DEVELOPMENT OF TIDAL LOWLANDS

Potentials and Constraints of The Tidal Lowlands of Indonesia

Prof. Bart Schultz PhD, MSc1

Abstract

Tidal lowlands are by their nature generally unsuitable for development. This is mainly
caused by the soil conditions, waterlogging, regular, or even permanent inundation and
environmental values. However, because of their potential for agricultural development,
shortage of land in densely populated countries and generally strategic location, there is
in many cases an enormous pressure to develop these areas. Due to physical conditions
complicated systems and structures may be required, generally resulting in relatively
high development costs, while, where applicable, due to the sensitive environmental
situation, a careful development and management approach has to be chosen.
Therefore in decisions on the development of tidal lowlands the balance will have to be
found between the needs of society, acceptable environmental impacts and a
sustainable development.

In this presentation various aspects of the development and management of tidal

lowlands in Indonesia are reviewed. It is illustrated to which extend the new
developments in the reclaimed areas and reclamation of other suitable tidal lowland
areas can contribute to the Government policy of self-sufficiency in basic food crops,
urban and industrial development. Among others, this is based on the policy of the
Government and the experiences in the program Land and Water Management Tidal
Lowlands (LWMTL).

Introduction

Lowlands in the humid tropical zone are by their nature generally unsuitable for
development. This is mainly caused by the soil conditions, waterlogging, regular, or even
permanent inundation and environmental values. However, because of their potential for
agricultural development, shortage of land in densely populated countries and generally
strategic location, there is in many cases an enormous pressure to develop these areas.
Therefore development of lowlands is pursued in many countries all over the world as a
way of relieving land pressure (Suryadi, 1996 and Schultz, 2001). If properly planned
and implemented, among others, taking into account the conservation of important
vulnerable ecosystems, development of lowlands may have important short and long-
term advantages compared to development of upland areas. Due to physical conditions
complicated systems and structures may be required, generally resulting in relatively
high development costs, while, where applicable, due to the sensitive environmental
situation, a careful development and management approach has to be chosen.
Therefore in decisions on the development of tidal lowlands the balance will have to be
found between the needs of society, acceptable environmental impacts and a
sustainable development.

In this presentation various aspects of the development and management of tidal

lowlands in Indonesia will be reviewed. Attention will be paid to the need for development
of such areas and the constraints that have to be dealt with. It will be illustrated to which
1 Top advisor, Rijkswaterstaat, Civil Engineering Division, Utrecht, the Netherlands
Professor of Land and Water Development, UNESCO-IHE, Delft, the Netherlands
President Honoraire of the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID)

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extend the development of such areas can contribute to the policy of self-sufficiency in
basic food crops, urban and industrial development. Crucial for the sustainable
development of tidal lowlands are adequate water management and, where required,
flood protection schemes, as well as the operation and maintenance of such schemes.
With the above in mind an outlook on possible future directions will be given as well.
Among others, this will be based on the policy of the Indonesian Government (Suprapto,
2002) and experiences in the program Land and Water Management Tidal Lowlands
(LWMTL) (Hartoyo Suprianto, et al., 2006).

Tidal Lowlands in Indonesia

Indonesia avails over large lowland areas with an estimated total area of about 33.4
million ha. From a hydrological point of view three typical types of lowlands can be
distinguished:
– tidal lowlands (pasang surut). These lowlands are located along the coasts and lower
reaches of rivers in Sumatra, Kalimantan, Papua and some other islands, where the
river regimes are dominated by the tidal fluctuations. They include a generally narrow
zone of mangrove, followed by extensive fresh water swamps. Land elevations are
generally around the tidal high water level. From a water management point of view
these areas are characterised by shallow inundation in the wet season, caused mainly
by stagnant rainwater. The daily low tide in the rivers offers in principle good
opportunities for drainage of excess water. In certain areas the high tides offer
opportunities for tidal irrigation;
– non-tidal lowlands (lebak). Beyond the zone of tidal lowlands seasonal fluctuations in
river water levels are more pronounced and may cause deep inundation of lands in
the wet season. The absence of daily low water in the rivers requires adapted
approaches for drainage. In many cases flood protection will be required;
– inland swamp areas. These areas are separated from the above lowlands by
surrounding uplands. These swamps cover relatively small areas.

The tidal lowlands cover about 20 million ha. Out of this 20 million ha, about 4 million ha
have now been reclaimed partly by spontaneous settlers (more than 2.5 million ha) and
partly by the government (about 1.3 million ha). The potential for additional reclamations
is about 4 million ha (Land and Water Management Tidal Lowlands, 2006a and Hartoyo
Suprianto, et al., 2006).

In the lowlands the top layers consist of (potential) fertile clay soils, (potential) acid
sulphate soils, or peat soils. Especially the (potential) fertile clay soils are suitable for
reclamation and development. The (potential) acid sulphate soils may be suitable for
reclamation and development as well, however, after reclamation oxidation of pyrite will
occur, which will require a very careful water management approach, especially in the
initial years. Peat soils are generally unsuitable for development due to the rapid
oxidation of organic materials. In the humid tropical region this causes a rapid
subsidence (10 – 15 cm/year) and will generally require drainage by pumping 10 – 20
years after the initial reclamation, which is generally unaffordable.

Although in many of the reclaimed areas the conditions have substantially improved
compared to the initial situation directly after reclamation (Figure 1), based on experience
in practice over the last 20 years, the following constraints have been identified (Hartoyo
Suprianto, 2004):
− need for lowland conservation;
− need for development priority;
− insufficient institutional capability;
− inadequate water management and related hydraulic infrastructure;
− inadequate operation and maintenance of the water management systems.

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Figure 1. Original wooden settlers house and a present stone house of one of the better
farmers

Evaluation of The History of Lowland Development

In most lowland development programs the government plays an important role, as she
initiates developments that fit in her development policy, and by preventing unwanted
developments. Since 1960 the Indonesian Government has been involved in the
reclamation of tidal lowlands. The reclamation was generally based on a gradual long-
term process, which involved:
− Phase I subsistence farming, rainfed agriculture, one food crop annually, open,
uncontrolled canal systems and transportation mainly boats;
− Phase II intermediate economic land farming, more than one crop annually, mainly
rainfed agriculture, agro-processing industry, semi-closed drainage
system, internal road system and trans-area transport
− Phase III commercial farming, multiple cropping and integrated farming, sustained
economic growth, industrial development, fully controlled water
management system and finalised road infrastructure.

From 1985 - 1995 there were almost no new reclamations, main focus was on
improvement (phase II) of reclaimed areas.

From 1996 – 1998 new reclamations were implemented in South and Central
Kalimantan, mainly in river flood plains. While these reclamations were not very
successful and there was a change in government, the reclamations came to an end.
Since then there have only been reclamations by spontaneous settlers and several
activities and programs in already reclaimed areas.

Due to the need to increase food production and the on-going urbanisation and
industrialisation for which agricultural land is taken out of production, it will be a must for
the Indonesian Government to undertake new reclamations in future, together with
phase II and later phase III developments, mechanisation in agriculture, and larger scale
farming in the already reclaimed areas. The actual roles of the Government in the
framework of these developments may be subject to further considerations.
The historic development of lowlands shows that new developments can only be
successful when there is a strong motivation (population pressure, need for agricultural
expansion, favourable economic prospects, need for development activities during times of
recession, strategic considerations), a strong community and political stability. A clear
hierarchical system and a highly organized society are essential boundary conditions, not
only for the implementation, but also for the operation and maintenance phase. The ability
to organize a well functioning management system often determines the success and
lifetime of large infrastructure works and, in relation to that, the duration of civilization itself.
New lowland areas can be developed when a Government promotes such an activity

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within the framework of a countrywide or regional development policy. Institution building is
of paramount importance for lowland development, operation and maintenance, as well as
a sound coordination of all activities and a clear description of parties’ responsibilities
(farmers, inhabitants, water management authority, local and central government) are
required. Master plans, legislation, institution development are examples of possible
means to realize integration of all relevant aspects of life related to water use.

Factors that contribute to the success of lowland development projects

Planning of all aspects in a lowland development project, like agriculture (farm units, land
parcelling) and related activities, urban development, industries, forests, recreation, and
their related requirements for irrigation and drainage, fresh water supplies, etc. is strongly
interrelated. This interrelationship would have to be the basis for planning, design,
construction, operation, maintenance and management, which requires close cooperation
and coordinated efforts of people of several disciplines working together (Pranich, 1982).
There are a number of principles, which may be of wider relevance:
− in case lowland development projects are primarily aiming at increasing the agricultural
production, they need to be regarded mainly as agricultural development projects
rather than engineering projects. This implies that:
∗ soil scientists, agronomists, agro-economists and agricultural extension specialists
would have a high input in project identification, design, appraisal and
implementation;
∗ in cultivated areas, the opinions of the farmers in proposed project areas need to
be sought in advance regarding feasible improvement measures with proposed
project inputs;
∗ where a project would greatly alter existing agro-ecological conditions, which
usually is the case with lowland development projects, possible new crops or
cropping patterns need to be tested and demonstrated in pilot areas before the full
project is implemented;
∗ objections from those whose livelihood might suffer as a result of project
implementation need to be considered with a view either to modifying the project
design so as to remove their objections or to provide them with adequate
alternatives or compensation;
− as new lowland reclamation and development is generally an expensive activity,
projects need to be regarded as a development of last resort. This means that
governments would have to use alternative, cheaper agricultural development modes
wherever possible, until lowland development becomes the most economic mode
remaining available;
− soil and crop conditions on different agro-ecological land types within reclaimed areas
need to be monitored regularly to provide early warnings of any physical, chemical or
biological problems, which may develop. Similarly, agro-economic surveys need to be
made regularly and, where necessary, appropriate changes would have to be made in
project design, operation or changes to ensure that both farmers and project authorities
can achieve profitable returns;
− either at national or provincial and district level, land use regulations need to be made
and enforced, which will ensure that settlement and industry do not spread
unnecessarily onto valuable agricultural land.

Factors that contribute to the failure of lowland development projects

It is worthwhile to examine the reasons why in several cases lowland development has
been substantially below expectation. An important reason undoubtedly is that the plans
were too narrow in concept and focus. Generally, plans were primarily civil engineering
plans and not agricultural development plans. The engineering projects were considered to
provide a panacea for agricultural development.

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 Need for development of tidal lowlands in Indonesia

During the last decades the increase in food production could be realised by: the
introduction of High Yielding Varieties of rice (HYV), improvement of water management
systems and reclamation of uplands and lowlands. The required further increase in food
production will mainly have to be achieved by:
− higher yields at existing agricultural lands, both the traditional lands and the recently
reclaimed lowlands and uplands;
− reclamation of new land, main possibilities seem to be in the lowlands.

The original objectives of tidal lowland development in Indonesia were, among others, to
support the transmigration program and to increase food crop (rice) production. In the
recently reformulated policy of the Indonesian Government, one of the main objectives of
tidal lowland development is to contribute to the required increase food production
(Suriadikarta, et al., 2001 and Suprapto, 2002). The tidal lowlands will primarily have to
contribute to the required increase in rice production to maintain self-sufficiency in rice.
This need is caused by the fact that during last years Indonesia could not maintain its
position of self-sufficiency. Droughts in 1991, 1994 and 1997 resulted in a required
import of 4,5 million tons of rice in each of these years, in addition import of rice in 1995
was 1.8 million tons and in 1996 2.2 million tons. The deficit in self-sufficiency is mainly
caused by the:
− increase in population;
− increase in the consumption per person;
− loss of agricultural land due to urbanisation and industrialisation (annually 40,000 -
50,000 ha)
− environmental considerations;
− degeneration of existing irrigation and drainage systems.

Some characteristic figures are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Some Characteristic Figures on Population and Population Growth
Population Density in
Paddy Rice Population in Million Persons per Km2 with
Area in
Area in Respect to
Million Ha
Million Ha Total Paddy
2005 2025 2050
Area Rice Area
Java 13 3.3 120 142*) 153*) 923 3,636
Other Isles 178 5.2 103 122*) 132*) 58 1,980
Indonesia 191 8.5 223 264 285 117 2,623
Asia 3,177 133 3,927 4,752 5,240 124 2,950
World 13,271 148 6,487 7,930 9,100 49 4,383
(BAPPENAS et al., 2002, Schultz, et al., 2005, International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, 2006)
*) Computed, based on the same ratio as Indonesia

Constraints for Development

Constraints for development are first of all caused by the existing values of the tidal
lowlands. These values may concern environmental values, economic values and
hydrologic values. Potential areas for reclamation are in many cases very dynamic and
productive ecosystems. They are often closely related with each other so that
reclamation works in one area can have consequences in others, even those far away.
In decision-making on the development of tidal lowlands these values properly have to
be taken into account. A good practice is in general to consider the non-project
development, the development potential of the existing values and the reclamation

5
options in parallel and to compare the advantages and disadvantages of each scenario.
In the design and layout of new reclamation projects one has to consider possible
impacts on the environment. The existing economic values are generally limited, may be
with the exception of the values for fishing and aquaculture. When such values play an
important role, they have to be properly taken into account in the analyses on optimal
development options. Related to hydrologic values, reclamation generally implies the
removal of storage during extreme events. Special provisions and approaches may have
to be required to cope with these aspects.

The effects of climate changes may sooner or later influence reclaimed tidal lowlands.
However, it is difficult to predict the effects of climatic changes on a regional scale. It is,
for example, almost impossible to predict whether local storm frequencies will increase or
decrease. Consequently, changes in patterns of storm surges and wave attack are
unknown. It is also not clear which parts of the climate changes are caused by natural
phenomena, and which parts are men induced. Related to the development of tidal
lowlands climate change may have three relevant consequences:
− increase in total annual rainfall and extreme rainfalls;
− increase in total annual river discharge, changes in the distribution of discharge over
the year and increase in extreme discharges;
− rise in the mean sea level.

Estimates for the increases in rainfall and river discharges are generally in the order of
magnitude of 10 - 15% over the next 100 years. The most recent forecasts expect a sea
level rise between 0.09 and 0.88 m in the next 100 years.

Reclaimed tidal lowlands may be subject to flooding. Although increasingly climate

change is referred to as the cause of such flooding, one should strongly wonder whether
this is indeed the case. Many of these reclaimed areas show nowadays a high level of
agricultural exploitation, or are densely populated and experience rapid population and
economic growth. The man-induced changes, such as removal of storage by
impoldering, groundwater extraction, uncontrolled land reclamation, and inadequate land
use planning, may increase the vulnerability of tidal lowlands. It therefore can be stated
that men induced changes in tidal lowlands have a significantly larger impact on damage
due to heavy rainfalls and floods than climate changes have.

Reclamation and Development of Tidal Lowlands

Reclamation of tidal lowlands involves a deliberate change of the environmental

conditions of an area. Since these areas have a natural function in the hydrological cycle
a change in the conditions may entail repercussions on the hydrology of the adjacent
areas, like increase of flood levels, or silting-up of riverbeds. The type of area indicates
the type of hydraulic and hydrological issues that may arise in case of reclamation.
Development is relatively easy in the case no storm surges occur along the coast and
when the tidal land has attained the maximum possible elevation, which is generally
slightly above mean high tide level.

In several cases, or in the long run, development of tidal lowlands involves polder
development (Segeren, 1983). Dependent on the number of people living in the
reclaimed area and the economic value of crops, buildings, infrastructure, public facilities
and private property requirements will have to be put to the functioning of water
management and flood protection schemes. These requirements will generally increase
in due time while due to further development the population density and the value of
public and private property will increase.

Hydro-topographical conditions of tidal lowlands are of significant importance for the

6
approach towards reclamation and development. These conditions are defined as the
field elevation in relation to river, or canal water levels in the nearest open water system
(Suryadi, 1996). Four hydro-topographic classes are generally distinguished in the tidal
lowlands of Indonesia:
− Category A (tidal irrigated areas).
The fields can be flooded by the
tides at least 4 or 5 times during a
14-day neap-spring tidal cycle in
both the wet and the dry season.
These areas are situated mostly in
depressions, or close to river
mouths;
− Category B (periodically tidal
irrigated areas). The fields can be
flooded by the tides at least 4 or 5
times during a 14-day neap-spring
tidal cycle in the wet season only;
− Category C (areas just above tidal
high water). The fields cannot be
regularly flooded during high tide.
The groundwater table may still be
influenced by the tides. The
relatively high elevation may
cause significant percolation,
making it difficult, or impossible to
keep a water layer on the field for
rice cultivation. Therefore, dry
food crops and tree crops can
better be grown on such lowlands,
at least during the dry season;
− Category D (area 50 cm above
tidal high water). The fields are
entirely above tidal influence. Dry
food crops and tree crops are best
suited to these areas. Except for
areas receiving extra water from
bordering uplands and/or peat
domes which are used usually for
wetland rice.

Alternative development models

Various development models for tidal lowland areas are possible, which may each be
appropriate under different conditions. The models range from small scale farming to large-
scale estates, with all kinds of combinations in between. The approaches may basically be
classified in:
− rapid, or slow;
− large-scale, or small scale;
− direct, or in phases.

In practice an area will be developed by a certain combination of the above items.

However, some general items are valid in any development model, being:
− with the determination of the level of service the basis for the success of a project is
established. If the level is to high, generally the costs will also be too high, and it will be
impossible to recover these costs. If the level is too low, the beneficiaries will not accept
their new conditions and don’t start with the foreseen activities, generally resulting in a

7
 much lower feasibility than forecasted;
− rapid, large-scale development projects, often have the negative result, that they are
too complicated for the future beneficiaries and institutions. Therefore the maintenance
and management may be below standard, resulting in deterioration of the projects;
− with a careful selection of future beneficiaries, large-scale projects may be successful,
while these beneficiaries will do their utmost to make the best of it.

Reclamation may be carried out in a relatively short period, over some years, or
gradually as a long-term phased development process. Overall planning of reclamation
works for tidal lowlands is very important, firstly because of the intimate relation between
flood protection, drainage and irrigation and the large degree of mutual influence of
these works on various parts of the tidal lowland, and secondly because adequate water
management in a reclaimed tidal lowland can generally only be achieved by
comprehensive large-scale measures. Master plans, subject to periodic revision to make
allowance for the actual execution of the partial schemes as dictated by the economic
conditions and to make allowance for progress in technical methods, may be a useful
tool to effectively guide development.

So far the tidal lowland development in Indonesia has generally followed a phased
approach and focus has been on the settling of poor farmers.

Water Management and Flood Protection in Reclaimed Tidal Lowlands in Indonesia

In order to enable an adequate water management in the reclaimed areas a lay out,
consisting of open primary, secondary and tertiary canals has been installed during
reclamation. This may be completed with quaternary, or on-farm canals. The primary
canals are generally located between two river branches. Different types of schemes
have been developed in different areas, but some characteristic cross-sections of the
canals are shown in Figure 2 (Suryadi, 1996). Although generally improvements have
been obtained in several of the reclaimed tidal lowlands, most of the areas are still in
their initial phase with open canal systems. In this phase farmers can only take care for
on-farm water management and no water management measures can be taken in the
higher level canals, although an adequate maintenance will be of utmost importance to
keep the canals in a good condition.

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 Figure 2 Principal cross-sections of canals in reclaimed tidal lowlands in Indonesia

In several other schemes water control structures have been installed in the tertiary
and/or secondary canals. Due to various reasons, in most of the schemes where water
control structures have been installed, the operation and maintenance of these
structures has so far been inadequate and as a result, the agricultural output is below
expectation. To improve the water management agreed operation rules for the hydraulic
infrastructure have to be developed and applied for each tidal lowland scheme.
Examples of such rules have been given in three technical guidelines that have been
developed in the framework of the LWMTL program (Land and Water Management Tidal
Lowlands, 2005 and 2006a, b and c). In order to develop and implement such rules a
participatory approach is required.

Water management in the tidal lowlands, which becomes possible after water control
structures have been installed, aims first of all at realising optimal agricultural yields. For
that purpose, the hydraulic infrastructure of canals and water control structures plays a
crucial role, not only for drainage and navigation and locally for irrigation, but also to
stimulate soil ripening processes and, where applicable, leaching of acid and toxic
elements from the soils. This implies that stagnant water has to be avoided. In general,
water management takes place at two levels:
– on-farm water management. Water management at the field level, which has the
following objectives:
∗ improve the land conditions in the tidal lowlands;
∗ increase food production to contribute to food self-sufficiency, especially of rice;
∗ to enable an increase in cropping intensity and land productivity;
∗ to enable crop diversification;
− main system water management. The main system generally consists of primary,
secondary and tertiary canals. As said the tertiary and secondary canals may be
provided with water control structures. The main system may also have other
objectives, such as transportation and domestic water supply. An example of a
secondary block with water control structures is given in Figure 3.
Secondary canal

Drainage flapgate
Home yards + sliding gate

Primary canal

Tertiaries
Agricultural fields

Movable flapgates

Figure 3. Example of a secondary block with water control structures

Experiences obtained in the LWMTL program

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In a bilateral cooperation between Indonesia and the Netherlands the LWMTL program is
being implemented. LWMTL aims at the improvement of the existing agricultural
exploitation, among others by establishing water user associations, upgrading of the
hydraulic infrastructure, improved agricultural practices and post harvest activities,
transfer of knowledge and manpower development. The approach is developed and
applied in three pilot areas - each covering a secondary block of about 250 ha - in the
Musi Delta, South Sumatra. Two pilot areas are located in the Telang I area and the third
pilot area is located in the Saleh area (Hartoyo Suprianto, et al., 2006).
The program targets the Water Users Associations (P3A) in respect to water
management, operation and maintenance (O&M) with a fully participatory approach. The
program is also contributing to planning, budgeting and implementation of the needed
hydraulic infrastructure by government Agencies. Together with farmers, solutions are
being found for logistic and financial problems related to technology development for
mechanized food crop production aiming at two crops per year. The LWMTL program is
an integrated part of the activities of the government supported Rice Estate project in
tidal lowlands, South Sumatra Province, Kabupaten (Regency) of Banyuasin. Use is
made of a dry processing facility that recently has been constructed by the Logistic
Bureau (BULOG) in the Telang I area as shown in Figure 4.The program is supported by
the Indonesian Ministries of Public Works and of Agriculture (Agricultural Facilities,
Irrigation and Water Management) and the Netherlands Ministries Foreign Affairs
(Directorate General for International Cooperation, PBSI program) and Transport, Public
Works and Water Management (Rijkswaterstaat).

Figure 4 The dry processing facility of BULOG in the Telang I area

Based on the potentials and constraints, the objectives of the LWMTL program were
defined as follows:
– to pioneer the empowerment, representation and responsibilities of farmers in the
context of lowland development, decentralization, water sector reforms and basin

10
 management;
– to allow a micro level approach in solving diverse constraints at field level;
– to review and improve operation and maintenance of water management systems
with a farmers’ participatory approach.

In order to achieve the objectives, among others, in close cooperation with the farmers
and the government organisations, improved water management, operation and
maintenance practices are promoted in the three pilot areas. Some upgrading and simple
repair of the water control structures has been carried out in these areas. An example of
an upgraded water control structure in a tertiary canal is presented in Figure 5. An
example of the present field conditions under the LWMTL program is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 5. Example of an upgraded water Figure 6. Example of field conditions in

control structure one of the pilot areas of the
LWMTL program

An important achievement of the program has been that the Water Users Associations
(P3A) in the three pilot areas have been reactivated and that the chairmen of these P3As
have received their legal documents. This enables them, among others, to obtain loans
from banks and enter into contracts with the government and other parties. Another
important achievement is that the yields of the farmers have substantially improved.
Yields of the first rice crop have increased to about 6 tons/ha, with peaks of 8 tons/ha.
Several farmers have made a start with a second rice, or dry food crop. Here yields up to
3 tons/ha have been reported. Due to the drying facility of BULOG (Figure 4) and
supplies submitted by the TAM program of the Ministry of Agriculture the farmers can get
a substantially better price for their rice. It has also been observed that several farmers
have enlarged their farm size by obtaining land from farmers that could not succeed and
have left their land. This year there has been the introduction of harvesting by a
combine. It is expected that combines will be applied at a much larger scale in the near
future.

The water management system has different functions. During the wet season the
drainage function will dominate and during the dry season the irrigation and flushing
function will have to dominate. These functions will have to be fulfilled in such a way that
the water levels in the tertiary and secondary canals remain at acceptable levels. In
general the design criteria for water management schemes for reclaimed lowlands are
developed as follows:
− preferred normal conditions. These are the conditions one would like to maintain in
the tertiary and the secondary canals. They result in a preferred water level, or water
levels and operation rules for the movable flapgates in the tertiary canals and the
drainage flapgates and sliding gates in the secondary canals (Figure 3). The criteria
are strongly linked to the soil type and cropping pattern (Land and Water
Management Tidal Lowlands, 2006b). For the groundwater control function it is

11
 important to know the desired groundwater table under normal conditions;
− design conditions. These are the conditions on which the design of the canals and
water control structures would have to be based. In general they are formulated as:
∗ exceedance of the preferred water levels;
∗ duration of the exceedance;
∗ return period for which the prescribed exceedance occurs;
− extreme conditions. Although this is generally not a design criterion, control
computations can be made in order to analyse what may happen during extreme
situations.
Operation and maintenance of systems in reclaimed tidal lowlands

The functioning of water management systems in reclaimed tidal lowlands strongly

determines the living and production conditions in these areas and are therefore of
crucial importance. Therefore the arrangements for operation and maintenance have to
be very well understood and agreed upon by the parties involved in the scheme (Figure
7).

RESPONSIBLE CONTRIBUTING

Consultants

Central Government Legislation, national Contractors, manufacturers

policy and strategy
Universities, schools
District/Province/ Primary and Secondary
Central Government Canals, based on Research institutes, NGO’s
administrative boundaries
Banks, donors
Farmers (P3A) Tertiary canals and
Field systems Int. organisations

Farmers associations

Figure 7. Indicative schematisation of actors in lowland water management systems in

Indonesia

Regarding the operation of water management systems there is generally the advantage
of the tidal fluctuation, which may enable inlet of water during the high tide period, and
discharge of water during the low tide period. Such an operation will, however, only be
possible if inlet and outlet (flap, or sliding) gates are opened and closed either automatic,
or promptly in time.

For proper operation and maintenance of the structures and canals it will be required that
the farmers and water user association (P3A) maintain the tertiary and quaternary canals
and related water control structure and that Public Works at District level maintains the
primary and secondary canals and related water control structures. In order to achieve
the objectives, first of all an agreement on the required water management is needed
and the water control structures in the tertiary and secondary canals have to be operated
in such a way that such a water management can be achieved. In the secondary canals
a distinction is made between SDU (Saluran Sekunder Drainasi Utama) and SPD
(Saluran Sekunder Pedesaan/Saluran Pensuplai Desa). In the pilot areas the SDUs are
generally located 980 m away from the home yards and SPDs along the home yards and
also be used for households. A tertiary block covers 16 ha, which belong in principle to 8
farmers (2 ha each). However, as said, in quite some of the tertiary blocks farmers have
sold their land to other farmers, resulting in often a lower number of farmers in a tertiary

12
block, with a larger area per farm.

Future Developments and Directions

In formulating future developments and directions a distinction will have to be made in

the improvement of the existing schemes, the reclamation of new areas and the
conservation of areas not to be reclaimed.

Improvement of existing schemes

Related to the improvement of existing schemes quite some experiences are available
now (Hartoyo Suprianto, et al., 2006). Based on these experiences the following may be
considered:
− The first priority would have to be to make better use of the developed infrastructure
by a better operation and maintenance, both at on-farm and main system level. This
means:
∗ for the areas where structures have been installed:
+ reach agreement with the farmers on their share in the actual maintenance
and maintenance costs and develop clear rules for operation of the structures;
+ monitoring of the operation of the structures, the resulting water levels, the
crop yields and the execution of the maintenance in certain representative
areas. The obtained information would have to be the basis of feasibility
studies for future second phase development projects;
+ realise sufficient government budget for operation and maintenance at primary
and secondary level (Land and Water Management Tidal Lowlands 2006c);
∗ for the areas that are considered for second phase development:
+ execute feasibility studies in close consultation with the local representatives
and the farmers;
+ only start with implementation if agreement has been reached with the farmers
on their share in the actual maintenance and the maintenance costs and when
clear rules for operation of the structures have been established;
− support the farmers in improving their agricultural practices, crop diversification and
post harvest activities;
− socio-economic aspects. To obtain the optimum positive effects of investments in
tidal lowlands and to avoid/diminish negative implications, it is more and more
realised that a socio-economic analysis of the works would have to be included from
the first planning stages onwards. The factors that determine the rate of success of
lowland development projects and which would have to be included in such an
analysis are:
∗ experience with lowland development;
∗ mechanisation rate;
∗ technical know-how, skills and experience in operation and maintenance;
∗ employment conditions and customs of employers and employees;
∗ wage levels and wage structures.
In case of a wrong or neglected assessment, these factors can very seriously affect
costs, duration and success of a tidal lowland development project.
In Asian countries for centuries farmers have cultivated 1 ha or less. The growth of
industries and commercial activities, and the resulting increase in wages for labourers,
make the small scale farming less and less attractive. Farmers become labourers in
the factories and service sectors. Farming may remain feasible when mechanization is
introduced and farm sizes are increased. This phenomenon can be observed in
countries like: Korea, Malaysia and Thailand and has also started in the tidal lowlands
of Indonesia. The lowlands with their flat topography and rational lay out are very well
suited to cope with such developments. On the one hand this will most probably result
in new land consolidation schemes for already reclaimed lowland areas, on the other

13
 hand this will most probably give a new push to reclamation of lowlands. These
developments will increasingly take place in a sensitive balance between the required
increase in agricultural production and environmentally acceptable practices;
− post harvest processing and marketing conditions may have a substantial impact on
the final result that the farmers may obtain. Therefore these aspects need to be
properly addressed;
− so far the infrastructure in the tidal lowlands has predominantly been a water
infrastructure. It may be expected that increasingly a road infrastructure will have to
be developed;
− facilities, like schools, medical care, agricultural extension, hospitals, etc. will remain
to play a major role in the living conditions of the settlers and would have to be timely
provided by government.

New tidal lowland reclamation projects

In general terms the areas that have a potential for reclamation have been identified in
the Nation wide study of 1984 (NEDECO, 1984). It may be expected that sooner, or later
the remaining potential tidal lowland areas (about 4 million ha) will be reclaimed. This is
still a very substantial area compared to the present area with paddy rice of about 8.5
million ha. In order to prevent non-optimal investments and unnecessary environmental
damage as much as possible it is recommended to develop a strategy for future lowland
development. The strategy would especially have to give insight in the following aspects:
− importance and potential of the lowlands for food production;
− conditions and constraints in the reclaimed areas;
− most effective improvement measures in the reclaimed areas;
− most suitable areas for new reclamations;
− identification of areas that should not be reclaimed;
− most feasible reclamation approaches;
− phasing of developments.

Based on the developed strategy studies at pre-feasibility level are recommended on the
suitability of the identified potential areas and the environmental impacts of the
improvement of existing areas, or reclamation of new areas. The costs of such studies
will be easily recovered by reductions in implementation costs and non-optimal projects.

In general the phased approach that has been followed so far by the Indonesian
government would still have to be supported. However, the initial phased approach as
followed in the past schemes can be improved, based on the experiences that now have
been obtained. For example, one could wonder if it would not be better to settle the good
or even the best farmers in the tidal lowlands instead of the poor farmers. One could also
think of the farmers that have to give up their land at Java due to urbanisation. Water
management needs are different related to soil types and types of land use. Based on
the relevant items a water management zoning will have to be developed based on:
− crop type:
∗ wetland rice inundated fields with leaching
∗ dry food crops appropriate groundwater tables
− soils:
∗ acid sulphate soils: prevention of acidification, or maximum leaching;
∗ peat soils: peat soils where due to subsidence drainage by pumping would
become required should not be reclaimed;
− water management systems:
∗ tidal lowlands: an integrated approach will be required between on-farm level,
main system level and delta level (Suryadi, 1996);
∗ lowlands in river flood plains: in this case the integrated approach has to refer to
on-farm level, main system level and catchment level;
− water management:

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 ∗ in phase I and II only primarily drainage by gravity will be required. Drainage by
pumping should be prevented at any case while it will be very costly. Irrigation can
be applied where it easily can be realised by gravity. May be field irrigation can be
applied by the farmers if they wish so;
∗ proper operation of flap gates and sliding gates, based on agreed operation rules,
will be an absolute requirement to make them effective and justify investments in
such structures;
− operation and maintenance:
∗ operation and maintenance costs of all works at tertiary level, have to be fully
borne by the farmers. This means that these costs cannot be more than about 5%
of the yield. So far this has in many cases insufficiently been taken into account in
the designs;
∗ operation and maintenance of tertiary and on-farm canals would have to be the
full responsibility of farmers, or farmers groups;
∗ operation and maintenance of the primary and secondary canals would have to
be the full responsibility of the government agency, generally at District Level.
Among others this requires a timely budgeting of the operation and maintenance
costs in the recurrent budgets (Land and Water Management Tidal Lowlands,
2006c);
∗ an appropriate legal framework adapted to the local conditions of the tidal
lowlands is of major importance. The PP Rawa that is now under preparation may
serve this purpose.

Environmental considerations and sustainability

Until some twenty years ago, ecological data were not often used in reaching a decision
on lowland development projects. This has led to various unforeseen consequences.
Increasingly ecological data are used in all decisions on future lowland development
projects. With respect to this, environmental impact analyses for new land reclamation
projects, or significant changes in reclaimed areas would be required.

All land and water development projects have side effects. The challenge has been and
will be to keep the negative environmental impacts at an acceptable level and to support
positive environmental impacts as far as reasonably possible. Of special importance for
reclaimed tidal lowlands are:
− controlled application of fertiliser and pesticides;
− quality criteria and quality control for drainage waters;
− prevention of waterlogging.

As far as the configuration and lay out of newly reclaimed areas is concerned, this may
also be influenced by the existing environmental values in the area that is envisaged for
reclamation. In several cases the combination of the reclaimed area and the surrounding
area may result in higher environmental values than the situation before reclamation,
provided that due attention is given to this aspect when plans are being developed.

We are also more and more concerned about the sustainability of our activities. In the
past we did not have to bother so much about this, but increasing population pressure,
changes in food production practices, and mining, or even exhaustion of resources have
increased our concern. The following tendencies can be observed that may have an
impact on the development of tidal lowlands:
− migration of people from rural to urban areas;
− requirement of higher yields per ha;
− increase in farm sizes, higher value crops, or part time farming;
− mechanisation in agriculture;
− increased application of fertiliser and pesticides.

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First generation problems

In newly reclaimed areas, several problems can be regarded as first generation

problems, like:
− in the initial state there is a strong commitment of the involved organizations. However,
if the development has to be continued without further external resources, stagnation
may occur;
− the farm sizes and the layout pattern, that initially have been implemented, may turn
out to be inadequate to cope with developments in society. Due to this, farming may
become uneconomic;
− insufficient institutional arrangements and organisation to properly operate and
maintain the flood protection, water management and infrastructure facilities;
− waterlogging of depression sites in the reclaimed areas, resulting from seepage
losses from adjacent waters;
− insufficient skill of farmers to cultivate crops under the conditions as prevailing in the
newly reclaimed land;
− developments of acid sulphate soils.
Generally such problems reduce shortly after reclamation, or when a new generation
takes over the responsibilities.

Final Remarks

In this presentation the various aspects of the development of tidal lowlands have been
presented. We still see nowadays a tremendous pressure to develop such areas. The
purposes of development may be primarily agricultural, urban or industrial land use.
Increasingly nature conservation and recreation aspects are taken into account in the
development plans. From and agricultural point of view the development of such areas
may help to fulfil governments objectives on food self-sufficiency, or food security. For
urban and industrial development reclamation of tidal lowlands may help to solve the
problems that are created by the required rapid development of such areas.

By improving the water management systems with full involvement of the farmers in the
determination of the preferred water management at secondary and tertiary level, as well
as in the actual operation and maintenance of the water control structures agricultural
yields in the pilot areas of the LWMTL program have increased significantly. These
improvements in water management have been implemented in combination with
improved agricultural practices, post harvest processing and marketing facilities. Such
measures will enable the farmers to improve their standard of living and enable them to
substantially contribute to food production, especially rice, in Indonesia. It is sincerely
hoped that these experiences can get a wider application in the near future.

16
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