. However, there exists a considerable difference in input, viewing
system, and level of automation in some areas, when we compare these two branches of
photogrammetry.
Analytical or computational methods were existing since a long time in Photogrammetry.
However, the concepts have been realized in production mode since last three decades only,
in the form of analytical stereo plotters and the most latest being digital Photogrammetry
workstations. Photogrammetry as science has its use predominantly in map making.
Analytical Photogrammetry
Unlike the empirical determination of unknown parameters in analogue
Photogrammetry here the unknown parameters of the camera are solved mathematically and
subsequently object space coordinates are computed from these parameters. The
mathematical models used are based on linearized collinearity / coplanarity condition
equations. External input for the solution of equations consists of camera interior
orientation parameters and ground coordinates of control points and internal input consists
of image coordinates of instrument itself. From these data the computer calculates in realtime, model coordinates and other forms of useful output data and then displays
information on the screen. They can handle any type of photography, including vertical,
tilted, low oblique, convergent, high oblique, panoramic and terrestrial photos. They can also
accommodate photography from any focal length camera, and in fact can simultaneously use
two photos of different focal lengths to form a model. The products from these are of
superior accuracy because, since they have a capability to correct any combinations of
systematic errors caused by camera lens distortion, film shrinkage or expansion,
atmospheric refraction and earth curvature. In every phase of its operation, it can take
advantage of redundant observations and incorporate the method of least squares into the
solution of the equations. Present production oriented systems are of this type.

102

Fig.1 Analytical stereo plotter configuration

MATHEMATICAL MODEL
The basic mathematical model based on which the unknown parameters are solved is
the collinearity equation as given below:
xa
Xa - Xo
ya
= R Ya - Yo ....... eq (2.1.0)
-f
Za - Zo
where R denotes the rotation matrix of the combined rotation of x,w and q respectively
around z,x and y axis, this is an orthogonal matrix
R = x, w, q ....... eq (2.1.1)
where x,w,q denote kappa, omega and phi respectively.
R can also be expressed in matrix form as follows:
m11 m12 m13
m21 m22 m23
m31 m32 m33

The elements of this matrix is a product

of kappa, phi, omega which needs to be
determined.

X,Y,Z are the ground co-ordinates of the known point Xo,Yo,Zo the ground co-ordinate of
projection center which needs to be determined on further expansion we get
M11(Xa-Xo)+M12(Ya-Yo)+M13(Za-Zo)
x = -f -------------------------------------------------M31(Xa-Xo)+M32(Ya-Yo)+M33(Za-Zo)

103

M21(Xa-Xo)+M21(Ya-Yo)+M23(Za-Zo)
y = -f --------------------------------------------------M31(Xa-Xo)+M32(Ya-Yo)+M33(Za-Zo)

..... eq (2.1.2)

The above equation is non-linear in nature. Hence it is linearized using Tayler's series and
only first order derivatives are taken for forming observation equations.
COORDINATE SYSTEMS :
Here we talk about the co-ordinate systems in the context of Photogrammetric
solutions. The basic three co-ordinate systems
involved are :
Photographic co-ordinate system.
This is the internal reference system in the photographic camera and all image
points will be defined with respect to its axes. Every photograph employed in analytical
photogrammetry contains a set of discrete points around the photo perimeter, commonly
known as fiducial marks. The intersection of the lines joining the opposite marks is the
fiducial centre which is taken as origin
( refer to figure 2 ).

PX

C
PP

P
Y
X

PC

Fig.2 Photo co-ordinate system

104

Model co-ordinate system.

Model coordinate system refers to the spatial coordinates of points imaged in a
stereoscopic model, which usually relates its positions with respect to the camera base or to
the instrument axis. Coordinates are expressed in x, y, h (refer to figure 3).

Fig.3: Model co-ordinate system

105

Object space co-ordinate system.

Object space coordinate system refers to the coordinate system used to define the
position of points in the object space, as distinguished from the image or the model. In the
context of the earth as the object we may consider one of the three coordinate systems
described below.
a) Geodetic coordinates of latitude, longitude and height above particular ellipsoid.
b) Geocentric universal system.
c) Local space rectangular system.
COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION
In analytical or digital photogrammetry most of the mathematical models are used
to perform coordinate transformations. The procedure for converting one coordinate
system to another is known as coordinate transformation. The procedure requires that some
points have their coordinates known in both the arbitrary and the final coordinate systems.
Such points are called control points.
Two-dimensional conformal coordinate transformation is applied for plain surfaces.
A conformal transformation is one in which the true shape is preserved after
transformation. A two dimensional conformal coordinate transformation consists of three
basic steps: 1) Scale change, 2) Rotation and 3) Translation / Shift.
x
y

ab x
-b a y

Cx
Cy

....... eq (2.3.1)

Two-dimensional affine coordinate transformation

In digital Photogrammetry both 2D and 3D coordinate transformations are used, to
transform intermediatery co-ordinate systems in a process to ultimately derive terrain
coordinates. Following are the affine equations, which transform from the XY comparator
axis to the xy photo system:
x = a1 + a2 . X + a3 . Y
....... eq (2.3.2)
y = b1 + b2 . X + b3 . Y
In this case scale change is not equal in both the axis, thereby the true shape is
changed.
Three-dimensional conformal coordinate transformation: It involves converting from
one three-dimensional system to another. In this transformation true shape is retained.
This type of coordinate transformation is essential in analytical or computational
photogrammetry for two basic problems : 1. To convert coordinates of points from tilted
photographic coordinate system to an equivalent vertical photographic system, which is
parallel to, the ground or arbitrary object space system. 2. To form continuous 3

106

dimensional
strip models from independent stereo models. A Three Dimensional
Transformation is represented by following equation, where X,Y,Z are ground coordinates,
x,y,z are photo coordinates, Cx,Cy,Cz are coordinates of origin and a1 to a9 are elements
of transformation matrix.
X
a1 a2 a3
x
Cx
Y
=
a4 a5 a6
y
+
Cy
Z
a7 a8 a9
z
Cz

ANALYTICAL STEREO PLOTTERS

An analytical plotter is composed of four basic components
1. Image stage system driven by servomotors and controlled by plate processors.
2. Real time mathematical processing system - for maintaining a stereo model, aiding
graphic superimposition.
3. Stereo viewing optics
4. The graphic data collection/editing system
As is necessary with all analogue stereo plotters, interior, relative and absolute
orientations are also required for analytical plotters prior to going into most modes of
operation. The orientation and operation of all analytical plotters are quite similar.
INNER ORIENTATION:
In interior orientation, a stereo pair of diapositives with x y and x' y' fiducial
coordinate systems is placed on the measuring stages. The principal distance of the
diapositives and fiducial coordinates are input to the computer. Machine image coordinates
x1 y1 and x2 y2 of the diapositive fiducials are then read. This phase of operation can be
aided by computer-activated servomotors, which automatically drive the measuring mark to
the vicinity of the fiducials. As few as two fiducials can be measured, but more
recommended and upto eight should be measured if they are available to increase
redundancy. From this information the computer solves a coordinate transformation, using
least square if sufficient measurements were taken, to locate the principal point of the
diapositives and determine the relationships of the two photo coordinate systems with
respect to the instruments image coordinate measurement systems. Corrections for
shrinkage or expansion are included in the transformation. A choice of coordinate
transformation is available but usually the affine or projective types are used.
RELATIVE ORIENTATION:
For relative orientation xy and x'y' machine image coordinates are measured at a
minimum of five points (at least six are recommended) located in the approximate positions.
Again the computer will drive measuring mark to the approximate locations, whereupon the
operator makes a precise pointing. Based upon these measurements the computer calculates
the elements of relative orientations using the collinearity equations. The computations are

107

performed using least squares if more than five points are involved in the solution. When
relative orientation is accepted, the operator notifies the computer and orientation
parameters are stored for future use.
ABSOLUTE ORIENTATION:
In absolute orientation, the ground coordinates of all the control points must be
first input to the computer. For absolute orientation a minimum of two horizontal and three
well-distributed vertical points are required. More than minimum is recommended. However
so that a least square solution can be made. When the measurements have been taken, the
computer solves a three-dimensional coordinate transformation to determine the parameter
that relate the model coordinate system to ground coordinate system.
An analytical plotter can be oriented considerably faster than analogue plotter and usually it
can be accomplished in 10 minutes or less.
DIGITAL IMAGE CORRELATION IN ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENTS:
In the past there has been considerable effort in automising the analogue or
analytical systems by image correlation. For analogue it was electronic correlation where as
for analytical it was digital correlation techniques. The technique of electronic correlation,
using cathode ray tubes (CRTs) to act as flying spot scanners to convert hard copy
photogrammetric images into electrical signals later on actual correlation or image matching
operation by hard view electrical and electronic circuitry, has been used in many
photogrammetric systems of mid 60's for orthophoto production. However, with the
availability of inexpensive CCD aerial array cameras, low cost video memory and digital
frame stores, plug in image processing boards, high speed computing elements such as
transputers and RISC could make it possible for implementing real time digital correlation
analytical systems, one such system was Kern DSR-11 fitted with CCD cameras at the image
intake point of the optical train. It was designed based on vertical line locus principle to
extract height automatically.
ANALYTICAL AEROTRIANGULATION :
Areas of mapping are mostly covered by blocks of multiple aerial photographs in
overlapping mode, because of the limitation in format size of an aerial photograph, the scale
of photography required for final mapping and the area of mapping which is generally quite
large. Ground control points form one of the essential input in order to solve the unknown
parameters and transform a stereo model to terrain coordinate system, for mapping
purposes. Minimum of two plan points and three non-linear height points are required in each
stereo model. In order to provide these control points it requires enormous effort and time
in the field. Also some areas are inaccessible.
Photogrammetry offers a very useful indirect / non contact method for control
extension in order to generate the ground coordinates of selected photo points based on
few peripheral ground control points. This method is known as aero triangulation. Aero

108

triangulation is basically a rigorous computational process which uses model / photo

coordinates either from analog / analytical / all digital Photogrammetry systems as basic
input. Different steps of aero triangulation:
1) Point selection.
2) Point marking (by snap marking / laser marking)
3) Model / photo coordinate observation in analytical Photogrammetry systems.
4) Preprocessing.
5) Block adjustment by independent model or bundle.

ACCURACY IN AEROTRIANGULATION
The accuracy of point determination by aero triangulation is dependent on various
factors. Some of the important factors are:

Scale of aerial photography and its resolution (larger the scale and better the ground
resolution, better the accuracy in terrain terms).
Control configuration (which has greater influence on accuracy).
Use of signalized control points
Overlap conditions (poor overlapping conditions degrade the accuracy).
Measuring accuracy of the system used for observation.
Mathematical model used for block adjustment (such as polynomial, independent block
and bundle adjustment).
Natural or artificial points selected as tie points.

The theoretical accuracy achievable with optimization of above parameters and selfcalibration can be of an order of 15 microns of standard deviation in planimetry, 20 microns
sigma height in image scale. However in practice a standard deviation of 15 to 30 microns in
XY, and 20 to 40 microns in Z is achievable generally, with an economical control
configuration. However, the accuracy in Z can be improved with closer bands of height
control. Although various studies do indicate different results based on various
combinations and constraints, the above statement on accuracy is applicable for most of
the production-oriented tasks.
Salient features of analytical Aero triangulation using analytical stereo plotters:
1. Unlimited focal length (it is a general advantage in Analytical Photogrammetry as a whole).
2. Better compensation of lens distortions, film shrinkage etc.

109

3. More accurate and nearly 3 times faster than analogue because of semi automization of
orientation processes.
4. Image transfer functions are used for automatic drive of floating mark to the tie points
common to the adjacent models.
5. Model re-observation is done faster because of facility of restoring and retrieving of the
orientation parameters and automatic driving to the already measured points.
6. Base in and out function to carry out effortlessly continuous observation of a strip with
minimum number of changing photographs. (Although it existed in very few universal
analogue instrument the change over from base in to out involved physically shifting of the
projection centre which was equally time taking)
7. Availability of adjustment software under the same host computer so that adjustment
and observations are done under same platform.
DEFINTION OF A DIGITAL PHOTOGRAMMETRIC IMAGE :
A digital image ("digitised image" would be a more precise description) consists of a
two dimensional matrix G with elements g (i, j). Each element is called a pixel (word from
picture elements).The row index i runs from 1 to I in steps of 1, i.e., i = 1(1)I. The
corresponding index for the columns is : j = 1(1)J. Since every matrix element represents as
area, we speak of image elements or pixels rather than image points. The pixels could be as
small as 10 microns or even less.
The pixels g (i, j) are the information carriers. The value of a pixel depends upon the
type of recording instrument and on the computer in use. The most widely used range of
values at present runs from zero to 255, a range that greatly exceeds the differentiation
capabilities of the human eye. The information contained in 256 different values can be
stored in eight bits (28 bit combinations) and a group of eight bits is treated as one unit, a
byte, in most modern computers.
For black and white pictures the pixel values represent the gray values or densities
(usually with black as zero and white as 255). For colour pictures we have three image
matrices with the same ranges, i.e., we speak of an image block with three layers. If a
digital image is to be used for Photogrammetric purposes we require a relation between
pixel position and a xy - coordinate system. If we now multiply the index i by delta x we
have the image coordinate x of the centre of pixel g (i,j). Similarly multiplication of the
index j by delta y gives the image coordinate y. The traditional measurement of image
coordinates is thus replaced in digital Photogrammetry by identification of pixels and this
identification is, as far as possible, automatic ( refer to figure 4 ).
Photogrammetric restitutions also obviously require knowledge of the inner
orientation. If the pixels are suitably small, it suffices to know which pixel contains the
principal point. This thought leads us naturally to an extension whereby the indices i and j

110

can be interpreted as a image coordinate x and y. In this case, provided the pixels are
square, the principal distance c can be introduced in units of delta x (= delta y). The
restitution equations remain valid despite the unusual scale in the image and the image
space.
THE CREATION OF DIGITAL IMAGES:
If the same measuring accuracy as in analytical photogrammetry is to be reached
are even exceeded, the pixel size in the plane of the measuring camera must be as small as a
few micrometres. If high accuracy is not the primary need, but rather one of the other
advantages of the digital Photogrammetry is sought, a significantly larger pixel size

Y0
Y

X
0

Y
X
Fig. 4 Digital image co-ordinate system
suffices. A digital orthophoto is a typical, interesting product of digital Photogrammetry,
which can be produced with significantly larger pixel sizes. If the time between making the
image and creation of end product is extremely short, digital Photogrammetry is essential.
This so called real time Photogrammetry, with large number of pixels, huge volumes of data
and intensive data processing, is indeed possible today, but the resolving power of present
digital cameras falls far short of that of photographic cameras.

111

Depending upon the job to be done, another method of creating digital images must
therefore be selected.
AUTOMATIC MEASUREMENT OF RESEAU AND FIDUCIAL MARKS:
If the photographs have been taken with a (large format) digital metric camera, we
know the principal distance and position of principal point. The inner orientation of the
digital images is therefore, immediately available for the restitution.
If on the other hand the original image was made in metric photographic camera and
the digital image is created by scanning of this photograph, restitution begins with the
determination of the positions of the individual fiducial marks. This process should also be
automated. The same task occurs when partial digital images are to be assembled
numerically into the full image by means of a reseau.
The task is, therefore to find the position of geometric figure - we limit discussion
here to a cross - in a digital image. We usually know the approximate position. The area
around the approximate position is called search matrix or matrix of interest. The cross is
called the target matrix. We also speak a template that shows 5 x 5 target matrix together
with a 12 x 12 search matrix. For the sake of simplicity the densities are limited to the
range 1 to 9 (refer to figure 5).

Fig.5: Reseau and fiducial marks in digital image

The cross in the search matrix obviously lies in the position i = 8 and j = 7. An automatic
search for this position will be made harder by the facts that:

On the one hand, the search matrix is noisy, i.e., the densities are effected by random
errors, and
On the other hand because of the finite size of the scanning sensors the densities are
smeared, i.e., at the edges mixed pixels occur.

112

The solution of this correlation task is demonstrated below by an example, one dimensional
for the sake of simplicity (refer to figure 6).

Target area

Search area

Fig. 6: Measurement of fiducial marks in digital image

We determine the required position of the target area in the search area or area of
interest, by means of correlation computations. A measure of the correlation is the
correlation coefficient r, computed from the standard deviations S1 and S2 of the densities
g1 and g2 in both areas and from the covariance S12 between the densities in both areas, as
follows:
S12
sigma of[(g1 - g11) x (g2 - g22)]
r = --------- = -----------------------------------------------------------------------S1 - S2
sqrt[sigma of{sqr(g1 - g11)} x sigma of{sqr(g2- g22)}]
where g11,g22 = Arithmetic means of the densities of the target area and densities in
corresponding section of the search area.
We compute the correlation coefficient r for all possible positions of the target area in the
search area and that position with the greatest value of r is the required position.
ORIENTATION OF DIGITAL PHOTOGRAMMETRIC IMAGES:
The orientation of digital metric images can be directly compared with the numerical
orientation of metric photographs. Nevertheless, the result of orientation of the digital

113

metric image goes beyond mere determination of the six elements of the outer orientation
of the metric photograph.
The orientation of stereo pairs or a bundle block adjustment has already been
discussed in previous topic. For natural control points target areas must be created for
automatic positioning in the digital images to be possible. The positions of the unsignalised
tie points can also basically be found by automatic procedures. In this case, the target
matrix is an extract from one digital image and the search matrix is a significantly larger
extract from the other digital image.
After the orientation elements of two overlapping images have been determined,
whether for a relative orientation or a complete absolute orientation, the conditions exist
for the creation of normal-case images (normalised images). These corresponds to the
normal case of metric photographs. Such normalized digital images therefore, play an
important role in digital Photogrammetry, since the same conditions of homologous image
elements apply as in human vision. The task of computer vision therefore imitates that of
human vision. The two normalized images display only horizontal parallaxes and no vertical
parallaxes. The correlation task is therefore now only one dimensional, since homologous
points have the same x coordinates.
The mathematical relationship between the image coordinates x, y of the one of the
original images and the image coordinates x', y of the corresponding normalized image can
be derived from the collinearity conditions.
- Spatial position of object space is taken into account
- the negative principal distance f is substituted for (z-zo) and
- Xo and Yo are set to zero.
we have then
x = -f (M11x'+M21y'-M31f')/(M13x'+m23y'-M33f')
...Eq (5.3.1)

y = -f (M12x'+M22y'-M32f')/(M13x'+M23y'-M33f')
A solution of eqs (5.3.1) for the image coordinates x' and y' is then:
x' = -f' (M11x+M12y-M13f)/(M31x+M32y-M33f )
...Eq (5.3.2)
y' = -f'(M21x+M22y-M23f)/(M31x+m32y-M33f )
(refer to figure 7)
We have therefore now established the conditions for converting (resampling) the
original digital images into normalised images. We define - in analogy to the procedure for
digital orthophotos - the new image matrix in the normalized image (equ. 5.3.2). We select a
principal distance f', somewhat larger than the principal distance f of the original images so
as not to lose any pixels from the original images. We assume that the pixel size is the same
in the original and normalized images. Given the coordinates x',y',c'of a pixel in the
normalized image, we can apply equation (5.3.1) to find the corresponding position in the

114

original image. The required density must then be interpolated from the neighbouring pixels.
The result of this resampling is the pair of normalized images.

The complete stereo model formed by a pair of normalized images can now be
correlated by one-dimensional correlation. Corresponding image points in two normalized
images lie as in (figure 8) in two lines with the same y coordinates (y1 = y2).
If we require only a few points rather than a complete stereo model we can
eliminate the time consuming effort of resampling the original images and adopt an approach
based on epipolar-ray geometry. This approach permits one-dimensional correlation even in
the original images. An epipolar ray is formed by the intersection of the plane and epipolar
plane, which is a plane passing through the two projection centres O1 and O2 and an object
point P. All epipolar rays of the same image intersect in epipolar point K, which is the
intersection straight line passing through the two projection centres with the image plane.
An epipolar point is therefore the image of the other projection centre(the epipolar point
of a normalized image lies at infinity).
The corresponding epipolar rays can be found in two-dimensional original images we
can then apply a one-dimensional correlation along them. The two fundamental points
defining the epipolar rays are the epipolar points K1 and K2. For e.g. the image coordinates
of K1 can be found by inserting coordinates of the projection centre O2 in the collinearity
equations. We can then obtain
x(k) = -c (r11)/( r13)
y(k) = -c (r12)/(r13)
AUTOMATED PHOTOGRAMMETRIC POINT MEASUREMENT
We start with the assumption that the object points are signalized, though very well
defined natural points can also be used. The measurement of the image coordinates of such
points in digital photogrammetric images can be very largely automated, for which purpose
we must define target matrices for the individual signals. The positions of these signals in
the digital images are then found in the same way as shown above for reseau crosses and
fiducial marks.
There are two qualifications to this statement, however firstly, the signals must lie
more or less in one-object plane and secondly, the image plane must be roughly parallel to
this object plane. Under these conditions, applying principally to aerial photogrammetry, the
signals are then about the same size and are not significantly deformed.
Until now we have left open the question of how the areas of interest in the digital
image are found. The following methods may be used. For e.g.:
-

approximate positioning by an operator on a monitor screen

115

Predefinition of approximate object coordinates and of the approximate elements of

outer orientation of the individual images, followed by a central projection of the
approximate object coordinates into the digital images.

P
Y

C
X
P

Fig. 7: Orientation of digital image

116

Z
Y
X2
Y1

K1
X 2

Fig. 8: Stereo model from digital image

-

When all required image points have been automatically identified and accurately
measured, a bundle block adjustment can be applied. Before beginning this however, the
image coordinates must be refined by the known methods, depending upon the origin of
the digital images. The coordinate refinement of the digital images should also include
corrections for differences between the real pixel positions and the theoretical grid
positions.

AUTOMATED SURFACE MODELLING

In a process to reconstruct the surface of the terrain by full automatic means,
digital image correlation has been proving very effective. In fact this is an area where
digital photogrammetry has its strength . There are various correlation techniques. Some of
them are frequently used techniques are given below.
One-dimensional correlation
In this case correlation along particular direction is applied in the two normalized
images or by means of epipolar geometry in the two images.
Correlation by distinct edges of features
Since the basic method of human correlation is based on first identifying identical
edges and then looking for correlation, this concepts also could be adopted for computer-

117

aided correlation in addition to the density correlation. This is a more complex method of
matching which involves:
1.
2.
3.

Edge enhancement and extraction by forming an image density. This is same

as the convolution operation of image processing.
Finding corresponding points in two images by using comparison operations.
Computation of object space X,Y,Z coordinates based on the orientation
elements.

Hierarchical multilevel correlation:

This is also known as a multiresolution matching by forming image pyramids of
different level. An image with finer pixels is progressively reduced to an equivalent image of
coarser resolution by either elimination of pixels, averaging, applying higher order
interpolation or by convolution operators. The correlation starts at the coarser level to
subsequently reach at the finer level.
Vertical line locus (VLL):
This method of correlation is carried out on an oriented model. We begin by specifying X,Y
coordinates of the required points in a regular grid. Then a series of equidistant planes
perpendicular to each vertical passing through the X,Y points are established. By using
collinearity equations to correspondingly Z coordinates. We can find homologous windows on
each image and then correlation can be found by using correlation coefficients for each pair
of windows. The maximum correlation defines the required X,Y,Z points.
DIGITAL TERRAIN MODELLING
Digital terrain modelling is a particular form of surface modeling using computers,
which deals with the specific problems of representing the surface of the earth. The set of
discrete digital coordinates in XYZ representing the terrain in its best possible form
intended for specific application is called a digital terrain model.
Several other terms are also used to describe essentially the same process such as digital
elevation model (DEM), digital height model (DHM), digital terrain elevation model etc.
There are various applications and generation methods of DTM. However in this lecture we
will concentrate on photogrammetric methods of DTM generation and it's application in
survey and mapping GIS and terrain visualization.

PHOTOGRAMMETRIC METHODS :
The photogrammetric methods can be classified into four different categories;
manual, automatic by electronic correlator, semi automatic using analytical stereo plotter
and fully automatic by digital image matching (auto correlation). At present the most widely
used DEM extraction is carried out by using semi automatic analytical stereo plotters. Fully

118

automatic DEM extraction by digital image auto correlation is the most recent technique
being selectively applied for
certain applications using digital photogrammetric
workstations.
CONCEPTS:
Accurately modeling a solid object or a surface of regular nature is possible by
simple mathematical / geometric functions. How about the surface of the earth, which is
not governed by any mathematical functions ? Only possibility is that we can be adaptive to
a greater extent by choosing effective methods of sampling representing the smallest
change of gradient and later on fitting a mathematical surface. However, one to one
reconstruction of the terrain is not possible.
Optimum number of mass points covering the terrain is collected, along with the
morphological information such as break lines, form lines, break points and cutout areas,
which are processed for further densification by interpolation.
MEASUREMENT PATTERNS (Semi Automatic using stereo plotters) :
In analytical plotters, automatic driving to the predefined points is possible using
computer programmes, which control the plate processors. The required terrain elevation
can be derived by any one or combination of several sampling patterns.
Systematic or regular sampling :
Automatic driving to the predefined points is useful for this type of sampling in
order to generate mass points on a regular grid. This is the latest method possible in
semiautomatic plotters for data capture. However, this has a shortcomings of nonadaptability and optimization of number of points to be sampled. In some cases sampling
distance is not appropriately chosen there could be a greater amount of redundancy and in
other hand it may not be sufficient for a particular area in depicting the terrain
morphology. This is more suitable for a terrain of uniform sloping.
Progressive sampling :
The shortcomings of the above grid-based method is overcome by progressive
sampling (the idea originally proposed by Makarivic of the ITC, The Netherlands). The basis
of the method is that one starts with a widely spread (low resolution) grid which will give a
good general coverage of height control and on then a progressive increase in the sampling
is done based on a threshold computed on the second difference on line to allow
measurement of required number of points for densification, there by improving the terrain
adaptability The second difference of height is calculated in both column and row directions
to test the need for progressive densification. The mathematical expression for along row
densification:

119

Delta (h) = hi+1 - 2hi + hi-1

If delta (h) > threshold then density.
If delta (hij) < threshold then go ahead without densification. This process continues
progressively patch wise. The threshold can be determined keeping in mind the ultimate
fidelity in modeling aimed at and the terrain type.
RANDOM SAMPLING:
Random sampling method is a selective mode of data collection where the operator
decides which is the salient terrain points and lines need to be sampled. It is highly
subjective method, which depend on the operator's skill in appreciating the terrain.
COMPOSITE SAMPLING:
This is a combination of regular and selective sampling. This approach is best suited
for a mixed terrain type. The basic grid pattern is supplemented by measurements made at
hilltops, along break lines and streams.
TERRAIN MODELLING
Sampled data alone is not sufficient to model the terrain. Hence further justification of
the sampled data is done for more closer data points by adapting various interpolation
techniques. Interpolation techniques are many, such as linear, moving average, polynomial
etc. However in a broader level the modeling techniques can be divided into two classes.
1. Grid based terrain modeling
2. Triangular based terrain modeling
Grid based terrain modeling:
It is best suited for automated systems, for example in photogrammetric
applications the data capturing regular grids collected by photogrammetric means, however
can be mixed with randomly distributed selective samples by finally further interpolating
the random points to a regular grid. Here the computational approach is relatively simpler.
Usually the following interpolation methods are distinguished.
I.
II.

Point wise
Interpolation of specific neighbouring points
Global method fitting a single three dimensional surface defined by a higher order
polynomial through all the measured points

Triangle-based terrain modeling:

This is a method where every data point measured is directly involved in computation
since they form vertices of the triangles used to model the terrain. Irregularly collected
points can be more efficiently modeled by this method. Triangular irregular network(TIN) is

120

the terminology most frequently used to describe this method. One advantage of this
method lies in its relatively easy way of incorporating break lines, fault lines etc.
APPLICATIONS OF DEM:
DEM's have numerous applications however we will discuss here its application in
information technology:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Contour generation for topographical mapping

Profiles, slopes for civil engineering applications
Highway alignments on hilly terrain by giving volume information for cut and fill
computation of earth work etc.,
Perspective views for resource surveys and landscaping related application.
Fly through perspectives for real time navigation aids.

DIGITAL ORTHOPHOTOS:
Introduction:
A line map, derived from aerial photographs is some times unsatisfactory for
undeveloped regions. Archaeologists, Soil Scientists, Foresters, Agriculturalists,
Geographers, Geologists, Planners and Ecologists often do not find the details important for
them in a line map. A photo which is equivalent of a map i.e. an orthographic projection of a
ground is a better solution for them such photograph are called "ORTHOPHOTO". The
process of generating orthophotos is known as orthophotography. This involves differential
rectification i.e. rectification by small parts.
A map which shows the contents of the aerial photograph (photomap) is a better
solution for them. This photomap is called as "ORTHOPHOTO", which is a photograph
showing images of objects in their true orthographic positions. Therefore these are
geometrically equivalent to conventional line and symbol planimetric map.
Because they are planimetrically correct, orthophotos can be used as maps for
making direct measurements of distances, angles, positions and areas without making
corrections for image displacements.

121

Orthophoto Production

Deformations:
Perspective photos have the problem of image displacements due to photographic
tilt and relief. Tilt displacement exists in any photo if at the instant of exposure, the photo
plane is tilted w.r.t. the datum plane. Rectification eliminates the effects of tilt and yields
an equivalent vertical photo. There exist a scale variations on the photo as a result of image
displacement due to change in relief. These above deformations are removed with different
methods described below. The resultant output is an orthophoto.
Although relief
displacement due to variable terrain are removed, a shortcoming of orthophotos is that
relief displacements of vertical surfaces such as walls of building cannot be removed.
Orthophoto instruments are broadly three types:
1.

Production of image by direction optical projection (real time).

2. production of image by electronic means.

3. production of image by analytical means.
4. production of orthophoto by digital image processing.
The essential feature of the production of the digital orthophotos lies in the
transformation of the image matrix in the camera coordinate system into an image matrix in
the X Y plane of the ground coordinate system. The production of a digital orthophoto
begins with the definition of the required image matrix in the X Y plane of the ground
coordinate system, followed by a transformation of the centres of these elements into the
camera coordinate system.

122

For this transformation we also need Z coordinates of the points in the X Y grid. These
can result from a very close mesh of grid points measured in an analytical stereo plotter.
Digital terrain models also provides the Z coordinates of a close mesh of XY points.
If we assume that the inner and outer orientations of the original digital image to be
used for the orthophoto are known, the centres of the pixels in the ground system can then
be transformed into the original digital image by the equations of central projection.
Corrections for effects such as lens distortion and refraction can be applied in this process.
We come now to the still open question- How to assign densities in the original image to
the transformed central points. The best-known assignment is that of the nearest
neighbour. In this process the density of that pixel is adopted whose centre is closest to
the transformed point. This method requires little computing time. A disadvantage is,
however, that in the worst-case picture element are shifted by upto half a pixel. Relative
displacement of upto one pixel can then occur in lines in the digital orthophoto. In order to
ensure that no pixel in the original image is lost, the number of pixels in the digital
orthophoto should be chosen to be significantly higher than in the original image.
An interesting alternative to the nearest neighbour method is the bilinear
transformation. In this method, the density is determined by bilinear transformation from
the four neighbours. The four densities g1, g2 ,g3 and g4 of the original image define a
hyperbolic paraboloid on square of side delta(D), if we assume linear interpolation parallel to
the coordinate axes. The density g(x',y') in position (x',y') can be computed from the
following equation:

g(x',y') = [1-x'/D - y'/D + (x'.y')/sqr(D)].g1 + [x'/D - (x'.y')/sqr(D)].g2 + [y'/D (x'.y')/sqr(D)].g3 + [(x'.y')/sqr(D)].g4

A bilinear interpolation involves more effort than does the nearest neighbour method, but
has the advantage that there are no breaks in lines. The original image contrast is however
slightly reduced. If this reduction is to be avoided, a higher order interpolation must be
used.
The summary below shows some of the advantages of digitally produced orthophotos
compared with those produced photographically:

The geometric accuracy is basically higher since a very close mesh of points is used to
approximate the ground surface.

Image content can be modified quite simply by contrast manipulation of the densities
and colours.

An elegant matching of densities at the edges of neighbouring images in an orthophoto

mosaic can be achieved.

123

Further improvements, such as edge enhancement, can be introduced by approximate

filtering.

The digital orthophoto can be stored as a level of information

information system.

Digital orthophotos can be analyzed by the methods of multispectral classification,

image segmenting, pattern recognition, etc.

in a geographic

DIGITAL PHOTOGRAMMETRIC WORKSTATIONS:

Software for the solution of the photogrammetric task based on digital images can, in
principle be installed in any digital computer. A relatively wide range of peripheral devices is
necessary, however. The minimum requirements are :
-

Data capture unit to accept the data from digitized photograph, CCD cameras, etc.

Graphic screen with 640 x 480 pixels, better 1024 x 768 pixels.

8 bit resolution, better 24 bit (8 bits for each of the primary colours red, green and
blue).

Processors speed 12.5 MIPS, better 25 MIPS.

4 (better 8) MBytes main storage.

650 MBytes mass storage, better two mass storage units.

Powerful PCs and so-called workstations can satisfy these requirements and computer
systems tailored to the wide field of digital image processing are available today. More and
more frequently additional printed circuit boards are being offered, fitted with a fast
processors for suitable for such tasks as image convolution. Some of these systems will in
future also contain software for digital Photogrammetry.
Similarly independent computer systems for geographic information system have been
developed and the union of GIS and digital Photogrammetry will become even stronger in
the foreseeable future. If digital orthophotos for e.g. are incorporated has background
information in GIS, many tasks of digital Photogrammetry can be solved in such a
workstation.
Some manufacturers are also offering independent digital photogrammetric
workstations, incorporating three-dimensional observations of the digital stereo pairs.

124

How 3D stereo viewing is accomplished in a computer? Four different

separating the two digital images are in use at present:

methods of

Display of two images on full screen with observation through a mirror stereoscope.

Display of two colour composite images on the full screen with observation through
complementary colour spectacles ( Anaglyph process ).

Alternate display of the two images on the full screen, at a frequency about 50Hz and
observation through spectacles alternately passing and blocking light. A control is
needed between the screen and spectacles to ensure synchronization mechanical
versions of such spectacles have today been replaced by liquid-crystal shutter glasses.

Alternating generation of the two images and synchronized display on a polarized

screen. The operator observes the screen through correspondingly polarized spectacles
to achieve stereoscopy. The alternation between vision in the left and the right eye is
also have achieved by liquid crystal spectacles.

Comparison of Analytical and Digital Photogrammetric systems:

Analytical instruments came into existence since 1970 and is being operated
presently. The soft copy or digital photogrammetry systems launched in 1990's. The
Transition from analog/analytical equipment to soft copy photogrammetric system removes
the need for specialized equipment. The major source of imagery for softcopy
photogrammetry remains aerial photograph. The need exists therefore to convert the
photographs into a pixel array using a film scanner; and the orthophoto need to be recorded
on to film, creating a need for film writing equipment. There are scanners and film
recorders are available at a reasonable prices.

125

In Digital photogrammetric system, the image stage system is the image storage,
retrieval, and display memory systems, which are used to bring the digital image in to
workstation's stereo viewing system. The Image Station stereo display software provides
the image stage system. The image Storage is a typically of several Gigabytes magnetic disk
or optionally an erasable optical disk.
A real time loop program in digital photogrammetric workstation collects user inputs,
converts them to movements in object space, updates the object space position, transforms
the object space to camera space with image refinements, transforms from camera space to
pixel space, and from pixel space to window coordinates. Then either cursor is moved or the
image is roamed. This whole thing is integrated into software.
Stereo display system :
The image display system provides for the stereo display of imagery. It roughly
corresponds to the stereo viewer portion of analytical stereo plotter including optics and
stage system. With an analytical plotter, the stage move the film so the desired area is
presented in the optical path for stereo viewing. Left and right optical paths deliver images
to the left and right eyes through binocular eyepieces allowing stereo viewing. In DPS,
there are several techniques available.
1.

Anaglyph: One image is displayed in red and other in blue. Glasses with red and blue
filters are worn to provide the stereo effect.

2. Optical: The images are displayed on a split screen or in two CRTs and are viewed
through binocular optics similar to analytical plotter.
3. Polarizing screens and glasses
4. Image shuttering techniques
5. Lenticular viewing screens etc..
Graphic collection/edit system:
Many analytical plotters have had interactive graphics systems added to allow digital
data capture. An interactive computer graphics system provides the basis for the
capture/edit system of the DPS.
In a simple means, A Digital system is distinguished by number of points from
conventional photogrammetric instruments

No high precision optical-mechanical parts

Robust measurement system, no wear and tear

126

No instrument calibration, no manual image handling

Combination of automatic and operator controlled processing

Data acquisition, processing, editing, storage, and administration in a single system

Automatic DEM generation by image correlation.

Perspective image viewing

Fly through by displaying continuous perspective views at a high frequency

127

PRINCIPLES OF CARTOGRAPHY & MAP MAKING

INTRODUCTION:
With the boom in human population and increased complexity of
modern life coupled with attendant pressures and need to utilize optimally
the limited resources, it has become indispensable to carry out detailed
studies of the physical and social environment encompassing all fields of
human activities. Scientists drawn from various spheres of human ventures
e.g. geographers, planners, historians, economists, agriculturists, geologists,
engineers etc., find map an indispensable tool and aid to carry on their
pursuits. Maps, as such, may be:
General maps: portraying the spatial association of a selection of diverse
geographical phenomenon e.g. roads, settlements, boundaries, watercourses,
elevations, coastline etc.
OR
Thematic Maps: portraying spatial variations of a single phenomenon or
relationship between phenomenon e.g. diversity of soils, bedrock geology,
population density, climate transportation etc.
Cartography can be briefly described as the art, science and
technology of making maps of the earth or other celestial bodies to show
the spatial relationships. Cartography is usually thought to consist of two
classes of operations:
-

Preparation of a variety of general maps used for basic

reference and operational purposes. It includes larger scale
topographical maps,
hydrographic charts and aeronautical
charts.

Preparation of maps used for general reference and educational

purposes. It includes small-scale thematic maps, atlas maps,
road maps and maps to accompany the written text in books.

128

Cartography can be classified into two categories:

-

One type of cartography works primarily from data obtained by

the field or hydrographic survey, or by satellite and
photogrammetric methods.

Other type of cartography includes thematic

cartography,
draws on the basic work of the first group and pertains to
communication of general information with effective graphic
delineation of relationships, generalization and geographic
concepts. The specific subject matter may be drawn from
history, economics, urban planning, rural sociology, engineering
and physical/social sciences.

METHODS IN CARTOGRAPHY:
Conventional or Analog Method:
Preparation of maps usually involves the following processes:
-

Choice of appropriate projection and coordinate system for

plotting of spatial data.

Compilation of data from existing documents supplemented with

field surveys or ground verification of details.

Cartographic activities viz., generalization of data, choice of

symbols, map-layout and design, and fair drawing.

Map reproduction.

Compilation of Data from Aerial Photographs:

As early as 1840, it was suggested that photographs be used for the
purpose of mapping.
By 1915, cameras specially designed for aerial
photography were in use and during 1930s, there was extensive use of aerial

129

survey. Ever since, the aerial photographs (specially black & white) and
photogrammetric methods have been reliable tools to furnish planimetric and
hypsometric positions for map preparation. With limited ground control,
aerial photos can provide accurate maps for areas where it is difficult to
conduct extensive field surveys because of terrain or climatic conditions.
The aerial photographs taken over areas of varied relief suffer from
'Scale Variation' and relief displacement. In order to make distance and
angle measurements on these photographs, compensation of relief effects in
the photos is required necessitating their geo-referencing. The amount of
displacement changes directly with the vertical departure from a chosen
datum and the distance from the principal point, and inversely with the
height of the camera.
The displacement of objects on the aerial
photographs produces parallax, i.e. apparent change in position of an object
because of a change in the point of observation. On a photograph with no
tilt, the parallax is a linear element used for determination of elevation.
Densification of Control By Aero-triangulation:
(a)

Graphical Method

Since azimuths from the principal point are correct to any point on
the photographs, graphical triangulation was performed directly on
photographs for extension of control over large areas by using radial line
plotting e.g., Hand Template Method, Slotted Template Method or Radial
Arm Template Method. In radial line plotting, each point is relocated by the
amount of its displacement and all points are then located at common point.
The actual scale of plot depends on the distance between the principal
points of two consecutive & overlapping photographs. Usually a radial line
plot is prepared at a pre-determined scale by using control points provided in
the field, or read from reasonably accurate map. Preferably, three control
points are plotted in the area of overlap of the first two photographs.
(b)

Optical Method (Bundle Ray Adjustment)

As technical improvement over the radial line plotting, the optical

method or Bundle Ray Adjustment method involves:

130

Creation of stereo-models with the help of aerial photos.

Integration and adjustment of strips of stereo-models.

OR
method.

Simultaneous adjustment of all stereo models using IMT

Creation of stereo-model essentially involves the reconstruction of

camera-geometry used at the time of photography such that the bundle of
rays intersect in space to present ground image. The above adjustment
requires ground control points which are usually established by conventional
methods of ground survey viz., triangulation, trilateration, traversing and
leveling. Currently, the establishment of ground control is aided by the use
of GPS procedures. The accurate ground control is essential to virtually allphotogrammetric operations, because photogrammetric measurements can
only be as reliable as the ground control on which they are based. These
ground control points must clearly be identifiable both on the ground and on
the photography being used.
Stereo plotters (Mechanical/Opto-mechanical):
These are precision instruments designed for preparation of
topographic maps. Herein, two projectors are used that can be adjusted in
their position and angular orientation to duplicate the exact relative position
and orientation of the aerial camera at the instance the two photos of
stereo-pair were exposed. Similarly, the base distance between exposures
and differences is flying heights are simulated by adjusting the relative
position of the projectors.
A stereo-plotter is made of three basic components:
-

A projection system (to create terrain model)

A viewing system (to view the model stereoscopically)

131

A measuring and tracing system (for measuring elevations in

the model and tracing features onto a map sheet.
The instrument uses reduced size diapositives.
Fair-drawing (Inking/Scribing) From Ground-verified Manuscripts/sheets:
Verified plane-table sheet or air survey sections are first
photographed on the scale of fair mapping and mosaic on glass, paper or zinc
sheet using black prints, bromide prints or film negatives. This process of
mosaicing involves:
-

Projection of map sheet on drawing paper at the scale of fair

drawing.

Plotting of trigonometrical stations and permanent traverse

stations on the projection.

Trimming of prints or film negatives to about 6mm outside graticule or

common edge and fitting them to the projection by matching the graticule
lines where they leave the print sets. Where prints do not fit, they are cut
into sufficient number of sections to reduce the discrepancy between
sections to not more than about 0.3 mm. All the outer sections along
graticule lines are pasted down first and the inner sections are then fitted
to distribute the error equally. The above mosaic prints are then used for
preparation of combined negatives by photography which are further used to
obtain:

Black or blue prints on good quality map Litho, bank-post or

tracing paper for accessory work, i.e. preparation of guides etc.

The blue prints on drawing paper (at scale 50% larger than the
scale of actual survey) as obtained above are checked for
correct dimensions and are used to prepare *
*
*
*
*
*

Name Original (including marginal information)

Contour original
Outline or Black Original
Red Original
Blue Original
Green Tree and Tint Original
132

These originals (drawn with pen and ink) are further used in preparation
of printing plates for different process colours (cyan, magenta, yellow and
black and subsequent offset printing of maps.
The drawing work done on paper with ink suffers from: -

Regular/irregular distortion of the dimensions of sheet due to

warping of paper caused by temperature and humidity.

Fading of ink over time making the original unfit for

photography.
-

Inconsistency in drawing work by different draughtsman.

Wear and tear of paper on which the fair drawing is done.

With the introduction of Mylar based scribe-sheets and peel-coats,

which ensure reasonable dimensional stability, scribing technique,
superseded the conventional fair drawing with pen & ink on paper. As a
result, the diazo-prints of mosaic plane-table sheet or air-survey sections
are directly obtained on the scribe-coats and peel-coats, at the scale of
survey and originals are drawn/etched with the help of scribing tools. The
scribed originals and peel-coat masks act as negatives and can be used as
such for photography to prepare plates for offset printing. The use of
scribe-coat and peel-coat sheets reasonably eliminates the possibility of
dimensional distortion of sheets and offers consistency and neatness in
drawing work.
Digital Method:
The preservation of field data in form of hard copy of maps, field
sheets, printing plates or film negatives has been a source anxiety due to
their quick perishability or distortions, besides unmanageable space required
to store them. The advent of computers and digital storage devices,
stimulated a chain of revolutionary changes in the cartographic procedures
viz. projection, compilation of data, drawing, map reproduction and data

133

storage. Thus, the concept of Computer Assisted Cartography (CAC)

emerged in 1970s.
Projection:
Until the use of computers, construction of projection was done
manually. Now, with commonly available software, any projection based on a
set of equations or table of values, can be produced by computer plotter, or
can be displayed on screen as a soft copy. Projection is a process of
producing all or part of a curved/round body on a flat sheet. Since
projection cannot be done without geometrical distortion, the cartographer
chooses a suitable developable surface for projection (e.g. plane, cylindrical
or conical) and a suitable characteristic (equal-area or equivalence, correct
shape or conformality, correct scale or equi-distance, correct direction or
azimuth) which is to be shown accurately at the expense of others. He also
decides upon the types of aspect (normal, traverse or oblique) and contact
(tangential or secant) of the projection surface with respect to the
curved/round body.
Analytical Stereo plotter:
Against the mechanical or opto-mechanical stereo-plotter, analytical
plotter operates through the formation of a mathematical model of the
terrain imaged by a stereo-pair. This is done linking a comparator type
viewing and measuring system to a digital computer and as such, the system
becomes extremely accurate and versatile. The system's computer can be
programmed to handle any type of photography (e.g., oblique or panoramic
photos), and to correct for complex combination of image distortions. The
operator simply feeds the camera focal length and other calibration data
into the computer. Then under cursor control, the coordinates of the
fiducial marks and some ground control points are measured and the
computer performs complete orientation of the stereo model. Positions in
the model may be mathematically transformed into ground coordinates and
elevations. Such system allows simultaneous viewing of the stereo-model and
digitized line work. A graphics monitor is used for reviewing and editing the
digitized data. There are softwares which permit menu-driven coding of
map-features and digital elevation model production.

134

Soft copy Photogrammetric Workstations:

The soft copy system uses digital raster images rather than
photographs. This system extensively uses mathematical modeling and
incorporates not only the functionally of analytical plotters but also permit
the integration of various photogrammetric tasks into computer-based
environment, e.g. automated generation of digital terrain models,
computation of digital orthophotos (for subsequent output on a raster
plotter), capture of data for direct entry into GIS, etc. The system also
provides linkages to image processing software making it amenable to the
analysis of any kind of digital image data.
The examples of above
workstations are Leica DPW 710 and Sun Sparc Matra, IMD of Intergraph,
PHODIS of Zeiss.
Cartographic Production Line (Digital Method):
Sources for Compilation of Data:
a) Aerial photos to prepare stereo-plots/air survey sections used for
subsequent field verification.
b) Digital raster image of aerial photos.
c) Satellite imagery preprocessed and geo-referenced. The pre-processing
of imagery includes:
-

Corrections for geometric distortions e.g. variation in altitude,

attitude and velocity of sensor platforms, panoramic distortion,
earth corrections, atmospheric refraction, relief displacement,
non-linearity in the sweep of a Sensor's IFOV.

Radiometric correction for Sun-elevation, earth-sun distance

and haze.

Removal of noise, i.e. stripping or banding, line drop and bit

errors (non-systematic variations in grey-levels from pixel to
pixel).

135

d) Existing maps corrected for dimensional distortion of the paper base.

The map may be manually digitized, or alternatively, scanned and
vectorised in a semi-automatic mode, i.e. automatic vectorisation with
interactive editing.
e) Digitization of field - verified P.T. sections or air survey sections,
manually or in semi- automatic mode.
f)

Data Editing:

Digital data generated through digitization of field records or

vectorisation of digital raster images followed by projection transformation,
is used to create graphics for mapping, which involves following steps:a)

The features of various classes are transferred to different layers or

levels. For example, contours, vegetation, drainage or water-features,
settlements, roads and railways, text etc. are stored in different
layers. Even the details of a feature class are stored in different
layers to afford GIS possibility. The structures of various layers are
organized in such a way that one layer does not obscure the details of
other layers, and correct topological relationships of the spatial
features are preserved. For example, the layer of road should be
above the layer of river or canal as per the ground reality, and so on.

b)

According to the scale and purpose of map, map-layout is prepared and

designed showing:
-

The position of legend, and marginal details i.e., title of the

map, bar-scale, reference squares/graticule or grid values,
magnetic declination, sheet Nos. & edition, administrative and
sheet indices, special footnotes etc.

Symbols with suitable size, colour and style

Texts of suitable font size and style

Dimensions of borders and neat lines

136

c)

Position of inset maps

Type of map: island, bleeding edge or bounded.

Generalization of details depends on the purpose of map, scale,

graphic limits and quality of data. First part of generalization i.e.,
conceptual generalization, involves symbolization and classification of
features into distinct feature classes by grouping like features. The
second part of generalization i.e. graphic generalization which is
implemented at the time of drawing features on the computer,
consists of elimination of unwanted details and graphic processes e.g.,
smoothing lines, deleting small details or combining those small
individual features of one feature class which would merge or simply
become invisible when reducing them unchanged to a smaller scale,
exaggeration of details (e.g. roads) or displacement of details (e.g.
features adjacent to the exaggerated features) to ensure legibility of
map. Preferential order of displacement is:
-

Area features e.g., forests

Buildings
Roads
Waterways
Railways

Of late, efforts have been made to switch from manual map

generalization to automatic map generalization. The long-term goal of
automated generalization is a 'Scale-less Mapping System'. Such a
system contains one large dataset of mainly topographic information
plus some attribute information that can be manipulated and
generalized in whatever degree to produce maps on every desired
scale. This would have some clear advantages over the present
practice of digitizing and storing at each scale independently. While
automation of conceptual generalization is easier to achieve, the
graphic generalization which is determined by subjectivity, and
intuition based on long-term experience and feeling is quite
complicated for automation.

137

d)

Symbols are designed for point, linear and area features specifying
the size of symbol, thickness of line, colour and pattern of area in till.
While designing symbol, the level of perception (i.e., nominal, ordinal
or ratio/interval) is taken care of for choosing visual variables (e.g.,
position, orientation, form, size, colour, value and textural).

e)

Various details are drawn according to the chosen map-design, and

edited to ensure the legibility and effective visual presentation of the
map, using colour proofs of the map obtained from Laser printer which
uses post-script file of the map.

f)

The map file of the final corrected map is prepared for obtaining
colour separates on film (positive or negative) digitally or for
automatic scribing of details of different layers and preparation of
peel-coat masks. Map files so created may be converted to the
standard data format and merged into topographical database or any
other subject/application database.

g)

Colour separates prepared digitally from the map file may be used to
prepare plates for offset printing. Alternatively, the scribed originals
and peel-coat masks may be used to prepare combined film negatives
or diapositives by contact photography for each process colour cyan,
magenta, yellow and black, which may in turn, be used to prepare
plates for offset printing. Of late, the digital offset printing
techniques have been displayed at DRUPA '95 held in May, 1995 in
Dusseldorf (Germany), which do not require printing plates for offset
printing; instead, the map file is imported to the digitally driven
offset printing machine (mono block) and printing of map is done
automatically with the help of the magnetic images imprinted on the
printing cylinders and magnetized ink. Presently this technique is
limited to the printing on A3 size.

Data Exchange Formats for Cartographic Data:

In order to facilitate exchange of digital data among various user
agencies, a standard data format is evolved for storage/archival and

138

transfer of digital data. In India, the national data exchange format is DVD
(Digital Vector Data) for all kinds of topographical data. Other formats in
vogue elsewhere are:DIGEST (Digital Geographic Exchange Standard) used in NATO
countries
-

NTF (National Transfer Format) used in the United Kingdom

SDTF (Spatial Data Transfer Format) and DLG used in the U.S.A.

EDIGEO used in France

Standard International format (ISO 8211)

139

COMPARISON OF CONVENTIONAL (ANALOG)

METHODS OF CARTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES:

AND

DIGITAL

Sl.No
.

Features/process

Analog Method

1.

Projection

Manual, tedious

2.

Transfer of Data Tedious

from
one
projection
to
another

Quick and efficient

3.

Interpolation
data

Easy and efficient

4.

Source of
compilation

5.

Fair-drawing
scribing

Use of ink & pen Use of digital methods of

and
scribing drawing techniques based on
tools
vectorised raster data or
vector data

6.

Map Reproduction

Use
of
film
negatives
to
prepare printing
plates
for
offset printing

7.

Data storage and Hard copies of Digital files of map sheets

are can be stored on magnetic
archieving
maps

of Tedious

Digital Method

Easy

data Aerial
Photos, Aerial Photo, Digital image,
Field Records
Satellite
imagery,
Field
records

Direct preparation of colour

separates on film which can
be used to prepare printing
plates for offset printing.
Alternatively, Digital printing
of maps

140

perishapble and tapes, optical disks or

difficult
to magneto-optical disks for
store
longer preservation.
DATABASE:
This is a collection of inter-related data stored together with
controlled redundancy to serve one or more applications in an optimal
fashions. The data are stored so that they are independent of programs
which use the data. A common and controlled approach is used in adding new
data and modifying and retrieving existing data within the database.

Database Characteristics:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)

Data independence
Speedy handling of spontaneous information requests
Non redundancy
Versatility in representing relationships between data items
Security protection
Real time accessibility

Data Independence:
Logical Independence:
Overall logical structure of the data may be changed without changing
the application program.
Physical Independence:
Physical layout and organization of the data may be changed without
changing either overall logical structure of data or application program.
Purpose of Data-base Management System:
The main purpose in moving to a database environment is to achieve
faster, more flexible application development and low maintenance cost.

141

Some advantages of organizing data using DBMS data using DBMS may be
listed as below:-

Minimizing redundancy of data storage

Central control on access to data
Easy manipulation of data
Data integrity
Security of data
Making application programs independent of the form in which
data is stored

Data Environment:
Class Environment:
A data base management system is not used and there are separate
files of data for most application softwares, VSAM, BDAM, DMS. This is
almost obsolete.
Class II Environment:
It consists of Application Database: TOTAL, IMS, IDMS, IDS.
Class III Environment:
It consists of Subject Databases, which are largely independent of
specific application. Data are designed and stored independently of the
function for which they are used. Examples of database are : IMS, IDMS,
IDS, ADABAS.

Data Dictionary:
The main functions of Data Dictionary are:
-

To inform people about data

To help control the definition and representation of data
To indicate which programs are affected when changes are
made to data structures or representation

Data Dictionary should preferably be independent of DBMS.

features of Data Dictionary are :

The salient

142

Support definition of all types of data items, data groupings

and data associations

Permits information to be stored about the data associations

Gives support for file systems as well as database

Supports definition of process entities e.g. systems, programs,

modules, projects, transactions, etc.

Supports attractively formatted, easily comprehensible reports

of all aspects of dictionary usage

Automatically captures data in the existing program

Displays dictionary information interactively

Supports the definition of security levels and authorization

details who can do what with the data

Built-in-security so that the data in the dictionary cannot be

tampered

Generates the control blocks and parameters used by DBMS

programs

Generates screen or report formats for high level language

features

Enforces used by the programmers of data definitions that are

in the dictionary

Automatically converts data items to the same formats before

adding or otherwise manipulating them in combination. This
implies a tight combination of dictionary and DBMS.

143

Data Model:
Hierarchical Model:
It is based on tree-structure. Here, tree is composed of a hierarchy
of elements called nodes. The uppermost level of hierarchy has only one
node, called the root. With the exception of root, every node has one node
related to it at a higher-level called parent. No element can have more than
one parent. Each element can have one or more elements related to it at
lower level called children. Elements at the end of the branches i.e. with no
children, are called leaves. Thus, in the hierarchical model, each record in
the hierarchy (except for those at the top) is associated with one record in
the next higher level of hierarchy.
-

Main features of hierarchical model are:

Information is retrieved by traversing the Tree structure using

the procedural query language.

Easy to update the hierarchical system.

Searches cannot be done on the attribute field.

Data relationships are difficult to modify.

Examples of hierarchical database : IMS, DL/1, TOTAL, IMAGE, SYSTEM

2000.
Network (CODASYL) Data Model:
Herein, the records are grouped into two-level hierarchies called sets.
These sets can overlap to form networks, i.e. a record can be part of more
than one set.
Main features of Network Data Model are :
-

Less redundant data storage than the hierarchical model

Requirement and storage of more extensive linkage information

144

Updating linkages is tedious and time consuming

Relational Data Model:

All data are represented as records without pointed linkages.
Instead, the records contain data items which allow the necessary
associations to be made. This approach gives simple tabular structure of
data. Basically, the relational model allows the use of powerful, setoriented, associative expressions instead of the one-record-at-a-time
primitive of more procedural models like the CODASYL model.
In the relational databases, data are stored in tables, called relations. Each
relation has a fixed number of columns called attributes and a (dynamic,
time varying) number of rows called tuples. The number of attributes of a
relation is called its grade; the number of types is called cardinality. The
set of possible values for a given attribute is called its domain. The
following operations can be performed on relations, each of which takes one
or two relations as operands and produces one relation as result :
Unary Operations : Selection, Projection
Binary Operations : Union, Difference, Cartesian product, Natural
Join, SemiJoin, Natural Semi-Join
Examples of Relational Database : DATACOM, NOMAD, DBMS
Main features of relational data model are :
-

Flexible manipulation of data

Simple data organization
Difficult to maintain
Use of non-procedural language (e.g. SQL)

Spatial Data Model:

There are two approaches to represent the spatial component of
geographic information :
Vector Model:

145

The objects or conditions in the real world are represented by the

points and lines (including polygons) that define their boundaries. Mainly, the
vector model is used to represent distribution of objects in space or
conditions that apply to an area feature.
The vector model can further be sub-divided into the following two classes :
Spaghetti Model:
In this model, a paper map may be translated line-for-line into a list of
xy - coordinates. A point is encoded as a single xy-coordinate pair, and a line
as a string of xy pairs. An area is represented by a polygon and is recorded
as a closed loop of xy coordinates that define its boundary. A file of spatial
data so constructed is a collection of coordinates with no inherent structure.
Topological Model:
-

It consists of construction of following tables :

Polygon Topology Table : showing arcs of boundaries of each

polygon.

Node Topology Table : showing arcs which define the nodes.

Arc Topology Table : showing the starting Node and End-node

of each arc along with polygons on the left and right of arc.

Arc Coordinate Table : each arc is represented by one or more

straight-line segments defined by a series of coordinates.

Main features of Vector Model are :

-

More compact data structure

Efficient network analysis
Better suited to support graphics

Raster Model:
Space is sub-divided into cells (usually square in shape). The location
of geographic objects or conditions is defined by row and column positions of
the cells they occupy. Area covered by cell is the spatial resolution. Thus,

146

Raster Model is used to represent the spatial variability of phenomenon.

Main features of Raster Model are :
-

Simple data structure

Overlay operations easy (arithmetic (+, -, /, *), logical)
Efficient representation of spatial variability of phenomenon
Efficient manipulation and enhancement of digital images

Reference:
7.1

Robinson, A., Sale,R., Morrison, J., "Elements of Cartography" (1978).

7.2

Wolf, Paul R., "Elements of Photogrammetry" (1983).

7.3

Lillesand, Thomas M., Kiefer, Ralph W., "Remote Sensing and Image
Interpretation" (1994).

7.4

I.T.C. Notes.

147