Table of Contents

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION................................................................................................7

1.1

Background:................................................................................................................7

1.2

Effects of Structural Damage on Natural Frequency:.................................................8

1.3

Objective and Scope of the Project:............................................................................9

Chapter 2

STATEOFTHE-ART IN STRUCTURAL HEALTH

MONITORING.......10

2.1

Structural Health Monitoring (SHM): An Overview:...............................................10

2.2

Techniques of Health Monitoring:.............................................................................11

2.2.1

Static Response Based Technique:.....................................................................11

2.2.2

Dynamic Response Based Techniques:..............................................................11

2.2.3

Local SHM Techniques:.....................................................................................12

2.2.4

Global Vibration Techniques for SHM:.............................................................12

2.3

Techniques Using Smart Materials and Smart Structures Concept:..........................13

2.3.1

Smart Structures:................................................................................................14

2.3.2

Smart Materials:.................................................................................................14

2.3.3

Structural Health Monitoring Using PZT Patches.............................................15

Chapter 3

LITERATURE REVIEW...................................................................................19

3.1

Introduction:..............................................................................................................19

3.2

Damage Detection Methods for Beams:....................................................................19

3.2.1

Change in Curvature Mode Shape Method:.......................................................19

3.2.2

Change in Flexibility Method:...........................................................................22

3.2.3

Change in Stiffness Method:..............................................................................23

3.2.4

Improved Damage Detection Method Based On Modal Information................24

3.2.5

Damage Detection Using Strain Energy Theory:...............................................25

3.2.6

Damage Detection Using Higher Order Derivatives:........................................26

Chapter 4

EXPERIMENTAL WORK DONE ON STEEL BEAM....................................28

4.1

Introduction:..............................................................................................................28

4.2

Dimensions and Properties Steel Beam:....................................................................28

4.3

Experimental Setup:..................................................................................................29

4.4

Instruments Used:......................................................................................................30

4.4.1

Data acquisition systems:...................................................................................30

4.4.2

Force application systems:.................................................................................30

1|Page

4.4.3
4.5

Sensors:..............................................................................................................30

Mode Shape Based on Column of FRF (Single impact exitation) Method:..............31

4.5.1

Frequency Response Function:..........................................................................31

4.5.2

Procedure To Draw Mode Shape By Single Impact Exitation Method:............31

4.5.3

For Single Damage Criteria:..............................................................................32

4.5.4

For Multiple Damage Criteria:...........................................................................33

4.6

Experiments on Undamaged Beam:..........................................................................33

4.7

Mode Shapes of Undamaged Beam:.........................................................................35

4.8

Mode Shapes for Different Damage Conditions:......................................................36

4.8.1

For Single Damage Criteria:..............................................................................36

4.8.2

For Multiple Damage Criteria:...........................................................................41

4.9

Damage Index Plots:..................................................................................................44

4.9.1

For Single Damage Criteria:..............................................................................44

4.9.2

For Multiple Damage Criteria:...........................................................................45

4.10

Variation of Torque with Damage Index for Single Damage Criteria:......................47

4.11

Damage Index Using 3rd Order Derivative:...............................................................47

4.11.1

For Single Damage Criteria:..............................................................................48

4.11.2

For Multiple Damage Criteria:...........................................................................50

Chapter 5
5.1

EXPERIMENTAL WORK DONE ON reinforced CONCRETE BEAM........52

Multiple Impact Excitation Method Procedure:........................................................52

5.1.1

Procedure to Draw Mode Shape using Multiple Impact Excitation Method:....52

5.2

Mode Shapes of Undamaged And Damaged Beam:.................................................55

5.3

Damage Index Plots Using Curvature Mode Shape Method:...................................58

5.4

Damage Index Using 3rd Order Derivative:...............................................................59

5.5

Roving of Accelerometer Approach:.........................................................................61

5.5.1

Procedure To Find Mode Shape:........................................................................61

Chapter 6

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK.........................................................62

6.1

Introduction:..............................................................................................................62

6.2

Research Conclusions and Contribution:..................................................................62

6.3

Limitations:................................................................................................................63

6.4

Scope for Future Work:.............................................................................................63

REFERENCES.64
APPENDIX..66
2|Page

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1. Common smart materials and associated stimulus-response................................13
Figure 2-2. A piezoelectric plate under the action of stress and electric field 1D interaction
(rama shanker et al., 2011).......................................................................................................16
Figure 3-1. Absolute difference between the curvature mode shapes of cantilever beam for 1st
mode shape (pandey et al., 1991).............................................................................................20
Figure 4-1. Complete steel beam with dimensions (Abhishek, 2013).....................................28
Figure 4-2. PZT patch (Abhishek, 2013).................................................................................29
Figure 4-3. Showing the location of impact and PZT sensor (Abhishek, 2013)......................29
Figure 4-4. Images of Oscilloscope and QDA1008.................................................................30
Figure 4-5. Dytran sensor and force hammer made by steel and wood...................................30
Figure 4-6. Surface bonded PZT, Embedded Sensors and Accelerometers (Abhishek, 2013) 30
Figure 4-7. Showing the plates connected by Bolts (Abhishek, 2011)....................................31
Figure 4-8. FFT of 1st sensor for Absolute Part (Amplitude(x-axis) vs Frequency(Y-axis)). .33
Figure 4-9. FFT of 1st sensor for Imaginary Part (Amplitude(x-axis) vs Frequency(Y-axis))34
Figure 4-10. FFT of 1st sensor for Real Part (Amplitude(x-axis) vs Frequency(Y-axis)).......34
Figure 4-11. Mode Shape obtained from Absolute part of FRF..............................................35
Figure 4-12. Mode Shape obtained from Imaginart Part of FRF............................................35
Figure 4-13. Mode Shape obtained from Real Part of FRF.....................................................36
Figure 4-14. Mode shapes of Undamaged and Damaged states of beam obtained from
Imaginary Part of FRF.............................................................................................................36
Figure 4-15. Mode shapes of Undamaged and Damaged states of beam obtained from
Absolute Part of FRF...............................................................................................................38
Figure 4-16. Mode shapes of Undamaged and Damaged states of beam obtained from Real
Part of FRF...............................................................................................................................39
Figure 4-17. Mode shapes of Undamaged and Damaged states of beam obtained from
Imaginary Part of FRF.............................................................................................................41
Figure 4-18. Mode shapes of Undamaged and Damaged states of beam obtained from
Absolute Part of FRF...............................................................................................................42
Figure 4-19. Mode shapes of Undamaged and Damaged states of beam for Real Part of FRF
..................................................................................................................................................43
Figure 4-20. Plot for Imaginary Part of FRF............................................................................44
Figure 4-21. Plot for Absolute Part of FRF..............................................................................44
3|Page

Figure 4-22. Plot for Real Part of FRF.....................................................................................45

Figure 4-23. Plot for Imaginary Part of FRF............................................................................45
Figure 4-24. Plot for Absolute Part of FRF..............................................................................46
Figure 4-25. Plot for Real Part of FRF.....................................................................................46
Figure 4-26. Variation of Damage Index with Torque Released for Imaginary Part of FRF...47
Figure 4-27. Plot for Imaginary Part of FRF............................................................................48
Figure 4-28. Plot for Absolute Part of FRF..............................................................................48
Figure 4-29. Plot for Real Part of FRF.....................................................................................49
Figure 4-30. Plot for imaginary Part of FRF............................................................................50
Figure 4-31. Plot for Absolute Part of FRF..............................................................................50
Figure 4-32. Plot for Real Part of FRF.....................................................................................51
Figure 5-1. Undamaged Concrete beam on which experiments are conducted......................53
Figure 5-2. Damage1 condition of concrete beam...................................................................54
Figure 5-3. Damage2 and damage3 conditions of concrete beam...........................................54
Figure 5-4. Retofitting-1 of concrete beam..............................................................................54
Figure 5-5. Mode Shape obtained from absolute Part of FRF.................................................55
Figure 5-6. Mode Shape obtained from Imaginary Part of FRF..............................................56
Figure 5-7. Mode Shape obtained from Real Part of FRF.......................................................57
Figure 5-8. Plot For Absolute Part of FRF...............................................................................58
Figure 5-9. Plot for Imaginary Part of FRF..............................................................................58
Figure 5-10. Plot For Real Part of FRF....................................................................................59
Figure 5-11. Plot For Imaginary Part of FRF...........................................................................59
Figure 5-12. Plot for Asolute Part of FRF................................................................................60
Figure 5-13. Plot for Real Part of FRF.....................................................................................60

4|Page

LIST OF TABLES
Table 4-1. Physical properties of beam....................................................................................28
Table 4-2. Relation of single damage with Torque..................................................................32
Table 4-3. Relation of Multiple damage with Torque..............................................................33
Table 4-4. Variation of Natural frequency, Damage location, and severity For Imaginary Part
of FRF......................................................................................................................................37
Table 4-5. Variation of Natural frequency, Damage location, and severity For Absolute Part
of FRF......................................................................................................................................38
Table 4-6. Variation of Natural frequency, Damage location, and severity For Real Part of
FRF...........................................................................................................................................40
Table 4-7. Variation of Natural frequency, Damage location, and severity For Imaginary Part
of FRF......................................................................................................................................41
Table 4-8. Variation of Natural frequency, Damage location, and severity For Absolute Part of
FRF...........................................................................................................................................42
Table 4-9. Variation of Natural frequency, Damage location, and severity For Absolute Part of
FRF...........................................................................................................................................43
Table 4-10. Damage locations using 3rd order derivative for single damage location............49
Table 4-11. Damage locations using 3rd order derivative for multiple damage criteria..........51
Table 5-1. Properties of Concrete Beam..................................................................................52
Table 5-2. Description About Damage.....................................................................................53
Table 5-3. Variation of Natural frequency, Damage location, and severity For Absolute Part of
FRF...........................................................................................................................................55
Table 5-4. Variation of Natural frequency, Damage location, and severity For Imaginary Part
of FRF......................................................................................................................................56
Table 5-5. Variation of Natural frequency, Damage location, and severity For Imaginary Part
of FRF......................................................................................................................................57
Table 5-6. Damage locations using 3rd order derivative for concrete beam............................61

5|Page

LIST OF SYMBOLS
E

Youngs Modulus

Moment of Inertia

EI

Flexural Rigidity

[K]

Stiffness Matrix

[]

Mode Shape Matrix

[M]

Mass Matrix

[]

Modal Stiffness Matrix

Strain

d31

Piezoelectric Strain Coefficient

Axial Tension

Potential Difference

Poisons Ratio

Curvature At A Section

Bending Moment at a Section

Natural Frequency

Strain Energy

6|Page

CHAPTER 1
1.1

INTRODUCTION

Background:

Civil engineering structures form an important pillar of any modern nations economy, and
their poor performance can have a detrimental effect on the economic well-being (Aktan et
al., 1998). Therefore, intensive research is being focused on structural health monitoring
(SHM) worldwide. Structural health monitoring (SHM) denotes a reliable system with ability
to detect and interpret adverse changes in a structure due to damage or normal operations
(Kessler et al., 2002). It implies acquisition, validation and analysis of technical data to
facilitate life cycle management decisions. Damage is defined as changes to the material
and/or geometric properties of a structural system, including changes to the boundary
conditions and system connectivity, which adversely affect the systems performance. The
SHM process involves the observation of a system over time using periodically sampled
dynamic response measurements from an array of sensors which are embedded or surface
attached the extraction of damage-sensitive features from these measurements, and the
statistical analysis of these features to determine the current state of system health. For long
term SHM, the output of this process is periodically updated information regarding the ability
of the structure to perform its intended function in light of the inevitable aging and
degradation resulting from operational environments. After extreme events, such as
earthquakes or blast loading, SHM is used for rapid condition screening and aims to provide,
in near real time, reliable information regarding the integrity of the structure.
Two techniques in the field of SHM are generally available. Those are
1) Wave Propagation Based Techniques and
2) Vibration Based Techniques.
Broadly the literature for vibration based SHM can be divided into two aspects, the first
where in models are proposed for the damage to determine the dynamic characteristics, also
known as the direct problem, and the second, where in the dynamic characteristics are used to
determine damage characteristics, also known as the inverse problem. In the last ten to fifteen
years, SHM technologies have emerged creating an exciting new field within various
branches of engineering.
Health monitoring is a maturing concept in the manufacturing, automotive and aerospace
industries; there are a number of challenges for its effective applications on civil and defence
7|Page

infrastructure systems. While successful real-life studies on a new or an existing structure are
critical for transforming health monitoring from research to practice, laboratory benchmark
studies are also essential for addressing issues related to the main needs and challenges of
structural health monitoring.
A successful health monitoring system requires the recognition and integration of several
components. Identification of health and performance metric is the first component which is a
fundamental knowledge need and should dictate the technology involved.
PZT patches have been employed for the health monitoring of structures owing to their
simultaneous sensing/actuating capability. Structural health monitoring (SHM) has been
gaining more importance in civil engineering areas such as wind engineering and earthquake
engineering. However, only few structures such as historical buildings and few critical
bridges have been instrumented with structural monitoring system due to high cost of
installation, long and complicated installation of system of wires. This Thesis is aimed at
identifying damage location in 1D structure using a PZT patches, thus making it very
economically viable.

1.2

Effects of Structural Damage on Natural Frequency:

The presence of damage or deterioration in a structure causes changes in the natural

frequencies of the structure. The most useful damage location methods are probably those
using changes in the resonant frequencies because frequency measurements can be quickly
conducted and are often reliable. Abnormal loss of stiffness is inferred when measured
natural frequencies are substantially lower than expected. It would be necessary for a natural
frequency to change by about 5% for the damage to be detected with confidence. However,
significant frequency changes alone do not automatically imply the existence of damage since
frequency shifts (exceeding 5%) due to changes in ambient conditions which have been
measured for both concrete and steel bridges within a single day (Aktan et al., 1994).
At modal nodes (points of zero modal displacements), the stress is minimum for the
particular mode of vibration. Hence, the minimal change in particular modal frequency could
mean that the defect may be close to the modal node. From vibration tests on concrete portal
frames, it is reported that the degrees of freedom of reduction in natural frequency is
dependent on the position of the defect relative to the Mode Shape obtained from a particular
mode of vibration (Moradalizadeh et al., 1990), From these findings, we can say that damage
8|Page

detection using frequency measurements might be unreliable when the damage is located at
regions of low stress. Thus, a shift in natural frequencies alone might not provide sufficient
information for integrity monitoring, unless the damage is in an important load bearing
member. The natural frequency changes vary proportionally with the square root of the
stiffness change, thus underlining the need for relatively large stiffness changes before
significant frequency changes can be detected. The reduction in frequency becomes more
important when the crack is at regions of high curvature for the modes under consideration.
Results from some experimental and numerical studies have suggested that the lower
vibration modes would be best suited for damage detection. However Begg stated that modes
higher than first should be used in damage detection so as to improve the identification. The
increased sensitivity of the higher modes to local damage has been mentioned by. Since
higher modes are usually unavailable from the results of a full-scale modal survey, their use
in damage detection cannot be implemented in real practice.
1.3

Objective and Scope of the Project:

The primary objective to the thesis work is to locate the damage induced in a 1D structure
using global vibration technique with the aid of low-cost PZT patches. The scope and
objective can be summarised as under:
(a) To identify damage locations in 1D structures using Curvature Mode Shape Method,
Third Order Derivative methods.
(b) To determine Severity of damage (in the terms of ratio of EIdamaged to EIundamaged ) in
damaged structures.
(c) Developed automated software interphase for real time for Identification & location
of damage.
(d) To evaluate practical aspect of mode shape extraction namely, compare the mode
shape derived from absolute, imaginary and real parts of frequency response function.
(e) Retrofitting of damaged reinforced concrete beam to know improvement in gain in
strength of reinforced concrete beam.

9|Page

CHAPTER 2
STATEOFTHE-ART IN STRUCTURAL HEALTH
MONITORING
2.1

Structural Health Monitoring (SHM): An Overview:

In most developing countries increase in defence potential has flooded huge defence
infrastructure and equipment. Health of the defence equipment can be kept up to date by good
maintenance and periodical inspections. All in-service structures require some form of
maintenance for monitoring their integrity and good health condition. Breakdown of
equipment not only leads to immense economic loss but can also endanger defence of the
nation. Appropriate maintenance prolongs the lifespan of a structure and can be used to
prevent catastrophic failure. Current schedule driven inspection and maintenance techniques
can be time consuming, labour-intensive, and expensive. SHM, on the other hand, involves
autonomous in-service inspection of the structures. The first instances of SHM date back to
the late 1970s and early 1980s. The concept of SHM originally applied to aerospace and
mechanical systems, is now being extended to civil structures. Objectives of health
monitoring are damage identification and its location, to determine the severity of damage
and remaining useful life of structure. The concept of SHM originally applied to aerospace
and mechanical systems, is now being extended to civil structures.
Objectives of health monitoring are as follows.
a) To ascertain that damage has occurred or to identify damage
b) To locate the damage
c) To determine the severity of damage.
d) To determine the remaining useful life of the structure.
SHM consists of both passive and active sensing and monitoring. Passive sensing and
monitoring is used to identify the location and forcetimehistory of external sources, such as
impacts or acoustic emissions. Active sensing and monitoring is used to localize and
determine the magnitude of existing damages. An extensive literature review of damage
identification and health monitoring of structural and mechanical systems from changes in
their vibration characteristics is covered by Doebling (1996).

10 | P a g e

2.2

Techniques of Health Monitoring:

1.
2.
3.
4.

2.2.1

Static Response Based Technique

Dynamic Response Based Techniques
Local SHM Techniques
Global Vibration Techniques For SHM
Static Response Based Technique:

According to Banan (1994), static forces are applied on structure and the corresponding
displacements are measured. It is not necessary to select the entire set of forces and
displacements. Any subset could be selected, but a number of load cases may be necessary in
order to obtain sufficient information for computation. Computational method based on least
scale error function between the model and actual measurement is used. The resulting
equations are to be solved to arrive at a set of structural parameters. Any change in the
parameters from the base line healthy structure is an indicator of damage. The main
shortcoming of this technique is that the measurement of displacements is not an easy task. It
requires establishment of frame of reference. Employing a member of load cases can be very
time consuming. Besides, the computational effort required by the method is enormous.
Another method has been proposed based on static strain method. The advantage of this
technique is strain measurement can be made accurately and easily compared to displace
measurement. Although the method has some advantages over the static displacement
method, its application on real life structures remains tedious.

2.2.2

Dynamic Response Based Techniques:

These techniques are subjected to low frequency vibrations, and dynamic response of the
structure are measured and analysed. By this analysis, a suitable set of parameters such as
modal frequencies, modal damping, and mode shapes associated with each mode are
identified. If structure undergoes damage, changes occur in structural parameters namely the
stiffness matrix, damping matrix and natural frequencies. In this method, the structure is
excited by appropriated means and the response data processed to obtain a quantitative index
or a set of indices representative of the condition of the structures.
These techniques are advantageous over static response since they are comparatively easier to
implement.
A damage detection method based on this concept is the changes in the stiffness method. The
stiffness matrix is obtained from the mode shapes and the modal frequencies derived from the
11 | P a g e

measured dynamic response of the structure. The stiffness matrix [K] may be expressed in
terms of mode shape matrix [], the mass matrix [M], and the modal stiffness matrix [],
(diagonal 2) as
n

[K]= [M][][][]T[M] = [M](

2
i=1

i iT)[M]

The method involves determining pre and post damage stiffness to identify and locate
damage.
2.2.3

Local SHM Techniques:

These techniques rely on the localized structural interrogation for detecting damages.
Ultrasonic techniques, acoustic emission, eddy currents, impact echo testing, magnetic field
analysis, penetration dye testing, and x-ray analysis are some of the techniques in this
category are
a. Ultra Sonic Technique
b. Acoustic Emission Technique
c. Eddy Currents Technique
d. Impact-Echo Technique
e. Magnetic Field Technique
f. Penetration Dye Test Technique
g. X-Ray Technique
2.2.4

Global Vibration Techniques for SHM:

These techniques involve acquiring the global vibration response of the structure, and look
for changes in the natural frequencies and the mode shapes arising out of any structural
damage. The early algorithms based on global dynamic techniques involved determining the
structural stiffness or the flexibility matrices from global vibration measurements (Pandey
and Biswas, 1994; Zimmerman and Kaouk, 1994). About the same time, the Damage index
method (Stubbs and Kim, 1994) based on the modal Strain energy was also proposed.
Although the lower natural frequencies (and the corresponding mode shapes) of the structure
can be determined easily, it is generally observed that they change by very small amounts till
the damage reaches moderate to severe magnitudes (Pandey and Biswas, 1994; Farrar and
Jauregui, 1998). This is because damage, especially at the initial stage, is a local
phenomenon, whereas the first few natural frequencies and the corresponding mode shapes
12 | P a g e

are global parameters of the structure. These and other limitations of the global dynamic
techniques have been well acknowledged (Catbas et al., 2007). In addition, the sensors
(generally accelerometers and PZTs) and the data acquisition systems used by the global
dynamic techniques are usually fragile and exorbitant from cost point of view. These
difficulties associated with the global dynamic techniques can be addressed by using the
electromechanical impedance (EMI) technique alongside the global dynamic techniques,
sharing the same set of PZT patches as sensors.
2.3

Techniques Using Smart Materials and Smart Structures Concept:

Smart materials are materials which have ability to change their physical properties such as
shape, stiffness, viscosity, etc. in a specific manner according to certain specific type of
stimulus input.
Examples of smart materials are electro-strictive materials, magneto-strictive materials, shape
memory alloys, magneto- or electro-rheological fluids, polymer gels, and piezoelectric
materials, optical fibres. These are explained in detailed manner later.

Figure 2-1. Common smart materials and associated stimulus-response.(Bhalla,2004)

13 | P a g e

2.3.1

Smart Structures:

The new field smart materials and smart structures refers to structures that can assess own
health, perform self-repair or can make critical adjustments in their behaviours as conditions
change. Smart materials deals with structures which are adaptable in some sense, perhaps
like as biological system. The design of smart structures involves more challenges because
the structural behaviour is not fixed but depends upon environment.
According to Ahmad (1988), a system is termed as smart if it is capable of recognizing an
external stimulus and responding to it within a given time in predetermined manner. In
addition, it is supposed to have the capability of identifying its status and may optimally
adapt its function to external stimuli or may give appropriate signal to the user. Smart
structures that can monitor their own conditions, detect impending failure, control, or heal
damage and adapt to changing environment. Because of their inherent capability of detecting
the any change in structure, smart materials, systems and structures are being used for SHM
and NDE from past two decades.
Research on smart civil structural system is focused on two areas. They are
1. Control of structural response to external loading, such as wind and earth quake.
2.
2.3.2

Detection of damage and flaw in the system, and its severity.

Smart Materials:

There are a number of types of smart material, some of which are already common. Some
examples are as following:
1. Piezoelectric materials are materials that produce a voltage when stress is applied. Since this
effect also applies in the reverse manner, a voltage across the sample will produce stress
within the sample. Suitably designed structures made from these materials can therefore be
made that bend, expand or contract when a voltage is applied.
2. Shape-memory alloys and shape-memory polymers are materials in which large deformation
can be induced and recovered through temperature changes or stress changes (pseudo
elasticity). The large deformation results due to martensitic phase change.
3. Magneto-strictive materials exhibit change in shape under the influence of magnetic field and
also exhibit change in their magnetization under the influence of mechanical stress.
4. Magnetic shape memory alloys are materials that change their shape in response to a
significant change in the magnetic field.

14 | P a g e

5. PH-sensitive polymers are materials that change in volume when the pH of the surrounding
medium changes.
6. Temperature-responsive polymers are materials which undergo changes upon temperature.
7. Halo chromic materials are commonly used materials that change their colour as a result of
changing acidity. One suggested application is for paints that can change colour to indicate
corrosion in the metal underneath them.
8. Chromogenic systems change colour in response to electrical, optical or thermal changes.
These include electro chromic materials, which change their colour or opacity on the
application of a voltage (e.g., liquid crystal displays), thermo chromic materials change in
colour depending on their temperature, and photochromic materials, which change colour in
response to lightfor example, light sensitive sunglasses that darken when exposed to bright
sunlight.
9. Ferro fluid
10. Photomechanical materials change shape under exposure to light.
11. polymorph mold under hot water
12. Self-healing materials have the intrinsic ability to repair damage due to normal usage, thus
expanding the material's lifetime
13. Dielectric elastomers (DEs) are smart material systems which produce large strains (up to
300%) under the influence of an external electric field.
14. Magneto caloric materials are compounds that undergo a reversible change in temperature
upon exposure to a changing magnetic field.
15. Thermoelectric materials are used to build devices that convert temperature differences into
electricity and vice-versa.
2.3.3

Structural Health Monitoring Using PZT Patches

Piezoelectric Materials as Dynamic Strain Sensors:

The phenomenon of piezoelectricity occurs in certain classes of non-Centro-symmetric
crystals, such as quartz, in which electric dipoles (and hence surface charges) are generated
because of mechanical deformations. The same crystals also exhibit the converse effect; that
is, they undergo mechanical deformations when subjected to electric fields.
The constitutive relations for piezoelectric materials for one-dimensional (1D) interaction,
such as for a piezoelectric plate shown in Figure 1, are (Ikeda, 1990):
D3=T33 E3 +d 31 T 1( 1)
S 1=

15 | P a g e

T1
YE

+d 31 E 3 (2)

Where S1 is the strain in direction 1, D3 the electric displacement over the PZT patch, d 31
the piezoelectric strain coefficient, and T1 the axial stress in direction 1.
Y E = y E (1+j )
is the complex Youngs modulus of elasticity of the PZT patch at constant electric field and
T

33=e33 (1j)
is the complex electric permittivity (in direction 3) at constant stress, with j=

In these expressions, and denote the mechanical loss factor and the dielectric loss factor
of the PZT material, respectively.
Eq. (1) is used in sensing applications and Eq. (2) in actuation applications of the
piezoelectric materials.

Figure 2-2. A piezoelectric plate under the action of stress and electric field 1D interaction
(Shanker et al., 2011).
If a PZT patch surface bonded on a structure is desired to be used as a sensor only (with no
external electric field across its terminals, i.e. E3= 0), its governing sensing equation [Eq. (1)]
can be reduced to:
D3=d 31 Y E S1 (3)

16 | P a g e

Where YE S1 been substituted for T1 making use of the Hookes law. From the theory of
parallel place capacitors, the charge density can also be expressed as:
D 3=

T33 V
h

(4)

where V is the potential difference across the terminals of the PZT patch of thickness h.
Using Eq. (3) and Eq. (4), the voltage generated across the terminals of the PZT patch can be
expressed in terms of the strain in the patch (and hence on the surface of the structure it is
bonded to) as:
S 1=

T33
d31 h Y E

V =K p V (5)

The output voltage can be easily measured by an oscilloscope (with or without conditioning
circuit) or directly using the modern digital multimeters, such as Agilent 34411A (Bhalla et
al., 2009).
Eq. (5) is applicable to PZT patches bonded to beams, where the structurePZT interaction is
1D in nature. For a PZT patch bonded to plates, where the interaction is 2D in nature, the
governing equations [Eq. (1) and Eq. (2)] will take following form:
D 3= T33 E33 +d 31 (T 1 +T 2)
S 1=

S 2=

T 1 T 2
Y

T 2 T 1
YE

(6)

+d 31 E3

(7)

+d 31 E3

(8)

Where S1 and S2 are the strains along the two principal direction, respectively, and is the
Poissons ratio. Making use of the above equations for the case of sensor (E3 = 0), yields:
E

d Y ( S1 + S2 )
D3= 31
(1)

(9)

Similar to the 1D case, following relation can be derived for the voltage output across a PZT
patch bonded to a plate like structure in terms of the two principal strains:

17 | P a g e

d Y h( S1 + S2 )
V = 31 T
=K 'p (S 1 +S 2)
33(1)

(10)

Hence, for the 2D case, the voltage measured across the PZT sensor is proportional to the
sum of the strains in the PZT patch (and hence on the surface of the structure) along the two
principal directions.
It may be noted that it is implicit that strains developed in the PZT are same as that on the
surface of the host structure. However, as a PZT patch is bonded using a finitely thick
adhesive layer, there is a differential strain between the patch and the host structure, as, given
by (Bhalla and Soh, 2004):
2=(

Gs
3 Gs w p
+
)
Y p t s t p Y b wb t b t p

(11)

where Gs is the shear modulus of the bond layer, Yp the Youngs modulus of the PZT patch,
Yb the Youngs modulus of the structure (beam), wp the width of the patch, wb the width of
the beam, tp the thickness of the patch and tb the depth of the beam.
If, however, the stiffness of the adhesive layer is sufficiently high and its thickness is small,
such that >30 cm-1, the shear lag effect can be neglected.

18 | P a g e

CHAPTER 3 LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1

Introduction:

Damage detection in various structures is a very live subject and has very wide ranging
application. Extensive research has been taken in this area, thereby contributing rich source
of literature. Described below is some of the key literature which is relevant to the present
thesis work.
3.2
3.2.1

Damage Detection Methods for Beams:

Change in Curvature Mode Shape Method:

According to Pandey and Biswas (1990), any crack or localized damage in a structure
reduces the stiffness and increases the damping in the structure. Reduction in stiffness is
associated with decreases in the natural frequencies and modification of the modes of
vibration of the structure. Many researchers have used one or more of the above
characteristics to detect and locate a crack. Most of the emphasis has been on using the
decrease in frequency or the increase in damping to detect the crack. Very little work has been
done on using the changes in the mode shapes to detect the crack.
Yuen in his paper showed for a cantilever beam that there is a systematic change in the first
mode shape with respect to the damage location. He used finite element analysis to obtain the
natural frequencies and the mode shapes of the damaged structure. To detect damage location
curvature mode shape is used. The difference in the curvature mode shapes between the intact
and the damaged case is utilized to detect the location of the crack. The changes in the
curvature mode shapes are shown to be localized in the region of damage compared to the
changes in the displacement mode shapes.
According to Pandey et al., (1994) curvature mode shapes are related to the flexural stiffness
of beam cross-sections. Curvature at a point is given by
v= M/(EI) ( 12)
Where v is the curvature at a section, M is the bending moment at a section, E is the
modulus of elasticity and I is the second moment of the cross-sectional area.
If a crack or other damage is introduced in a structure, it reduces the stiffness (EI) of the
structure at the cracked section or in the damaged region, which increases the magnitude of
curvature at that section of the structure. The changes in the curvature are local in nature and
hence can be used to detect and locate a crack or damage in the structure. The change in
19 | P a g e

curvature increases with reduction in the value of (EI), and therefore, the amount of damage
can be obtained from the magnitude of change in curvature.

Figure 3-3. Absolute difference between the curvature mode shapes of cantilever beam for 1st
mode shape (pandey et al., 1991)
3.2.1.1 Severity of Damage:
According to Rama shanker et al., (2011) Denoting the amplitude of the motion by the
generalized coordinate Z (t), the displacement at any point in a structure can be expressed as:
y ( x , t ) = ( x )Z (t)
Where (x) is the mode shape function. Thus, the harmonic variation of the generalized
coordinate at a given time in free vibration can be expressed as:
y ( x , t ) = ( x )Z o sin ( t ) (12)
This Eq. (12) expresses the assumption that the shape of the vibrating beam does not change
with time, only the amplitude of motion varies, as it varies harmonically in a free-vibration
condition. At the point of maximum displacement:
y ( x , t ) =Z 0 sin ( t)
The strain energy of this flexural system is given by:

20 | P a g e

''

EI ( x )
L

U max =0.5

(x))2dx

Where L is the length of the beam, E the Youngs modulus of the material of the structure,
and I is the moment of inertia. Thus, substituting the mode shape function and letting the
displacement amplitude take its maximum value leads to:
''

EI ( x )
L

U max =0.5Z

2
0

(x))2dx

Where

' ' ( x ) denotes the second derivative of a particular mode shape, that is the

curvature mode shape. In general, the total energy of the system is distributed among various
mode shapes. If the structure is damaged, it is assumed that there is no significant change in
the distribution of the energy in various modes if the excitation force and the boundary
conditions remain unchanged. If there occurs any damage/crack in structure in any element,
the value of EI will reduce more at that element compared with other parts. This change
reflects the severity of damage. In the present approach, only average value of EI of whole
structure has been determined. If any element of structure is damaged, the tendency of that
element is to undergo greater displacement compared with the undamaged case. However,
because of the inertia and the adhesive forces, the neighbouring elements, which are less
damaged, oppose it and undergo somewhat greater displacement to balance the equilibrium.
Hence, the damage affects the entire mode shape of the structure. As the severity of the
damage increases, the strain at the damaged section increases further. By conservation of
energy for any mode:
U
( max )damaged
(U damaged )undamaged =

From above equations we can conclude that

21 | P a g e

EI ( x)damaged
==
EI (x)undamaged

2
0 undamaged

(Z )

( ' ' ( x ) dx )undamaged

0
L

(Z 20 ) damaged ( '' ( x ) dx )damaged

0

Where represents the ratio of the current stiffness of structure to the undamaged stiffness. In
PZT sensors and the measurement approach described herein, is obtained directly from
measurement. Clearly, (x) this circumvents the necessity of numerical differentiation,
which would otherwise have to be performed if any other sensor types, say accelerometers
were used.
We know that Integration of [ (x)] 2 with respect to x gives the area of square of the mode
shape. Hence, the damage severity can be determined in terms of the original stiffness after
drawing the experimental mode shape of structure and the computing area of the square of
the mode shape and the maximum relative amplitude Z0 of the mode shapes.

3.2.2

Change in Flexibility Method:

According to Pandey and Biswas (1991), this flexibility method does not required the
development of analytical model of the structure to be investigated. All predictions to the
state of damage should be made from experimental data collected from the structure. Also the
measurement of only few lower natural frequencies are sufficient to detect the damage of
structure. Unless the stiffness method, flexibility method will converges rapidly with
increasing frequency. The presence of a crack or a localized damage in a structure reduces the
stiffness of the Structure. Since flexibility is the inverse of stiffness, reduction in stiffness will
produce an increase in the flexibility of the structure. With mode shapes normalized to unit
mass,
T

M=1
The flexibility matrix, F, can be obtained from the modal data as

K=M T M =M

22 | P a g e

2i i Ti
i=1

M (13)

F= =
1

i =1

1
i Ti (14)
2

Where K is the stiffness matrix, M is the mass matrix, = [ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ............n],

is the mode shape matrix, i is the ith mode shape, =diag (i2) is the modal stiffness matrix,
i is the ith modal frequency, n is the number of degrees of freedom, and F is the flexibility
matrix. The mode shapes and natural frequencies are obtained from the analytical or
experimental data.
From the Eq. (14) one can see that the modal contribution to the flexibility matrix decreases
as the frequency increase, i.e the flexibility matrix will converge rapidly with increasing
values of frequency, when compare to stiffness matrix. Therefore from few lower modes a
good estimate of flexibility matrix will obtained.
From the pre and post damage flexibility matrices, a measure of the flexibility change
caused by the damage can be obtained from the difference of the respective matrices as
[ F]=[ F ][F ]
Where [F] represents the change in flexibility matrix. For each column of this matrix

ij
= max

, i =1n. The column of the flexibility matrix corresponding to the largest

change is indicative of the degree of freedom where the damage is located.

3.2.3

Change in Stiffness Method:

Zimmerman and Kaouk (1994), have developed a damage detection method based on
changes in the stiffness matrix that is derived from measured modal data. The eigenvalue
problem of an undamaged, undamped structure is
i [ M ]+[K ]{ i }={0 }

(15)

The eigenvalue problem of the damaged structure is formulated by first replacing the predamaged eigenvectors and eigenvalues with a set of post-damaged modal parameters and
second, subtracting the perturbations in the mass and stiffness matrices caused by damage
from the original matrices. Letting Md and Kd represents the perturbations to the original
mass and stiffness matrices, the Eigen value Eq. (15) becomes to Eq. (16)
23 | P a g e

i [M M d ]+[ K K d ] { i } ={0 }(16)

Two forms of a damage vector, {Di} for the ith mode are then obtained by separating the
terms containing the original matrices from those containing the perturbation matrices.
Hence,

{Di } = ( i

[M ] +[K ]) { i}

= ( i

[M ] +[K ]) { i }

To simplify the investigation, damage is considered to alter only the stiffness of the structure
of the structure (i.e. Md = [0]). Therefore, the damage vector reduces to

{Di}= [Kd] { i}

In a similar manner as the modal-based flexibility matrices previously defined, the stiffness
matrices, before and after damage, can be approximated from incomplete mass-normalized
modal data as

[ K ] = 2i i Ti

T
[ K ] = 2
i i i

3.2.4

Improved Damage Detection Method Based On Modal Information

According to Kim (2001), for a linear, undamaged, skeletal structure with elements and N
nodes, the modal Stiffness of the arbitrary structure is given by
K i= Ti C i
Where i is the ith modal vector and C is the system stiffness matrix. The contribution of jth
member to ith modal stiffness, is given by
K ij = Ti C j i

K i = T
i C i

Where is Cj the contribution of Jth member to the system stiffness matrix. Then, the fraction of
modal energy (i.e., the undamaged modal sensitivity) of the i th mode and the jth member is
defined as
K
Fij = ij
Ki

24 | P a g e

Let the corresponding modal parameters in equations associated with a subsequently

damaged structure be characterized by asterisks. Then for the damaged structure, the
damaged sensitivity of the ith mode and jth member is defined as
K
Fij = ij
Ki
Where Kij* and Ki* are given by

K ij = T
i C j i
Where

C j=E j C jo C j=E j C jo
Where the scalars Ej and Ej* are parameters representing material stiffness properties of
undamaged and damaged jth members, respectively. The matrix Cjo involves only geometric
quantities (and possibly terms containing Poisson's ratio) and it can represent beam or plate
element. On making the assumption that modal sensitivities for the i th mode and jth location is
the same for both damaged and undamaged structure (i.e F ij*=Fij), then the above equations
can be rearranged to get

F ij K ij K i
=
=1
F ij K i K ij
Thus we can define the damage index as follows
nm

Ej
j= = i=1
E j nm

ij K i

ij K i
i=1

Where
i , j= Ti C i i , j= Ti C i
3.2.5

Damage Detection Using Strain Energy Theory:

The strain energy of a Bernoullis Euler beam is given by

l

U=0.5 EI
0

d2 w
dx
d x2

( )

Where EI is the Flexural rigidity of the beam. For a particular mode shape, i (x), the energy
associated with that mode shape is

25 | P a g e

U i=0.5 EI
0

( )
d i
d x2

dx

If the beam is subdivided into Nd divisions as shown in below Figure, then the energy
associated with each sub-region j due to the ith mode is given by
a j+1

U ij =0.5 EI j
aj

( )
d i

dx

d x2

The fractional energy is therefore

U ij N
F =1
U i j =1 ij
d

Fij =

Similar quantities can be defined for a damaged structure and are given as
l

U i =0.5 EI

d2 i

( )
d x2

a j+ 1

U ij =0.5 EI j
aj

dx

( )
d i
d x2

dx

Nd

Fij = F ij = 1
j=1

U ij N
Fij =
U i j=1
d

By choosing the sub-regions to be relatively small, the Flexural rigidity for the jth Subregion, EIj is roughly constant and Fij* becomes
a j+ 1

Fij =( EI )

aj

d 2 i dx

d x2 U i

( )

If one assumes that the damage is primarily located at a single sub-region then the fractional
energy will remain relatively constant in undamaged sub-regions and F *ij= Fij. For a single
damaged location at sub-region j=k one can finds

26 | P a g e

a j+1

( EI )k
aj

( )
d i
dx

ak+1

( )

d i
dx

=(EI )k
Ui
d x2
a
k

dx
U i

(17)

By assuming that EI is essentially constant over the length of the beam for both the
undamaged and damaged modes, Eq. (17) can be rearranged to give an indication of the
change in the flexural rigidity of the sub-region:

{ ( ) | ( ) }
{ ( ) |( ) }
a j+ 1

( EI )k
=
EI k

d 2 i
d x2

aj

a j+1

aj

d2 i
d x2

d 2 i

dx

dx

dx }

d x2

d2 i
d x2

dx

f ik
f ik

In order to use all the measured modes, m, in the calculation, the damage index for subregion k is defined to be
m

f ik

k = i=1
m

f ik
i=1

3.2.6

Damage Detection Using Higher Order Derivatives:

The concept of using fourth derivatives of mode shapes in damage detection of beams was
first used by Whalen (2006), who used the Euler-Bernoulli beam model. They assumed that
the shearing deformations, rotational inertia and axial effects to be negligible. They assumed
that the stiffness EI of the beam can vary with position x, the governing equation of motion
for undamped free vibration of the beam can be expressed as Eq. (18):
2

d
d y
d y
EI ( x ) 2 + A ( x ) 2 =0
2
dx
dx
dt

(18)

Where A(x) is the linear mass density of the structure. With standard separation of variables
argument and solving for the fourth derivative we got:
2

(4)
n =

n A ( x )
EI (1 ) ( x ) (3 )
EI ( 2) ( x ) ( 2)
n ( x )2
n ( x )
( x)
EI ( x )
EI ( x )
EI ( x ) n

27 | P a g e

Where n(x) is the natural frequency of vibration for nth mode shape. He showed that if
damage causes a change in EI(x), the terms involving derivatives of EI(x) can have large
values due to the localized nature of this change. Therefore, if there is damage in a structure,
large discontinuities in the magnitude of the fourth derivative of mode shape will increase
sharply at the location of damage. Hence, it is suitable for locating damage in beams.

28 | P a g e

CHAPTER 4
4.1

EXPERIMENTAL WORK DONE ON STEEL BEAM

Introduction:

This study is aimed for the occurrence of damage, location of damage and severity of
damage. The specimen prepared in such a way that (using nut-bolt system) repeatability of
the damaged can occur in a beam, and both can be assess by system (i.e. damaged as well as
normal) using Global Vibration Technique. Result of single hit approach method and multiple
hit approach method are shown here. Other method to create mode shape without force
quantification is also given in this chapter.
4.2

Dimensions and Properties Steel Beam:

Structure consists of three steel beam pieces each of 0.8 m. Steel beam is welded to steel
plate. The steel plates are connected to each other by nut-bolt system. Compete Steel beam
structure is shown below

Figure 4-4. Complete steel beam with dimensions (Abhishek, 2013)

Table 4-1. Physical properties of beam

Properties

Values

Section area

1900mm2

Depth of section

150 mm

Width of flange

80 mm

Thickness of flange

7.6 mm

Thickness of web

4.8 mm

Plastic modulus of section

110500mm3

29 | P a g e

PZT Patches:
Piezoceramics are the most popular amongst the smart materials. Typical PZT of size
10*10*0.3 mm is used in experiment is shown in below figure. Piezoceramics materials have
the advantages of being lightweight, low-cost, and easy-to-implement and offer the sensing
and actuation capabilities that can be utilized for passive and active vibration control.

Figure 4-5. PZT patch (Abhishek, 2013)

4.3

Experimental Setup:

The steel beam of length of 2.4 m is supported on four wheels. The wheels are welded on the
plates of size 150 mm X 150 mm and then plate is welded with the beam at both end of the
beam specimen and shown in below figure

Figure 4-6. Showing the location of impact and PZT sensor (Abhishek, 2013)
After the fabrication of steel beam, PZT patch is attached to beam with adhesive araldite as
Two PZT sensors are attracted to the beam on the same vertical line passing through the plate
of symmetry (vertical plane in along the length of beam).The PZT patch is soldered with wire
and connector is used to facilitate ease in working with QDA 1008 system.

30 | P a g e

4.4
4.4.1

Instruments Used:
Data acquisition systems:

Oscilloscope (TDS2004B) manufactured by Techtronix inc, QDA1008 manufactured by

Quazar Tech 2013, were used to take response of structure under vibration. Figures are shown
below respectively

Figure 4-7. Images of Oscilloscope and QDA1008

4.4.2

Force application systems:

A force sensor (1051V4, Dytran), A SSD hammer which is prepared in lab using four PZT
patches were used to apply force and vibrate the structure by hitting.

Figure 4-8. Dytran sensor and force hammer made by steel and wood.
4.4.3

Sensors:

In steel beam surface bonded PZT sensors were applied and in concrete beam lab made
embedded concrete vibration sensor were used which are shown below. In few experiments
accelerometers (PCB Piezotronics inc.) as shown in below Fig were used.

31 | P a g e

Figure 4-9. Surface bonded PZT, Embedded Sensors and Accelerometers (Abhishek, 2013)
4.5

Mode Shape Based on Column of FRF (Single impact exitation) Method:

4.5.1

Frequency Response Function:

Frequency response is the quantitative measure of the output spectrum of a system or device
in response to a stimulus, and is used to characterize the dynamics of the system. It is a
measure of magnitude and phase of the output as a function of frequency, in comparison to
the input. In simplest terms, if a sine wave is injected into a system at a given frequency, a
linear system will respond at that same frequency with a certain magnitude and a certain
phase angle relative to the input.
From Peter Availtable lessons we can conclude that, any Row or any Column in a matrix FRF
matrix of a beam is sufficient to draw the mode shape of a beam.
If we draw mode shape by taking any Column, it is called as Mode Shape Based on Column
of FRF (Single impact exitation), and if we consider any Row in to consideration it is caled
Multiple Impact Exitation Method.
4.5.2

Procedure To Draw Mode Shape By Single Impact Exitation Method:

1. Connect all sensors of the beam to QDA1008, which should be connected to computer
using data cable
2. Take the responses of beam from different points when hit at any selected point of
beam
3. The resposes which we had taken are in the Time domain format, which we need to
convert it in to frequency domain using FFT(Fast Fourier transform)
4. Corresponding to the natural frequency of beam we need to take Amplitudes of the
beam.
5. Plot those corresponding Amplitudes vs sensor position which we will get mode shape
of beam.

32 | P a g e

Figure 4-10. Showing the plates connected by Bolts (Abhishek, 2011)

Here, at support points, voltage value is assumed zero here. Rest seven locations are PZT
sensor position. Position 4 is impact position. For all seven sensors responses are
collected and they are converted in to frequency domain using FFT. From that we had
drawn the Mode shape of beam.
The above procedure is repeated for Undamaged and Damaged case of steel beam, where
damage were induced in connection between plate 3 and plate 4 by loosening the bottom
2 bolts with gradually decreasing torque. We created 12 damage conditions (single
damage location), and 5 multiple damage conditions. The results are shown below.
4.5.3

For Single Damage Criteria:

For Undamaged case all the bolts are tightened with Torque of 30Nm
B34 = Bottom Bolts of connection between plates of 3 and 4.
Table 4-2. Relation of single damage with Torque
S.N

Condition of Beam

Torque Released on B34

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Undamaged state
Damage -1
Damage -2
Damage -3
Damage -4
Damage -5
Damage -6
Damage -7
Damage -8
Damage -9
Damage -10
Damage -11

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55

O.

33 | P a g e

13

4.5.4

Damage -12

60

For Multiple Damage Criteria:

In this case 5 multiple Damage locations are created. Here the bottom bolts of plates of
connection between 3 and 4(B34) are completely loosened (i.e Total Torque released is
60Nm), and another progressive Damage were created on Bottom bolts of connection
between Plates 1 and 2. (B12)
Table 4-3. Relation of Multiple damage with Torque
S.NO.

Condition of
Beam

Torque

Torque

Undamaged

Released on B34
0

Released on B12
0

Damage -1
Damage -2
Damage -3
Damage -4
Damage -5

60
60
60
60
60

5
10
30
35
60

state
2
3
4
5
6
4.6

Experiments on Undamaged Beam:

Experiment was done on undamaged beam i.e. when bolts between sections of beam were
fully tight with 30Nm on each bolt. Impact was done on midpoint and readings were taken on
all seven points. Figure 4.8, figure 4.9, figure 4.10, shows the FFT of 1 st sensor for Absolute
part, imaginary part and real part of Undamaged beam from MATLAB, corresponding to
Natural Frequency of 35.6, 35.2, 35.6 respectively

34 | P a g e

Figure 4-11. FFT of 1st sensor for Absolute Part (Amplitude(x-axis) vs Frequency(Y-axis))

Figure 4-12. FFT of 1st sensor for Imaginary Part (Amplitude(x-axis) vs Frequency(Y-axis))

35 | P a g e

Figure 4-13. FFT of 1st sensor for Real Part (Amplitude(x-axis) vs Frequency(Y-axis))

4.7

Mode Shapes of Undamaged Beam:

Figure 4-14. Mode Shape obtained from Absolute part of FRF

36 | P a g e

Figure 4-15. Mode Shape obtained from Imaginart Part of FRF

Figure 4-16. Mode Shape obtained from Real Part of FRF

4.8
4.8.1

Mode Shapes for Different Damage Conditions:

For Single Damage Criteria:

37 | P a g e

Figure 4-17. Mode shapes of Undamaged and Damaged states of beam obtained from
Imaginary Part of FRF

Table 4-4. Variation of Natural frequency, Damage location, and severity For Imaginary Part
of FRF
S.NO.

Damag
e States

Undam

aged state
Damag

Natura

Damage

Location

Frequency()
35.2

Observed
-

Severity
Of Damage
-

34.4

0.9834

Damag

34.4

0.9296

Damag

34

0.9345

Damag

34

0.8547

e-1
3
e-2
4
e-3
5
e-4

38 | P a g e

Damag

32.4

0.8023

Damag

30.4

0.7953

Damag

29.6

0.7665

Damag

27.6

0.7719

Damag

22

0.7554

Damag

21.6

0.7012

Damag

21.6

0.6749

Damag

20

0.7192

e-5
7
e-6
8
e-7
9
e-8
10
e-9
11
e-10
12
e-11
13
e-12

39 | P a g e

Figure 4-18. Mode shapes of Undamaged and Damaged states of beam obtained from
Absolute Part of FRF

Table 4-5. Variation of Natural frequency, Damage location, and severity For Absolute Part
of FRF
S.NO.

Damag
e states

Undam

aged state
Damag

Natura
l

Damage
Location observed

frequency()
35.6

Severit
y of Damage

34.6

0.9582

Damag

34

0.9470

Damag

33.6

0.8843

Damag

33.6

0.9186

e-1
3
e-2
4
e-3
5
e-4
40 | P a g e

Damag

32.8

0.8837

Damag

30.4

0.8935

Damag

28.8

0.8913

Damag

28.4

0.8825

Damag

21.6

0.8430

Damag

22.4

0.8159

Damag

22.4

0.6799

Damag

19.6

0.7148

e-5
7
e-6
8
e-7
9
e-8
10
e-9
11
e-10
12
e-11
13
e-12

41 | P a g e

Figure 4-19. Mode shapes of Undamaged and Damaged states of beam obtained from Real
Part of FRF

Table 4-6. Variation of Natural frequency, Damage location, and severity For Real Part of
FRF
S.N
O.

Condition
of beam

Natural
frequency()

Damage
Location observed

Severit
y of
Damag
e

Undamage

35.6

Damage-1

34.5

0.9879

Damage-2

34.8

0.9706

Damage-3

32.4

0.8915

Damage-4

32.4

0.8772

d state

42 | P a g e

Damage-5

32.8

0.8468

Damage-6

30.8

0.7937

Damage-7

29.2

0.7867

Damage-8

28

0.7268

10

Damage-9

21.6

0.7315

11

Damage-

22.8

0.7231

Damage-

22.8

0.4600

Damage-

18.4

0.8123

10
12
11
13
12

43 | P a g e

4.8.2

For Multiple Damage Criteria:

Figure 4-20. Mode shapes of Undamaged and Damaged states of beam obtained from
Imaginary Part of FRF

Table 4-7. Variation of Natural frequency, Damage location, and severity For Imaginary Part
of FRF
S.N
O.

Damage
states

Natura
l

Undama

ged state
Damage-

Damage
Location observed

frequency()
35.2

Severity
of Damage

22

0.8592

Damage-

21.2

0.9408

Damage-

21.2

0.7998

Damage-

20.8

0.7344

Damage-

12.4

0.7211

1
3
2
4
3
5
4
6
5

44 | P a g e

Figure 4-21. Mode shapes of Undamaged and Damaged states of beam obtained from
Absolute Part of FRF

Table 4-8. Variation of Natural frequency, Damage location, and severity For Absolute Part of
FRF
S.N
O.

Cond
ition

Natura

of l

beam
1

Unda

maged state
Dama

Damage
Location observed

frequency()
35.6

Severity
of Damage

22.8

0.8928

Dama

22.8

0.7453

Dama

21.2

0.8211

Dama

21.2

0.7912

Dama

12

0.7523

ge-1
3
ge-2
4
ge-3
5
ge-4
6
ge-5

45 | P a g e

Figure 4-22. Mode shapes of Undamaged and Damaged states of beam for Real Part of FRF

Table 4-9. Variation of Natural frequency, Damage location, and severity For Absolute Part of
FRF
S.N
O.

Conditio

n of beam
Undama

ged state
Damage-

Natural
frequency()
35.6

Damage

Severity

Location observed of Damage

-

22.4

0.8590

Damage-

22

0.8122

Damage-

22

0.8335

Damage-

21.2

0.7655

Damage-

12.4

0.7264

1
3
2
4
3
5
4
6
5

46 | P a g e

4.9
4.9.1

Damage Index Plots:

For Single Damage Criteria:
Damage Index vs Beam Elements

damage 1
damage 2
damage 3
damage 4
damage 5
damage 6
damage 7
damage 8
damage 9
damage 10
damage 11
damage 12

Figure 4-23. Plot for Imaginary Part of FRF

47 | P a g e

Damage Index vs Beam Elements

damage 1
damage 2
damage 3
damage 4
damage 5
damage 6
damage 7
damage 8
damage 9
damage 10
damage 11
damage 12

Figure 4-24. Plot for Absolute Part of FRF

Damage Index vs Beam Elements

damage 1
damage 2
damage 3
damage 4
damage 5
damage 6
damage 7
damage 8
damage 9
damage 10
damage 11
damage 12

Figure 4-25. Plot for Real Part of FRF

48 | P a g e

4.9.2

For Multiple Damage Criteria:

Damage Index vs Beam Elements

damage 1
damage 2
damage 3
damage 4
damage 5

Figure 4-26. Plot for Imaginary Part of FRF

49 | P a g e

Damage Index vs Beam Elements

damage 1
damage 2
damage 3
damage 4
damage 5

Figure 4-27. Plot for Absolute Part of FRF

Damage Index vs Beam Elements

damage 1
damage 2
damage 3
damage 4
damage 5

Figure 4-28. Plot for Real Part of FRF

50 | P a g e

4.10 Variation of Torque with Damage Index for Single Damage Criteria:

Figure 4-29. Variation of Damage Index with Torque Released for Imaginary Part of FRF

4.11 Damage Index Using 3rd Order Derivative:

Here we investigated whether 3rd order derivative is good indicator for detecting damage
location or not? Central difference method is used to find out the points from 2nd order (i.e.
curvature mode shape).
According to central difference method,
2

d y
d y
( 2 ) ( 2 )
3
d x i+1 d x i1
d y
( 3 )=
2h
d x i
Where h= difference between i and i+1 or i and i-1 points.
For all points of undamaged and damaged cases of steel and concrete beams we should do
central difference. Difference between damaged and undamaged cases are calculated at all
nodal points. From this we will calculate the damage index of elements, which is the average
of surrounding nodal points.

51 | P a g e

4.11.1 For Single Damage Criteria:

Damage Index vs Beam element
damage 1
damage 2
damage 3
damage 4
damage 5
damage 6
damage 7
damage 8
damage 9
damage 10
damage 11
damage 12

Figure 4-30. Plot for Imaginary Part of FRF

52 | P a g e

Damage Index vs Beam element

damage 1
damage 2
damage 3
damage 4
damage 5
damage 6
damage 7
damage 8
damage 9
damage 10
damage 11
damage 12

Figure 4-31. Plot for Absolute Part of FRF

Damage Index vs Beam element

damage 1
damage 2
damage 3
damage 4
damage 5
damage 6
damage 7
damage 8
damage 9
damage 10
damage 11
damage 12

Figure 4-32. Plot for Real Part of FRF

53 | P a g e

Table 4-10. Damage locations using 3rd order derivative for single damage location
S.N
O.

Dama

Damage locations
Imaginar

Absolute

Real

Dama

Dama

Dama

Dama

Dama

Dama

Dama

Dama

Dama

Dama

Dama

Dama

ge states
y
1
ge-1
2
ge-2
3
ge-3
4
ge-4
5
ge-5
6
ge-6
7
ge-7
8
ge-8
9
ge-9
10
ge-10
11
ge-11
12
ge-12

4.11.2 For Multiple Damage Criteria:

54 | P a g e

Damage Index vs Beam element

damage 1
damage 2
damage 3
damage 4
damage 5

Figure 4-33. Plot for imaginary Part of FRF

Damage Index vs Beam element

damage 1
damage 2
damage 3
damage 4
damage 5

Figure 4-34. Plot for Absolute Part of FRF

55 | P a g e

Damage Index vs Beam element

damage 1
damage 2
damage 3
damage 4
damage 5

Figure 4-35. Plot for Real Part of FRF

Table 4-11. Damage locations using 3rd order derivative for multiple damage criteria
S.N
O.

Dama

Damage locations
Imaginar

Absolute

Real

Dama

Dama

Dama

Dama

Dama

ge states
y
1
ge-1
2
ge-2
3
ge-3
4
ge-4
5
ge-5

56 | P a g e

CHAPTER 5
EXPERIMENTAL WORK DONE ON REINFORCED
CONCRETE BEAM

5.1

Multiple Impact Excitation Method Procedure:

In Multiple Impact Excitation Method only one sensor was used and hitting was done at
different selected locations of structure
5.1.1

Procedure to Draw Mode Shape using Multiple Impact Excitation Method:

1. Connect the

sensor of the beam to QDA1008, which should be connected to

computer using data cable.

2. Take the responses of beam from that sensor for different hitting locations which are
selected on the beam.
3. The resposes which we had taken are in the Time domain format, which we need to
convert it in to frequency domain using FFT(Fast Fourier transform)
4. Response of force need to convert in to frequency domain using FFT.
5. Frequency Responce function(each element FFT of responce/ each element of FFT of
force) should caluclate.
6. Corresponding to the natural frequency of beam we need to take Amplitudes of the
beam.
7. Plot those corresponding Amplitudes vs sensor position which we will get mode shape
of beam.
Experiments were carried on Reinforced Concrete Beam using Multiple Impact Exitation
Method
Table 5-12. Properties of Concrete Beam
S.NO.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Properties
Length
Cross- section
Sensors type used
Number of sensors used
Location of sensors
Grade of concrete used
Supplements used

Description
4.0m
160x200mm
Endedded vibro sensors
19
Top fiber of beam
M40
30% fly ash

Table 5-13. Description About Damage

S.N

Condition of Beam

Description

Damage -1

Chipping of concrete between 7th and

O.
57 | P a g e

8th sensors(4th element of Beam) from bottom

2
3
4

Damage -2

to mid-section of RCC beam

Damage -1 + Cutting of bottom one

Damage -3

reinforcement bar out of two bars

Damage -2 + Cutting of another

Retrofitting-1

bottom reinforcement bar

Welding of two Reinforcement bar

Figure 5-36. Undamaged Concrete beam on which experiments are conducted

58 | P a g e

Figure 5-37. Damage1 condition of concrete beam

Figure 5-38. Damage2 and damage3 conditions of concrete beam

Figure 5-39. Retofitting-1 of concrete beam

59 | P a g e

5.2

Mode Shapes of Undamaged And Damaged Beam:

Undamaged
damage 1
damage 2
damage 3
Retroffiting 1

Figure 5-40. Mode Shape obtained from absolute Part of FRF

Table 5-14. Variation of Natural frequency, Damage location, and severity For Absolute Part
of FRF
S.NO.

Condit
ion of beam

Undam

aged state
Damag

Natura

Damage

Location

rity

frequency()
22

observed
-

Damage
-

18

e-1
3

16.8

60 | P a g e

0.830
5

Damag

10.4

Retrofi

18

e-3
tting-1

1.029

e-2

of

8
Damag

Seve

0.691
7
0.921
1

undamaged
damage 1
damage 2
damage 3
Retrofitting 1

Figure 5-41. Mode Shape obtained from Imaginary Part of FRF

Table 5-15. Variation of Natural frequency, Damage location, and severity For Imaginary Part
of FRF
S.NO.

Condit
ion of beam

Undam

aged state
Damag

Natura

Damag

frequency()
22

observed
-

Severit

Location y of Damage
-

18.4

0.8626

Damag

16.8

0.7547

Damag

10.4

0.8450

Retrofi

18

0.8669

e-1
3
e-2
4
e-3
5
tting-1

61 | P a g e

undamaged
damage 1
damage 2
damage 3
Retroffiting 1

Figure 5-42. Mode Shape obtained from Real Part of FRF

Table 5-16. Variation of Natural frequency, Damage location, and severity For Imaginary
Part of FRF
S.NO.

Damag
e states

Undam

aged state
Damag

Natura

Damag

frequency()
22

observed
-

Severit

Location y of Damage
-

18

0.6093

Damag

16.8

1.0127

Damag

11.2

0.9100

Retrofi

18.4

0.8429

e-1
3
e-2
4
e-3
5
tting-1

62 | P a g e

5.3

Damage Index Plots Using Curvature Mode Shape Method:

Damage Index vs element No.

damage 1
damage 2
damage 3

Figure 5-43. Plot For Absolute Part of FRF

Damage Index vs element No.

damage 1
damage 2
damage 3

Figure 5-44. Plot for Imaginary Part of FRF

63 | P a g e

Damage Index vs element No.

damage 1
damage 2
damage 3

Figure 5-45. Plot For Real Part of FRF

5.4

Damage Index Using 3rd Order Derivative:

64 | P a g e

Damage Index vs Beam element

damage 1
damage 2
damage 3

Figure 5-46. Plot For Imaginary Part of FRF

Damage Index vs Beam element

damage 1
damage 2
damage 3

Figure 5-47. Plot for Asolute Part of FRF

65 | P a g e

Damage Index vs Beam element

damage 1
damage 2
damage 3

Figure 5-48. Plot for Real Part of FRF

Table 5-17. Damage locations using 3rd order derivative for concrete beam
S.N
O.

Dama

Damage locations
Imaginar

Absolute

Real

Dama

Dama

Dama

ge states
y
1
ge-1
2
ge-2
3
ge-3

5.5

Roving of Accelerometer Approach:

In Real life it is very difficult to measure Force (as we had done in Multiple Impact Exitation
Method), i.e for example to measure the force in the bridge where vehicles are moving, there
the New approach is introduced i.e roving of Accelerometer or Reference Accelerometer
approach.
66 | P a g e

5.5.1

Procedure To Find Mode Shape:

1. In this approach we need teo Accelerometers, One Accelerometer called as Reference

Accelerometer, and other as Moving Accelerometer.
2. Reference accelerometer was fixed at some position of Beam, and other moving
accelerometer should be shifted to next nodal point after every reading.
3. Both accelerometer was connected to QDA1008 through PCB electronics, and impact,
was done on a fixed point, by using a hammer.
4. For getting mode shape FFT of moving accelerometer at corresponding Natural
frequency is normalized with FFT of readings of reference accelerometer which is
same as FRF process.

67 | P a g e

CHAPTER 6
6.1

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

Introduction:

This chapter deals with the conclusions and the scope of future work. The whole experiments
are conducted on steel and concrete beams of properties shown in previous chapters.
Curvature mode shape and Third order derivative methods are used for Damage detection on
steel and concrete beams. Conclusions of work done and scope of future work are shown
below.
6.2

Research Conclusions and Contribution:

Major research contribution and conclusions can be summarized as follows.

1. Curvature mode shape (2nd order derivative) based response of surface bonded PZT
patches can successfully identify the location of damage in one dimensional structure
for single and multiple damage conditions which was proven by experiments.
2. Third order derivative was unable to identify the location of damage in one
dimensional structure for single and multiple damage criteria.
3. For single damage criteria, Imaginary part of FRF (Frequency Response Function)
gives better results than real part and absolute part of FRF for damage detection.
4. For single damage conditions, Imaginary part of FRF and Absolute part of FRF are
able to detect damage location when compared to Real part of FRF for higher
intensity damages.
5. Curvature mode shape method is unable to detect exact damage locations for multiple
damage criteria.
6. Third order derivative also unable to detect exact damage locations for multiple
damage criteria.
7. Severity of damage [in terms of Ratio of (EI)damaged to (EI)damaged ] was calculated for all
damages
8. Successful Development of automated software interphase for instantaneous
Identification & location of damage.
9. Ratio of (EI)damaged to (EI)undamaged was increased after retrofitting of damage, which
should be true and the same was proven from experiments also.

68 | P a g e

6.3

Limitations:

1. The experimentation on the test models took very long time and we need to repeat the
experiments 2 to 3 times for accurate results.
2. Due to complex system of wires, we should be very careful while doing the experiments
6.4

Scope for Future Work:

1. Need to extend these damage location methods for 2D structures like plates.
2. Need to Develop automated software interphase for instantaneous Identification & location
of damage in 2D structures also.
3. To find out mode shape using mass normalised mode shape.

69 | P a g e

REFERENCES
1.

Bhalla, S. (2001), Smart System Based Automated Health Monitoring of Structure,

Master Thesis, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.

2. Bhalla, S. (2004), A Mechanical Impedance Approach for Structural Identification,
Health Monitoring and Non-Destructive Evaluation using Piezo-Impedance
Transducers, PhD Thesis, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
3. Bhalla, S., Vittal, A. P. R and Veljkovic, M. (2012), Piezo-Impedance Transducers for
Residual Fatigue Life Assessment of Bolted Steel Joints, Structural Health
Monitoring, An International Journal, Vol. 11, No 6 (Nov), pp. 733-750.
4. Pandey, A. K. and Biswas, M. (1994), Damage Detection in Structures Using Changes
in Flexibility, Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 169, No. 1, pp. 3 17.
5. Pandey, A. K., Biswas, M. and Samman, M. M. (1991), Damage Detection from
Changes in Curvature Mode Shapes, Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 145, No.
2, pp. 321 332.
6. Shanker, R., Bhalla, S. and Gupta, A. (2010), Integration of Electro-mechanical
Impedance and Global Dynamic Technique for Improved Structural health
Monitoring, Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 21, No. 2
7.

(Feb), pp.285-295.
Mohamed Abdel-Basset Abdo (2012), Damage detection in plate-like structures
using High-Order mode shape, International Journal of Civil and Structural

Engineering Volume 2, No 3.
8. Moatasem M. Fayyadh and H. Abdul Razak (2011) Detection of damage location
using mode shape deviation: Numerical Study, International Journal of the Physical
Sciences Vol. 6(24), pp. 5688-5698, 16 October.
9. Mark J. Schulz, Ahmad S. Naser, P. Frank Pai and Jaycee Chung (1998), Locating
Structural Damage Using Frequency Response Reference Functions, Journal of
Intelligent Material Systems and Structures.
10. Esfandiari and Amirkabir (2011), Structural Damage Identification of Plate
Structures based on Frequency Response Function and Natural Frequencies, Journal
of Structural Engineering and Geotechnics.
11. Stubbs N. and Kim J. T. (1994), Field Verification of a Non-destructive Damage
Localization and Severity Estimation Algorithm, Journal of Vibration and Acoustics,
Vol. 116, pp. 222 231.
12. Peter Avitable (2008), A Simple Non-Mathematical Presentation on Modal Analysis
and Controls Laboratory Mechanical Engg.
13. Zhou Z, Wenger and Sparling (2007), Vibration based detection of small scale
damage on bridge desk, Journal of structural engineering 133: page no.-1257-1267.
70 | P a g e

14. T. Siebel, A. Friedmann, M. Koch and D. Mayer (1990) Assessment of mode shapebased damage detection methods under real operational conditions, Journal of
Intelligent Material Systems and Structures.
15. M. Salehi1, S. Ziaei rad1, M. Ghayour1 and M.A. Vazir (1991), A Non model-based
damage detection technique using dynamically measured flexibility matrix, Journal
of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures.

APPENDIX

71 | P a g e

MATLAB CODE FOR DAMAGE DETECTION USING SINGLE HIT AND

MULTIPLE IMPACT EXITATION METHOD
1. For Single impact excitation Applicable To QDA:
clear;
clc;
display('Hello');
l=input('Enter the length of the beam (in meters) = ');
N = input('Number of Sensors = ');
udbl=N;
display('enter the time step');
t=input('');
display('enter NUMBER OF READINGS in time domain of exel file');
rows=input('');
display('enter 1 for absolute');
display('enter 2 for imaginary');
display('enter 3 for real');
ss=input('');
display('Type of method used:');
display('For single hit approach enter = 1');
display('For multiple hit approach enter = 2');
final=[];
file=input('Enter the excel file name of the undamaged beam -> ','s');
arr=xlsread(file);
display('Hello');
arr=xlsread(file);
m=2;
for i=2:N+1;
final(i)=excel(arr,i,ss,rows,t);
j=input('To proceed further for getting the plot of next sensor enter 1 else 2 ->');
if j ==2
break
else
display('The plot for sensor');
72 | P a g e

display(i)
end
end
maxud=max(final);
for i=2:N+1;
final(i)=(final(i)/maxud);
end
display('enter 1 if sensors are placed equally');
display('enter 2 if sensors are not placed equally');
bpl=input('');
x1=[];
if bpl==1
x1(1)=0;
for i=1:N+1
x1(i+1)=x1(i)+l/(N+1);
end
else
x1(1)=0;
display('enter the distance from left support of the beam to first sensor : ');
x1(2)=input('');
for i=1:N-1
fprintf('enter the distance from sensor %d to sensor %d : ',i,i+1);
ip=input('');
x1(i+2)=x1(i+1)+ip;
end
x1(N+2)=l;
end
final(N+2)=0;
final
x1
plot(x1,final);
display('This is the plot of first Mode Shape obtained from the undamaged beam');
c=input('To proceed further enter 1,to end process enter 2 ->');
if c==1
73 | P a g e

fnl=[];
dc=0;
xc=[];
fx=[];
check=1;
while check==1
dc=dc+1;
display('enter the no of sensors');
N=input('');
file1=input('Enter the excel file name of the damaged beam -> ','s');
display('Hello');
arr1=xlsread(file1);
if arr1(32,1)==0
cv(file1);
arr1=xlsread(file1);
end
m=2
for i=2:N+1;
final1(i)=excel(arr1,i,ss,rows,t);
j=input('To proceed further for getting the plot of next sensor enter 1 else 2 ->');
if j ==2
break
else
display('The plot for sensor');
display(i)
end
end
maxd=max(final1);
for i=2:N+1;
final1(i)= final1(i)/maxd;
end
display('enter 1 if sensors are placed equally');
display('enter 2 if sensors are not placed equally');
bpl=input('');
74 | P a g e

x=[];
if bpl==1
x(1)=0;
for i=1:N+1
x(i+1)=x(i)+l/(N+1);
end
else
x(1)=0;
display('enter the distance from left support of the beam to first sensor : ');
x(2)=input('');
for i=1:N-1
fprintf('enter the distance from sensor %d to sensor %d : ',i,i+1);
ip=input('');
x(i+2)=x(i+1)+ip;
end
x(N+2)=l;
end
final1(N+2)=0;
final1
x
plot(x,final1);
display('This is the plot of first Mode Shape obtained from the damaged beam');
final2=abs(final-final1);
for i=1:(N+1)
final3(i)=(final2(i+1)+final2(i))/2;
end
hold off;
b=input('To continue and see the bar graph enter 1 ->');
if b==1
bar(final3);
end
for itr=1:N+1
if (final3(itr)==max(final3))
str = ['The damaged element is ',num2str(itr)];
75 | P a g e

disp(str);
end
end
q=input('To see the beam and different elements enter 1 ->');
if q==1
i=imread('beam2.jpg');
image(i);
end
fnl=[fnl final1];
fx=[fx x];
xc=[xc N+2];
display('enter 1 to continue for next damage else 2');
check=input('');
end
figure;
hold on;
plot(x1,final,'r');
temp=1;
for loop=1:dc
plot(fx(temp:(temp+xc(loop)-1)),fnl(temp:(temp+xc(loop)-1)));
temp=temp+xc(loop);
end
end
opt=input('for severity enter 1 else 2');
if opt==1
sum1=final(1)+final(end);
for loop=2:2:(size(final,2)-1)
sum1=sum1+4*final(loop);
end
for loop=3:2:(size(final,2)-1)
sum1=sum1+2*final(loop);
end
sum1=(l/(udbl+1))*sum1/3;
temp=1;
76 | P a g e

for lop=1:dc
final1=[];
final1=fnl(temp:(temp+xc(lop)-1));
sum2=final1(1)+final1(end);
for loop=2:2:(size(final1,2)-1)
sum2=sum2+4*final1(loop);
end
for loop=3:2:(size(final1,2)-1)
sum2=sum2+2*final1(loop);
end
sum2=(l/(xc(lop)-1))*sum2/3;
%disp(sum2);
severity=(sum1/sum2)^2;
fprintf('severity of damage of %d in terms of EI = ',lop);
disp(severity);
temp=temp+xc(lop);
end
end
display('Process end');

Funtmp:
function [oup] = funtmp(val,opt)
if opt==1
oup=abs(val);
else if opt==2
oup=imag(val);
else if opt==3
oup=real(val);
end
end
end
end

77 | P a g e

detmax:
function [B2]= detmax(arr,f,rows)
arr1=[];
var = input('Enter the X-coordinate of the peak you want -> ');
display('The natural frequency is:');
display(var);
B2=[];
for i=1:rows;
if(f(i)== var);
B2=arr(i);
end
end
display('The y ordinate is ->');
display(B2);
end

excel:
function [temp]= excel(arr,x,ss,rows,t)
arr1 = [];
arr1=arr(1:rows,x);
display('This is the plot of Voltage v/s Time');
plot(arr1);
i=input('To continue enter 1 -> ');
if i==1
vf=funtmp(fft(arr1),ss);
R = rows ;
f=(0:R-1)/(t*R);
f=f';
B=vf(1:rows);
display('This is the plot of Voltage (in frequency domain) v/s frequency');
plot(f,B);
temp=detmax(B,f,rows);
end
78 | P a g e

end
temp1:
for loop=2:2:(size(final,2)-1)
sum1=sum1+4*final(loop);
end
for loop=3:2:(size(final,2)-1)
sum1=sum1+2*final(loop);
end
sum1=(0.26/3)*sum1;
disp(sum1);
sum2=final1(1)+final1(end);
for loop=2:2:(size(final1,2)-1)
sum2=sum2+4*final1(loop);
end
for loop=3:2:(size(final1,2)-1)
sum2=sum2+2*final1(loop);
end
sum2=(0.26/3)*sum2;
disp(sum2);
severity=(sum2/sum1)^2;
disp('severity of damage = ');
disp(severity);

79 | P a g e