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RABIATUL ADAWIYAH BINTI SAHDAN
I, RABIATUL ADAWIYAH BINTI SAHDAN, 2013889584 confirm that the work in this
report is my own work and the appropriate credit has been given where reference have been
made to the work of other researchers.
(---------------------------------------)
Student Name: RABIATUL ADAWIYAH BINTI SAHDAN
Student ID: 2013889584
Date: 25th November 2015
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
The Abutment Bridge consist of a thin slab on with two beam at both ends of the
bridge and piles as the structure that support the whole bridge. This bridge are
constructed without expansion joint, thats the reason this bridge are called Integral
Abutment Bridge. The advantage of using integral bridge are it can eliminate the
problem of leakage, also reduce the cost of maintenance and it can increase the life span
of bridge due to less corrosion. The objective of this study is to carry out an analysis of
the design of integral abutment of non-skew bridge due to lateral loading and to identify
the problem that will occur on the integral abutment non-skew bridge. In this study, the
project approach are using finite element software namely STAAD.Pro. Software
STAAD.Pro is one of the most widely used structural analysis and design software. It
supports several steel, concrete and timber design codes. This software was used to
design the Internal Abutment Bridge with the given load and material. The parameter
were assign to the model structure in order to achieve the result of the analysis.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ii
ABSTRACT
iii
TABLE OF CONTENT
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
vi
LIST OF TABLE
ix
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Study
1.3 Objective
11
11
12
2.5 Eurocode
12
13
16
17
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
19
21
22
22
23
25
25
27
30
31
33
40
43
43
44
48
52
55
4.4 Discussion
56
57
5.2 Recommendation
58
REFERENCES
59
LIST OF FIGURES
Descriptions
Page
Figure1.1
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.4
10
Figure 2.5
11
Figure 2.6
12
Figure 3.1
20
Figure 3.2
25
Figure 3.3
26
Figure 3.4
27
Figure 3.5
28
Figure 3.6
28
Figure 3.7
29
Figure 3.8
29
Figure 3.9
30
Figure 3.10
30
Figure 3.11
31
Figure 3.12
31
Figure 3.13
32
Figure 3.14
32
Figure 3.15
34
Figure 3.16
34
Figure 3.17
35
Figure 3.18
35
Figure 3.19
36
Figure 3.20
36
Figure 3.21
37
Figure 3.22
37
Figure 3.23
38
Figure 3.24
38
Figure 3.25
39
Figure 3.26
39
Figure 3.27
40
Figure 3.28
40
Figure 3.29
41
Figure 3.30
42
Figure 4.1
46
Figure 4.2
46
Figure 4.3
47
Figure 4.4
50
Figure 4.5
50
Figure 4.6
51
Figure 4.7
54
LIST OF TABLES
Descriptions
Page
Table 2.1
Table 2.2
13
Table 2.3
Previous Research
17
Table 4.1
44
Table 4.2
48
Table 4.3
52
Table 4.4
55
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Bridge is a larger static structure that is built to carry roads and railroads over a rivers
or canyons to allow people and vehicles to across from one side to the other. The type of
bridge chosen must suit to the condition, environment and suitability of the situation. What
bridge will carry, what bridge will cross and the geological nature of earth beneath them,
these are the factor that need to be considered to construct the bridge. For a bridge to be
effective, it should dependably securely perform its capacity. In addition, the function of
bridge is not only to span some physical obstacle, but to distribute loads equally through a
whole structure by using tension and compression system. Expansion joints and bearings
have been used to construct the conventional bridge, to sustain the seasonal thermal
expansion and contraction of the bridge. As for conventional bridge, its required expansion
joints and bearing. Thus, the cost will be higher in terms of installation cost and material
because for the suspension joints the drainage water contaminated with chemicals leakage
can cause the deterioration of bridge, while for bearing, due to lack of lubricants it may grind
to a halt.
Integral Abutment Bridge also called Joint-less bridge dominate a unique number of
design details that make them valuable in many applications. There are many type of Integral
abutment bridges, it can be single-span or multi-span. Integral abutment bridges are
constructed having no expansion joints and bearing within the superstructure of the bridge, it
is constructed integrally with the abutments. These bridges contribute many advantage for the
construction industry, such as it will reduced the used of moveable joints and also reduced the
expensive maintenance or replacement cost for the construction of bridge. Furthermore, the
overall design of the integral abutment bridge is much simpler than other non-integral bridge.
It is also provide additional redundancy to the structure thereby improve its structural
performance.
Figure1.1 Simplified geometry of an integral abutment bridge. (Arsoy. S, et al, 1999)
As an engineer we need to be confident that the bridge will endure a maximum
loading condition and think about the worst case scenario that might happen to the bridge.
One of the worst case scenario that can happen is the failure of the bridge due to excessive
load on the bridge. To evade it from happened, we need to consider the subjected live load
and dead load on the bridge. For example, maximum live loads on bridges caused by the
heavy live loads apply on bridges during construction or load from the moving vehicle on the
bridge. Dead load is a consistent load in a structure that is because of the selfweight of the
individuals, the upheld structure, and permanent attachment. For example the dead load of the
bridge are all the loads from superstructure such as the deck, railings and bracing. Live load
is a temporary structure or weight of everything superimposed such as heavy load vehicle and
machinery. The purpose of our study is to estimate and calculate whether the integral
abutment bridge can withstand the live load and dead load that are subjected on the bridge.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Integral Abutment Bridge is well known as very economical structure and the
advantages of the integral abutment bridge, these bridge have been used for a decade. One of
the most important aspects of design, which can affect structure life and maintenance costs, is
the reduction or elimination of roadway expansion joints and associated expansion
bearings. Joints and bearings are expensive to buy, install, maintain and repair and more
costly to replace. The most frequently encountered corrosion problem involves leaking
expansion joints and seals that permit salt-laden run-off water from the roadway surface to
attack the girder ends, bearings and supporting reinforced concrete substructures.
Nowadays, the problem that we always face on these bridge structure is the accident or
crack that usually happen on the bridge due to the excessive lateral loading that
subjected to the bridge, this situation may occur because of the support of bridge is not
functioning well and also the bridge cannot cater the load anymore.
1.3 OBJECTIVE
The scope of work this study is to analysis the integral abutment of non-skew bridge
due to lateral loading by using finite element software. The finite element software that been
used through this study is STAAD PRO. Software STAAD PRO is widely used by structural
engineer to analyse and design any type of structure. By using STAAD PRO, the bridge has
been design and the load is added on the bridge to calculate and analyse the strength of
bridge.
It is to determine how many load that the integral abutment bridge can withstand.
By carry out this study, we can determine the strength of integral abutment bridge, it
is to enhance the structure of the integral abutment bridge for future development.
Furthermore, the safety of bridges user can be guaranteed because safety is a very important
factor that need to be considered in any transportation system.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Article, published journal papers, research report were collected through the resources
of several journals that have been read. For primary source in getting the purpose of this
study the articles, papers and research reports has been used. The secondary source of this
report is the designation from finite element analysis of integral abutment of non-skew
bridge.
2.2 INTEGRAL ABUTMENT BRIDGE
Integral Abutment Bridge are design without any used of suspension joints and
bearing in the bridge deck. The bridge are design to sustain the thermal and braking load with
their stiffness and flexibilities that extend throughout structure. They can be divided into two
type, which are single span or multiple span bridges. Their superstructure and substructure
are integrally cast. The most important thing that we need to consider in designing bridge are
cost, so the way to reduce the cost are by reduced the usage of expansion joints and bearing
in bridge construction. When construct integral bridge, its cut down procedure of
construction, better seismic performance and has aesthetic value. The main advantage of this
structure are cost less, it is because the cost required to construct and maintain are less than
the cost to construct and maintain conventional bridge.
Figure 2.1: Basic Structure of the Integral Abutment Bridge (Barker, R., et al.,1991)
Simple design - it is for purpose of design and analysis that only consider a
continuous frame with a single and more of horizontal and vertical members. Where
single row of piled are attached to the superstructure that support the abutment and
piers of bridge.
ii.
Jointless construction - integral abutment are chosen because the bridge not required
expansion joint in the construction of bridge and it contribute many advantage.
iii.
iv.
Fast construction the construction required only one row of vertical piles and the
back wall can be cast concurrently, so the few parts are needed. The expansion joints
and bearings are not required, the delays and cost related to expansion joints and
bearing can be eliminate.
v.
vi.
vii.
In simple form they usually require only simple rectangular shape of pier and
abutment pile caps.
viii.
ix.
Simple beam seats in integral abutment bridge construction the preparation of load
surface for beam seat can be eliminated or simplified
x.
Greater end span ratio ranges the weight of integral abutment bridges can act as a
counter weight, so the bridge are more resistant to uplift. Without providing for
expensive hold down to expansion bearings, a smaller end span ratio can be used.
Expansion joints and bearings are subjected to cater the continual wear and massive
impact from repeated live load and also to withstand the movement from expansion and
contraction that caused by the changes of temperature or shrinkage and creep or the
movement impact for long term such as the pressure and settlement of soil. Unfortunately, the
problem that involve in expansion joints is corrosion, it is because of the leaking of expansion
joint and seal that let water from road surface into expansion affect the girder, bearings and
substructure of reinforced concrete supporting. This is why the expansion joint are very
costly, because it is involve the maintenance of leaking joints.
The term "movement joint" has been widely adopted in preference to "expansion
joint" as it more appropriately encompasses the fact that building movement results in both
compression and expansion of the material installed. For example, when a structure heats up,
the building materials from which it is built expand. This causes the "expansion joint" to
close down, thereby compressing the expansion joint system installed in the gap. Conversely,
when the temperature drops, the materials cool causing the joint gap to open. This requires
the expansion joint material to expand and follow the joint movement
Bearing also very expensive to install and the maintenance are very costly. Over time,
due to loss of lubrication or buildup of corrosion the steel bearings tip over and seize up.
Elastomeric bearings can rupture and split because of unanticipated movement or ratchet out
of position (Mistry,2005)
The thermal movement induced in bridge superstructures by temperature changes,
creep and shrinkage when deck joint are not provided, so it must be accommodated by other
means. Generally, for movement at the end of the bridge, provision are made by one or two
method, which is integral and semi-integral abutments. It is built along with a joint in the
pavement or at the end of reinforced concrete slab.
Jointless bridge can be classified into four group (Arsoy, Barker et al, 1999):
i.
Abutments bridges
ii.
iii.
Integral bridges
iv.
Integral Abutment Bridge are the structures that are form from superstructure and
substructure, where this structure are move together to assist the required translation and
rotation. These are the type of integral abutment bridge(White, 2007):
2.5 EUROCODE
In Europe, the integral abutments are relatively new concept, so the code are keep
changing to keep the new information. Their experience with integral abutment bridge are
less but it was gained positively and his claimed, that the old the bridge codes are being cut
out and replaced it with the Eurocode in 2011 (White 2007). The European survey have been
conducted on 2007 at a certain country in Europe based on a few criteria which are stated in
the table below (Table 2.4). A unified Eurocode of bridge design may be adopted as soon as
2008. In our country, British Standard have been widely used in designing the building, but it
slowly changing to the Eurocode.
Table 2.2: Summary of Selected Criteria Used By European, 2007
Integral abutment bridge are very well known on the economic and functional
advantage due to the elimination of expansion joint and bearings, that are generally recognize
by the bridge engineer. It is very necessary to determine the feasibility of the integral
abutment bridge at early planning stage because not every site are suitable for this type of
bridge (Hambly,1992).
Length of structure
For design as an integral abutment bridge the length of structure should be considered.
For the present, the length for overall structure should not more than 150 m. An
adequate measure must be taken to account for movement and its effect, if the length
of integral abutment design is between 100m to 150m. Movement requirement should
be considered due to types of joints, joint seal, bearings, backfill and approach slab
details and construction temperature. Expansion joint should be construct at the end of
approach slab if the length of the integral abutment bridge is less than 100m. The
limitation placed on the total length of the structure is mainly function of local soil
properties, seasonal temperature variations, resistance of abutment foundation to
longitudinal movement and the type of superstructure are being considered.
ii.
Type of structure
Type of superstructure that are used with integral abutment included:
a. Steel girder with concrete deck
b. CPCI girders with concrete deck
c. Pre-stressed box girders with concrete deck
iii.
Geometry of structure
In deciding the feasibility of integral abutment design, geometry of the structure
should be considered. The skew effect must be taken to account if the skews is greater
than 20 but less than 35 to carry out precise analysis. To carry out the analysis for
skew, there are several effect that need to be considered such as torsion, unequal load
distribution, lateral translation, pile deflection in both longitudinal and transverse
direction and the length of the abutment that are exposed to soil pressure.
iv.
For the height of abutment and the length of wingwall, it is recommended that it is
limited to 6m to 7m respectively. To reduce the soil pressure, the abutment must be
kept as short as possible. It is recommended that the abutment should be in equal
height. If the height of abutment is different, it can caused the unbalance lateral load
that resulting in sideways and it should be considered in the design. In order to
determine a sideways value such as the corresponding earth pressure on the short leg
plus the base shear of the frame would balance the earth pressure on the high leg, the
design process requires an iterative process. The wingwalls should be parallel to the
roadway and the size should be minimize to allow the substructure to be moved with
minimum resistance.
v.
Multi-span structure
The span and the articulation at the support of multi-span structure should be selected
so that the equal movement would occur at the end of the structure. The deck
diaphragms may either be made fixed in the lateral direction, integral with the piers or
move laterally. If deck diaphragm made with integral, the piers should be flexible and
supported on the flexible foundation.
vi.
Sub-soil condition
Sub-soil condition need to be considered because it is very important in the integral
abutment design. The prime criteria is the need to support the abutments on relatively
flexible piles. It is not considered suitable for integral abutment bridge when the load
bearing strata near the surface or the used of short pile which is less than 5m in length.
For dense and stiff soil, to reduced resistance to lateral movement the pre-augered
holes filled with loose should be provided. The use of integral abutment arrangement
should be avoided, when the soil is susceptible to slip failure, sloughing or boiling.
Integral bridges are subjected to the dead and live load (primary), applying load of the
structural members should be varied depending on the construction steps such as the timing
of integrated superstructure to substructure. Moreover, it is very important to consider
secondary load that affect the bridge. There are several secondary load that need to be
measured to design the integral abutment bridge such as (Burke Jr,1993):
i.
ii.
Temperature gradient
temperature gradient generate secondary bending moments through the depth of the
bridge beam due to the fact that the centroid of temperature distribution curve are not
coincide with the centroid of the cross-section of the beam of bridge(Emerson ,1977).
iii.
Differential settlement
Differential settlement give effect to the secondary bending moment (Barker, Duncan
et al,1991) and simple procedures to estimate differential settlements are provided by
(AASHTO,1996)
Design should be consider the section force in case of load combination that includes
earth pressure. For several case scenario, there are two parameter that need to be considered.
That are, application of the total earth pressure and half of the pressure. Lateral pressure
should be take into account in load combination due to overburden load and it should be
considered that lateral pressure is applied to the structure for three scenarios, such that one
side, both sides and not at all.
Years Titles
Findings
researcher
Robert E.
2007
Abendroth
An Integral
Remarks
Concrete Piles.
versus
temperatureabutment bridge
Sami
1999
Arsoy
Behavior and
analysis of an
Rodolfo F. 2004
Integral
Maruri
Abutments and
the
usage
of
experienced
with
abutment bridges
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
integral
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of designing the bridge is to analyse the load that are subjected on the
bridge. The load that involve in designing this bridge are selfweight load, dead load, super
imposed load and combination load (selfweight load, dead load and super imposed load). The
finite element software used to analyse the bridge is STAAD.PRO. The structural analysis
should be used as the model to stimulate statically indeterminate structure and the bridge
structure are modelled as 2D frame model where the bridge is straight.
In this chapter, there are a few step that need to follow in order to obtain the result.
The first step are identifying the problem. The second step is collecting the data and
preparing the data. Third, the step is to generate the simulation model which mean to model
the integral abutment bridge and assign the loading on the bridge model in the software and
last but not least is to execute data analysis by run the software. In order to get the better
understanding for the whole process, the methodology of the study is presented in the form of
flow chart below:
Start
Data collection
Insert data
Model verification
Obtain result
Discussion
Draw conclusion
Complete
This study used the model with be tested and analysed by using STAAD. This software
have function to analyse the structural and design program primarily in building industry
such as bridges, highway structures, dam, culverts, retaining walls, commercial buildings,
industrial structures and so on. The program thus has the following facilities to enable this
task.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
i.
The only structural engineering software system that offers finite element analysis
and design plus stand-alone or integrated design modules all in one low cost, easy-to-
ii.
use package.
Finite element analysis and design solutions that can tackle most structural analysis
iii.
problems.
Includes sophisticated design modules that can be run as integrated with the finite
element model or in stand-alone design mode for structural elements such as retaining
iv.
v.
vi.
Bentley.
Easy to learn, easy to use
Large dedicated development and support team insures you receive timely upgrades
and unmatched technical support.
Model quickly and accurately
User customizable features enable to design quickly, per office standards
vii.
viii.
Finite element analysis (FEA) is a computerized method for predicting how a product
reacts to real-world forces, vibration, heat, fluid flow, and other physical effects. Finite
element analysis shows whether a product will break, wear out, or work the way it was
designed. It is called analysis, but in the product development process, it is used to predict
what is going to happen when the product is used.
3.4 DETAILS DATA INPUT
1. Dimension of Model Structure
The dimension of the Integral Abutment Bridge for the model structure as shown below:
2. Loading
i.
Load case 1 = selfweight factor = -1kN
ii.
Load case 2 = superimposed load (dead load) = -6.67 kN
iii.
Load case 3 = HA load (live load)
HA loading-The loading governed by the Road Vehicles (Authorised Weight)
Regulations 1998, referred to as the AW Vehicles and cover vehicles up to 44
tonne gross vehicle weight. Loads from these AW vehicles has been enhanced to
cover impact load (caused when wheels 'bounce' i.e. when striking potholes or
uneven expansion joints), overloading and lateral bunching (more than one
vehicle occupying the width of a lane).
In figure 3.4, there are 6 option which are Add Beam, Add Solid, Open Structure
Wizard, Open STAAD Editor and Edit Job Information. Add Beam has been chosen to
generate this model. By hovering the cursor at the option, the description of each option
appear at the description box. As for add beam option the description is about creating new
joints and beams using the construction grid, drawing tools and spreadsheets. After that, click
finish.
After done with the first step, which is starting the model next step is creating
structure by using geometry coordinate shown in figure 3.5. The small box at the bottom left
shows the direction of the global axes that represent by the symbol X, Y and Z. At the right,
shows the Snap Node/Beam column. Uncheck the Default Grid (Linear) which left the
window for modelling purpose empty and click close button as shown in figure 3.6.
In figure 3.7 shows the coordinate is set up according to the dimension of the model
by fill in the coordinate in the table of node coordinates that indicate for the beam. Beam
connected at every node by clicking at the Add Beams button on the menu header. As
shown in figure 3.8.
In this step, the property of beam are assigned. The General icon is clicked at left.
After that, the properties for whole structure box appeared and click at the define box
shown in figure 3.9. Then, click at the property icon and the rectangular property are
chosen. Concrete has been chosen for the material and the dimension of the structure for
YD is 0.75 and for ZD is 13 has been filled in the dimension box as shown in figure 3.10 and
then click add button. The dimension is then appeared on the column of properties-whole
structure box and click assign button to assign the properties to the model as shown in figure
3.11
create support dialog box will appeared and fixed support is chosen as the bridge is fixed
supported in reality. Next, click add button as in figure 3.13 and assign support to the
structure shown in figure 3.12.
v.
The first step to assign load on the structure is click at the general icon and after that
click at the load icon, then load & definition dialog box appeared as shown in figure
3.14. Click the new button, a new window appeared which is Add New: Load Cases
window as shown in figure 3.15 and select primary at the left of the box for primary load.
For load case 1, select the None for loading type and as for title change to LOAD
CASE 1 SELFWEIGHT and click Add button. Next, click LOAD CASE 1
SELFWEIGHT at load & definition dialog box and click add, window of Add New:
Load Cases is appeared. Select selfweight and check at Y direction and the factor is -1
as shown in figure 3.16 and click the add button.
For load case 2, select the Dead Load for loading type and as for title change to
LOAD CASE 2 SIDL and click Add button. Next, click LOAD CASE 2 SIDL at load
& definition dialog box and click add, window of Add New: Load Cases are appeared.
Select Nodal Load and load -6.67 kN are filled, in the Fy box as shown in figure 3.17
and figure 3.18, then click the add button.
For load case 3, select the Live Load for loading type and as for title change to
LOAD CASE 3 HA and click Add button. Next, click LOAD CASE 3 HA at load &
definition dialog box and click add, window of Add New: Load Cases are appeared.
Select Nodal Load and load 526 kN are filled, in the Fx box as shown in figure 3.19 and
figure 3.20, then click the add button.
CHAPTER 4
RESULT AND ANALYSIS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter of study, describes the result obtain from the analysis of model structure
of integral abutment bridge by using finite element analysis software which is STAAD.Pro.
The structural behaviour of the model structure are presented as a result obtained in this
analysis. In this chapter, it only focus on the strength of the structure after the loading acting
on the structure.
Max moment:
2569.224 kNm
Load case 2
Max moment:
0 kNm
Bending Moment
Load case 3
Max moment:
1077.27 kN.m
Combination load
case 4
Max moment:
4691.83 kN.m
Combination load
case 5
Max moment:
4000.11kN.m
Load case 2
Shear Force
Load case 3
Shear Force
Load case 3
Max compressive
stress:
0.874 N/mm2
Max tensile stress:
0.894 N/mm2
Figure 4.7: Summary of Maximum Compressive and Tensile Stress of Whole Beam
Table 4.4: Value of bending moment and shear force of manual calculation and software
STAAD Pro
Manual Calculation
641.43
641.298
98.61
98.318
4.4 DISCUSSION
There are several parameters that must be taken into consideration in designing and
constructing a structure in order to ensure that the structure is good in strength. This study
show the result of the integral abutment bridge in form of bending moment, shear force and
stress and loading that react on the abutment bridge. The result shows, the maximum value of
bending moment, shear force and stress occur under the load combination 4, it is because
load combination no 4 is for ULS (ultimate limit state). Limit state is the deals with the
strength and stability of the structure under the maximum design load it is expected to carry.
To help ensure that a bridge can hold the amount of weight that it was designed to
withstand without breaking under heavy traffic, it undergoes something called a stress test.
Stress is defined as internal force per unit area. There are two types of stress which are
present in all types of bridges which are compressive stress and tensile stress. From the result
obtain from the analysis the maximum compressive stress of whole structure is 4.081N/mm 2,
this value are lesser than the allowable compressive stress which is 26.67 N/mm 2. As for the
tensile stress, the maximum value for the whole structure is the 3.719N/mm 2 and for the
allowable tensile stress is 3.2 N/mm2 which is for class 2 for unfactored. For the value of
maximum tensile stress for the analysis that are unfactored is 2.6 N/mm 2. So, the unfactored
value for max tensile stress is lesser than the allowable stress.
CHAPTER 5
5.1 CONCLUSION
The main objective of this study is to analysis the integral abutment bridge subject
under lateral loading by using finite element software. Based on the study, it is shown that the
load that have been applied can be supported by the bridge. The important attributes to be
considered in designing the abutment bridge using STAAD Pro software is based on the
material, geometry, support and loading.
As the study conducted by using STAAD Pro, it is shown that the load that have been
applied can be supported by the bridge. The important parameter to be considered in
designing the abutment bridge using STAAD Pro software is based on the material properties,
geometric properties, support properties and loading properties. In the designing the bridge
using STAAD Pro software, concrete is used as the material to analyse the bridge.
After the analysis are done for the whole structure, a conclusion are presented based
on the result of selfweight, superimposed load, lateral live loading and overall load case
combination analysis that has been done. The result of analysis is signified in terms of
structural behaviour of beam which included the bending moment, shear force and stress
effect on the beam. Thus, the second objective are achieved that are to determine the suitable
load parameter to design Integral Abutment Bridge.
5.2 RECOMMENDATION
For satisfactory bridge performance, the structure must be detailed and constructed
properly.
REFERENCES
Arsoy, S., et al. (1999). The behavior of integral abutment bridges, Virginia
Transportation Research Council Charlottesville, VA.
Barker, R., et al. (1991). "Manuals for the design of bridge foundations." NCHRP Report
343.
Burke Jr, M. (1993). "The design of integral concrete bridges." Concrete International
15(6).
Design Manual for Highway and Bridges. BD 37/01 Volume 1, Section 3,Part14:Load for
highways Bridges.
Hambly, E. (1992). Integral bridge abutment details in practice and in theory. Bridge
Design For Durability. Expansion Joints And Continuity. Papers Presented At Two OneDay Seminars At Trl In February/March 1992 (PA2138/92).
Mistry, V. C. (2005). Integral abutment and jointless bridges. Integral abutment and
jointless bridges (IAJB 2005).