CIE A Level Notes

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608
Chapter01
PhysicalQuantities&Units
Measurablequantitiesarecalledphysicalquantities.Therearetwotypesofphysicalquantities:
1. BaseQuantity
2. DerivedQuantity
1. BaseQuantity:Aquantitywhichisdefinedwithoutthehelpofotherquantitiesiscalledabase
quantity.Thereareonly7basequantities:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
Mass
Length
Timeinterval
Temperaturedifference
Electriccurrent
Amountofsubstance
Luminousintensity
2. DerivedQuantity:Aquantitywhichisdefinedwiththehelpoftwoormorebasequantitiesis
knownasaderivedquantity.Example:
i.
Force
ii.
Charge
iii.
Velocity
iv.
Density
Units:
Aunitisastandardmeasuredvaluecomparedwithwhichothermeasurementsareexpressed.
Fore.g.1misthelengthdefinedbysomeoneinsciencemuseumandThereare2typesofunits:
1. BaseUnit
2. DerivedUnit
1. BaseUnit:Theunitofabasequantityiscalledabaseunit.Sincethereareonly7basequantities,
baseunitsarealso7innumber.Theyare:
i.
Kilogram(kg)
mass
ii.
Meter(m)
length
iii.
Second(s)
time
iv.
Kelvin(K)
temperature
E.g.1200C=(120+273)K
v.
Ampere(A)
electriccurrent
vi.
Mole(mol)
amountofsubstance
vii.
Lux(L)
luminousintensity
2. DerivedUnit:Theunitofaderivedquantityiscalledaderivedunit.
1 AsifAhsan|Contact:01911784608
Derivedquantity
DerivedUnit
BaseUnitform
Force
N(Newton)
F=ma
Charge
C(Coulomb)
Q=I*t
Speed
ms1
ms1
Density
Kgm3
kgm3
Pressure
Pa(Pascal)
Power
Prefixes:
Units
kilo(k)
Mega
(M)
x106
x103
Giga
(G)
x109
P=
P=
Milli
(m)
x103
2
2
=kgm 1 s 2
=kgm2s3
Micro
()
x106
Nano(n)
x109
HomogeneousEquation:
An equation containing the same type of physical quantities is called a homogeneous equation.
Example:
v
ms1
ms1
ms1
=
=
=
=
u+at
ms1+ms2*s
ms1+ms1
ms1
Allcorrectequationsarehomogeneous,butallhomogeneousequationsarenotcorrect!
i)
x =
m =
m =
ut+ at2
2
m+m
m
ii)
v2
m2s2
m2s2
u2+2ax
m2s2+m2s2
m2s2
These equations are homogeneous, but with respect to their units only. Not all the equations are
correctintermsoftheircoefficients.
Vectors
AddingVectors:
Whentwovectorsactatsomeangleanotherthan0and180,theycanbeaddedusingtwo
rules:
(i)
TriangleRule
(ii)
ParallelogramRule
TriangleRule:
Iftwovectorsaredrawnheadtotailaccordingtotheirmagnitudeanddirection,thenthe
thirdlinedrawnfromthestandingpointtocompleteatrianglerepresentstheresultantof
thetwovectorsbothinmagnitudeanddirection.
ScaleDrawing:
Asprinterruns50mtowardsnorth,then30mtowardnortheast.Whatishisresultantdisplacement?
1
10
Resultantdisplacementis75 , EastofNorth.
R=105Natyowith40Nforce
PolygonofVectors
v3
v4
v4
v3
Resultant
v2
Resultant
v2
v1
v1
Whenmorethantwovectorsaredrawnfromheadtotail,accordingtotheirmagnitudeanddirection,
theresultantwillberepresentedbythelinefromthestartingpointtotheendingpointinorderto
completeacloseddiagramortocompleteapolygon.
CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTORASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608
ParallelogramRule:
Iftwovectorsactingatapointarerepresentedbytheadjacentsidesofaparallelogram,
thenthediagonaloftheparallelogramdrawnfromthatpointwillrepresenttheresultant,
bothinmagnitudeanddirection.
TheabovethreeforcesareonthesameplaneandthereforeT1,T2andWandthreeco
planarforces.
Description:
PointAisinequilibriumundertheactionofthreecoplanarforces.Sotheresultantforce
actingatAmustbezero.
Thefollowingconditionsareappliedforthesituationdescribedabove:
(i)
Resultantofthetwoforcesisequalandoppositetotheremainingforce
(ii)
Whenthethreeforcesaredrawnheadtotail,aclosedtriangleisformed
(iii)
Thelineofactionofthethreeforcespassedthroughasinglepoint.
(iv)
Sumoftheforcesinanyonedirectionwillbezero
(v)
Sumoftheforcesinanotherdirectioniszero
measure lengths using a ruler, vernier scale and

micrometer
measure weight and hence mass using spring and lever
balances
measure an angle using a protractor
measure time intervals using clocks, stopwatches and
the
calibrated timebase of a cathoderay oscilloscope c.r.o.
measure temperature using a thermometer as a sensor
use ammeters and voltmeters with appropriate scales
use a galvanometer in null methods
use a cathoderay oscilloscope c.r.o.
use both analogue scales and digital displays
c use calibration curves
d show an understanding of the distinction between
systematic errors
including zero errors and random errors
e show an understanding of the distinction between
precision and
accuracy
f assess the uncertainty in a derived quantity by simple
addition of
actual, fractional or percentage uncertainties a rigorous
statistical
treatment is not required .
Chapter02
RectilinearMotion
ScalarQuantities:
Quantitieswhichhavemagnitude(size)only,butnodirection,areknownas
scalarquantities.Example:
1. length
2. distance
3. time
VectorQuantities:
Quantities which have both magnitude and direction are known as vector
quantities.Example:
5.0m
1. force
A
B
2. displacement
2.5m
3. velocity
Distancetravelled:
Displacement:
Thisisthechangeinpositioninanydirection.
This is the distance travelled or change in position in a particular
direction.
Displacement
Speed:
It is the rate of change of position or rate of change of distance, travelled in any

direction.
Wordequation:
speed=
s=
Unit:ms1
Velocity:
Itistherateofchangeofdisplacement,orrateofchangeofdistancetravelled
inaspecifieddirection.
Wordequation:
Unit:ms1
velocity=
Whenvelocityofabodycontinuouslychanges,wedealwithtwotypesofvelocities:
1)Instantaneousvelocity
&
2)Averagevelocity
InstantaneousVelocity:
Velocityofanacceleratingbodyata particularinstantiscalledinstantaneousvelocity.Thisvelocity
continuouslychangesasthebodyacceleratesordecelerates.Itismeasuredasdisplacementovera
shortperiodoftime.
Instantaneousvelocity=
AverageVelocity:
Averagevelocityofanacceleratingbodyisdefinedasthetotaldisplacementovertotaltime.
Averagevelocity=
Tomeasurevelocityoraccelerationweneedsomespecificapparatusestogetexactresult.
1. Frictioncompensatedrunways
2. TimingDevices
Frictioncompensatedrunway:
a. Therunwayiscomprisedofatriangularshapedstructureandwithairoutletsandairinlets.As
theblowerstarts,aircomesoutthroughtheoutletsandmakesthetrolleyfloat.Asthecontact
between trolley/Glider and runway becomes negligible so friction almost disappears and
runwaybecomesfrictioncompensated.
L1
L2
m1
m2
b. The second types of runways are ordinary types of runway but slightly tilted in order to
compensate
for
friction.
TimingDevices
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Lightgate
Stopwatch
Tickertimer
Multiflashcamera
Videocamera
Lightgate:
v=
Alightgateconsistsofalightsourceproducinganarrowbeamoflightandalightsensorconnectedto
anelectronictimer.ThetimerisswitchedON/OFF,dependingonthelightbeamreachingthedetector
ornot.
EXPERIMENT:Tomeasuretheinstantaneousvelocityofanacceleratingtrolleywhenitpassesa
pointontherunway.(VideoAvailable)
Themasshangerisreleasedsothatthetrolleyaccelerates.Asthetrolleypassesthelightgate,the
timerrecordstheinterruptionT.LengthofthetrolleyismeasuredLusingameterrule.
Theinstantaneousvelocityofthetrolleyasitrunsdownisgivenbyv=
EXPERIMENT:Tomeasuretheaveragevelocityofanacceleratingtrolleywhenitpassesadistance.
Thetrolleyisreleasedfromthetopoftherunwaysothatitaccelerates.Astheinterruptsthefirst
lightgate,thetimerisswitchedON.Asthetrolleyinterruptsthesecondlightgate,thetimeris
switchedOFF.So,thetimetakenforthetrolleytotravelthedistanceABisrecordedfromthetimer.
LengthofABismeasuredxusingameasuringtape/meterrule.
AveragevelocityoverABisgivenbyv=
Acceleration:
Therateofchangeofvelocityofabodyiscalleditsacceleration.
Wordequation:acceleration=
Itisavectorquantity;itsSIunitisms2.
Anexperimenttomeasureaccelerationusingalightgateanddoubleinterrupters:
LengthsoftheinterruptersaremeasuredL1andL2.Thetrolleyisreleasedfromthetopofthe
sloped runway, so that it accelerates. Time T1 for the first interruption, T2 for the second
interruptionandT3betweentheinterruptionsarerecordedfromtheintelligenttimer.
Calculations:
Averagevelocityoverthefirstinterruptionisu=
1
1
Averagevelocityoverthesecondinterruptionisv=
2
2
Acceleration=
EXPERIMENT:TomeasureaccelerationusingaVideoCamera
Thetrolleyisallowedtomovedownthecalibratedrunway.Motionofthetrolleyisrecordedby
thevideocamera.Ifthevideocameratakes25pictures(framespersecond),thetimebetween
twoconsecutiveframesis
or0.04seconds.
25
Thevideoisplayedback1frameatatime.Distancexmovedbythetrolleybetweensuccessive
framesismeasuredfromthescale.
x3>x2>x1
Averagevelocity,v,ofthetrolleybetweentheframesiscalculated
0.04
x=x1,x2,x3,etc
where
If a graph is plotted v against t, it will be a straight line. Gradient (slope) of this line is the
acceleration.
v(ms1)
t(sec)
MotiongraphusingTickertimer&tape:
*Thetickertimermakes50dots/sec.
1dotismadein
1
50
sec=0.02sec.
5dotsaremadein0.02*5=0.1sec.
Initialvelocity:
u=
ms1
0.1
Finalvelocity:
v=
a=
0.1
ms1
Acceleration:
ms2
a=
ms2
UsingMotionSensorandDataLogger:
t =
D1 =
330ms1
t=timedifferencesbetweenpulses
0.2sec
velocity1=
ms1
velocity2=
ms1
3300.2
2
D2 =
3300.4
2
Thegradientofthegraphofvagainsttgivesacceleration.
Motiongraphsfordifferenttypesofmotion
Thingstoremember:
Gradientofanxtgraphisvelocity.
Gradientofavtgraphisacceleration.
Areaundervtgraphisdistance.
Areaunderatgraphisvelocity.
MotionGraphs
Motiongraphforabouncingball
EquationsofMotion
)t
i)
x=(
ii)
v=u+at
iii)
x=ut+ at2
iv)
v2=u2+2ax
1
2
Whenabodyacceleratesuniformly,fourequationsregardingitsmotionareused.Theyare:
i.
x=
Fromthedefinitionofaveragevelocity,v=
Ifaccelerationaisconstant,averagevelocityisthearithmeticmeanoftheinitialandthefinal
velocities.
v= (a)
v=
(b)
From(a)and(b),
=
x=
ii. Accelerationisdefinedastherateofchangeofvelocity.
a=
or,vu=at
v=u+at
iii. Equation(i.)
x=
Equation(ii.)x=u=at
Or,x=
Or,x=
x=ut+ at2
iv. Fromequation(ii.),v=u+at
t=
Substitutinginequation(i.),
x=
or,x=
or,2ax=v2u2
v2=u2+2ax
EXPERIMENT:Tomeasurethevalueofg
i)
DirectMethod:
Procedure:
WhentheswitchismovedfromAto
B, the electromagnet loses its
magneism,theballstartstofalland
simultaneously the timer is
automatically switched ON. As the
ballhitsthetrapdoor,thecontactis
brokenandthetimerstops.
Thetimetakenbytheballtotraveltheheight,h,isrecorded,tfromthetimer.Theheight,h,is
measuredbyusingameterrule.
Theexperimentisrepeatedseveraltimesbyalteringtheheight,h.

h= gt2
Theequationofastraightline:y=mx
Here,
hy, t2x, gm
Agraphisplottedhagainstt2.
Astraightlinepassingthroughtheoriginisobtained.
h(m)
gradient= g
2
gradient=m= g
t2(s2)
g=2*gradient
Advantageofusinggraphicalmethod
1) Ifthereisanysystematicerror,thegraphwillhaveayintercept,butitsgradientwillremain
thesame.So,thevalueofgwillnotbeaffectedbysystematicerrors.
2) Abestfitlineaveragesthegoodsetofvalues.
ii)
UsingLightGateandDoubleInterrupter:
Thelengthofidenticalinterruptersismeasuredl.Thedoubleinterrupterisreleasedverticallyso
thatitacceleratesdownwardduetogravity.Timefor1stinterruptionisrecordedt1,inseconds.
Time taken for 2nd interruption is recorded t2, in seconds. Finally, the time taken between the
interruptionsisrecordedt,fromtheintelligenttimer.
Calculations:
Averagevelocityoverthe1stinterruptionisu=
Averagevelocityoverthe2ndinterruptionisv=
Accelerationoffreefallisg=
ResolutionofVector
Tosplitasinglevectorintotwoormorecomponentsatsomeappropriateangleiscalledaresolution
ofvector.
F
v
FH =FCos =Horizontalcomponent
Fv=FSin=Verticalcomponent
FH
InclinedPlane:
Friction
Weight
Chapter03
ProjectileMotion
An object that has been cast, flung, tossed or thrown is called a projectile. The force of primary
importanceactingonaprojectileisgravity.Thisisnottosaythatotherforcesdonotexist,justthat
theireffectisminimalincomparison.
Therearethreetypesofprojectile:
i)
ii)
iii)
Verticalprojectileabodywhichisthrownverticallyupward
Horizontalprojectileabodywhichisthrownhorizontallyfromaheight
Angularprojectileabodywhichisthrownatananglewiththehorizontal
u
VerticalProjectile
x
Horizontal Projectile
Angular Projectile
Inverticalprojectilemotion,theballdoesnotmoveinthehorizontaldirection.
Inhorizontalprojectilemotion,theballmoveshorizontallywithaninitialvelocity,butitalsomoves
downward.Thehorizontalvelocityhasnothingtodowiththeverticalmotion,i.e.,itisindependentof
theverticalmotion.Theverticalmotionisonlyduetogravity.
VerticalProjectile
Aballisthrownverticallyupwardswithaninitialvelocityof1.5ms1.
Find:a)maximumheightreached,b)timetakentoreachthemaximumheight,c)timetakentoreach
thegroundfromthemaximumheight,d)velocityitgainsbeforereachingtheground.
Solution:
a)
v2=u2+2ax
or,
2(9.81)x=01.52
x=0.12m
b)
v=u+at
or,
0=1.5+(9.81)t
t=0.15s
c)
t=0.15s
d)
v=u+at
or,
v=0+(9.81)(0.15)
v=1.47ms1.
HorizontalProjectile:
v2
v1
v3
v4
Verticalvelocityincreasesatarateofgbecausehorizontalvelocitydoesnothaveanycomponentin
theverticaldirection.
Thisiswhyverticalandhorizontalmotionsareconsideredindependently.Consideringverticalmotion:
h= gt2
t=
Consideringhorizontalmotion,whereuremainsconstant,
x=u.t
Given:horizontalvelocity,u=2ms1,height,h=15m.findthehorizontaldistancetravelledafter
landingontheearth.
Solution:
t=
=1.75s
Horizontaldistancetravelled,

AngularMotion
x=u.t
xorR
or,
x=2*1.75
x=3.50m
600
450
300
IfTisthetimetoreachthemaximumheight,thetimespentintheairbeforereturningtotheground
is2T.
Verticalandhorizontalmotionsareindependentofeachother.
Consideringverticalmotion:
Height,histravelledbecauseoftheverticalcomponentofu,i.e.,uSin.
Incaseofhorizontalmotion:
Incaseofverticalmotion:
Timetakentotravelx=2t
u=uSin
Horizontalvelocity=uCos
v=0
g=9.81ms2
v=u+at
t=
________(i)
xwillbemaximumwhen,
=1
Sin2
or,2
=900
=450
xmax
or,
x=uCos*2*
or,
x=
*2SinCos
x=
*Sin2
0=uSin9.81*t
x=uCos*2t_________(ii)
Forces
TypesofForces:
Therearetwotypesofforces:
(1)ContactForce:Forceswhichcannotactwithoutcontactareknownascontactforcesfore.g.Friction,
Solidfluiddragforce(Viscousforces),tensionNormalReactionForce
(2)Noncontactforces:Thisistheforcebetweenobjetcsforwhichcontactisnotrequiredi.e.thisforce
acts at a distance without physical contact e.g. (i) gravitational force (ii) eleectrostatict force
(iii)magneticforceetc.
GravitationalForce:Forcebetweentwomasses
Force between two masses is directly proportional to the product of the masses and inversely
proportionaltosquareoftheirdistanceapart.

NewtonsLawsofMotion:
1stLaw:Thislawgivesaqualitativedefinitionofforce.
Statement01:
Abodyatrestremainsatrestandthemovingbodymovesataconstantvelocity
unlessanunbalancedforceactsonit.
(Abodycontinuesinitsstateofrestorofuniformmotioninastraightlineunless
compelledbysomeexternalforcetoactotherwise.formalstatement)
Statement02: Abodyisinequilibriumwhentheresultantforceactingonitiszero.
Forthisbodytobeatrest,
F1+F2+F3=0
F1
F2
F3
Statement03: Foracceleration,anunbalancedforceisrequired.
Newtons1stLawalsorevealsacommontendencyofallbodieswhichcalledinertia.
Inertia:
Itisthereluctanceofabodytochangeitsstateofmotionorrest.Inertia
dependsonthemassofthebody.Themorethemass,themoreistheinertia.
2ndLaw:
Statement01:
Thislawgivesaquantitativedefinitionofforce.
Accelerationofabodyisdirectlyproportionaltotheunbalancedforceappliedonit
andtheaccelerationtakesplaceinthedirectionoftheunbalancedforce.
aF.(1)
Ifsameforceisappliedondifferentmasses,accelerationisinverselyproportionaltomass.
a
(2)
Combining(1)&(2),
Fma
Fm(
Forceisdirectlyproportionaltotherateofchangeofmomentumandthechangetakesplaceinthe
directionoftheunbalancedforce.
Fma
F=k*ma,
wherek=proportionalityconstant
Defintion1Nofforceistheforcewhichgivesabodyofmass1Kganaccelerationof1ms2.
EXPERIMENT: To investigate that acceleration is directly proportional to force (when mass is

constant)
Procedure:
Whentherunwayismadefrictioncompensatedproperly,ongivingasmallpushtothetrolley,itmoves
ataconstantvelocityandthetimesofinterruptionswiththecardarefoundtobeequal.Thetrolleyis
pulleddownthefrictioncompensatedrunwaywithaconstantforcemaintainedbyaNewtonmeter.
Experimentisrepeatedbyusingdifferentconstantforces.
Measurement:
1) Lengthofidenticalinterrupters=L
2) Constantpullingforce=f(foundfromtheNewtonmeter)
3) Timefor1stinterruption=t1,
Timefor2ndinterruption=t2
Timebetweeninterruptions=t3
Calculations:
Averagevelocityover1stinterruption=u=
Averagevelocityover2ndinterruption=v=
Acceleration=
AgraphisplottedaagainstFandastraightlinepassingthroughtheoriginisobtained.
a(ms2)
F (N)
EXPERIMENT:Toproveaccelerationisinverselyproportionaltomass
Procedure:
The mass of a trolley is measured using a toppan balance. When the runway is made friction
compensated,ongivingasmallpushtothetrolley,itmoveswithaconstantvelocity.Thetimesof
interruptionswiththecardsarefoundtobeequal.ANewtonmeteristiedwiththetrolleysothat
byusing the Newtonmeter, the trolleyispulled downthe frictioncompensated runway witha
constantforce.
Theexperimentisrepeatedbyloadingthetrolleywithextraknownmasses.
Measurements:
1)
2)
3)
4)
Lengthoftheidenticalinterrupters=L
Massloadedonthetrolley=m
Constantpullingforce=F
Timefor1stinterruption=t1,
Timefor2ndinterruption=t2
Timebetweeninterruptions=t3
Calculations:
Averagevelocityover1stinterruption=u=
Averagevelocityover2ndinterruption=v=
Acceleration=
a(ms2)
Agraphofaagainst isplottedand
astraightlinepassingthroughtheoriginis
obtained

(Kg1)
3rdLaw:
Thislawgivestheideathatasingleforcedoesnotexist.Forcesalwaysoccurinpairs.
Statement:
WhenabodyAappliesaforceonanotherbodyB,BalsoexertsanequalforceonAin
theoppositedirectionforthesamelengthoftimeandthetwoforcesareofthesame
type.
BALL(B)
Earth pulling Ball downward with

gravitationalforce
Ball pulling Earth upward

withgravitationalforce
EARTH(A)
IftheforceonBiscalledaction,thentheforceonAwillbereaction.So,Newtons3rdlawcanalsobe
statedas:
Foreveryaction,thereisanequalandoppositereaction.
Thepairofforces(alsoknownasNewtons3rdlawPair)hasthefollowingproperties:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
Theforcesareequalinmagnitude
Theforcesareofsametype
Theforceshavethesamelineofaction
Theforcesactforthesamelengthoftime
Theforcesactinoppositedirections
Theforcesactondifferentbodies
Similarities
Differences
Freebodyforcediagrams
Situation: A cat is sitting on a table

placedonEarth.
ForcesonCat:
A=EarthpullstheCatdown
B=Tablepushesthecatup
ForcesontheTable:
C=Catpushesthetabledown
D=Earthpullstabledown
E=Earthpushestableup
ForcesonEarth:
F=TablepushesEarthdown
G=TablepullsEarthup
H=CatpullsEarthup
Newtons3rdLawpairs:
AandH
CandB
DandG
EandF
RocketPropulsion:
Rocketexertsaforceonthefueltothedownwarddirection.ByNewtons3rd
law,fuelexertsanequalforceontherockettotheupwarddirection.
Theforceisgreaterthantherocketsweightandhencetherocketaccelerates
upward.
Astherocketgoesupwardtheweightoftherocketdecreasesduetoburning
offuelandalsoduetothedecreaseingravitationalforce.Soresultantforcein
theupwarddirectionincreasesandaccelerationincreases.
Forcesandweightinsidealift:
NormalReactionForce
Freebodyforcediagram
oftheman
Weight
Howdowefeelourweight?
Whenwestandongroundweexertacontactforceontheground(contactforceisequalto
weightbutcontactforceisnotweightitself.Remember,weightisagravitationalforce).
Groundexertsanequalforcetoourbody.Thatforceisfeltbyourbodyasourweight.
PleaseTurnOver
Whenwetravelbyaliftweeithergoupwardsordownwards.Ineachcasetherearethree
stagesofmotion:
Upwards
Liftstartsmoving
(Acceleration)
Downwards
Floor accelerates so Liftstartsmoving
person feels a
(Acceleration)
resultant force from
the floor of the lift
upwards. So overall
upwardforceonthe
personincreases.He
feels his weight has
increased.
Floor of the lift

accelerates so the
resultant force is
downwards. Overall
upwardforceonthe
person decreases
and he feels his
weight
has
decreased
Lift moves with a Floor of the lift Lift moves with a Floor of the lift
constantvelocity
doesnt exert any constantVelocity
doesnt exert any
additional resultant
additional resultant
(Noacceleration)
force. So person
force. So person
feels his weight he
feels his weight he
would have felt
would have felt
normally.
normally.
Lift decelerates as it Floor of the lift
reaches a desired decelerates so the
floor
resultant force is
downwards. Overall
(Deceleration and
upwardforceonthe
stop)
person decreases
and he feels his
weight
has
decreased.
Lift decelerates as it Floor decelerates so

reaches a desired person feels a
floor
resultant force from
the floor of the lift
(Deceleration and
upwards. So overall
stop)
upwardforceonthe
personincreases.He
feels his weight has
increased.
ViscousDrag:
Viscousdragistheforcebetweendifferentlayersofafluidthatopposestheirrelativemotion.
Greaterthespeed,moreistheviscousdrag
Thefurtherthefluidisfromthefixedsurface,thegreateritsspeed.
SolidfluidDragForce:
Theforcethatopposesthemotionofasolidinafluidiscalledsolidfluiddragforce.
Theoriginofthisforceisviscousdrag.Themorethespeedofthesolid,themoreisthedrag
force.
UpthrustremainssamesinceWstaysame
WhenD=W,resultantforce=0
Astheballreleased,itaccelerates.Thelayerofliquidincontactwiththeballmovesandthe
adjacentlayersopposeitsmotion.Soanupwarddragforceoccurs
Asthespeedincreases,dragforceincreases.Atsomeparticularspeed,drag(D)becomes
equaltoweight(W).Thebodynomoreacceleratesandreachesaconstantspeedcalledthe
terminalvelocity.
Upthrusthasbeenneglected
LawaboutFluidMotion:
Rateofflowatanycrosssectioninthetubeisconstant.

=
Rateofflow=
Rateofflowisthevolumeoffluidmovingperunittime.
V=A l

Rateofflow=
Rateofflow=A v
(v=velocity= )
A v=constant
Thereforeinthenarrowpartofthetubewaterflowsfaster.
AerodynamicLift
Fasterairexertslesspressurethanslowerair.
AstheaircraftmovesvolumeofairenteringendApersecondrelativetothemotionisequal
tothevolumeofairleavingendBpersecondbecauseoftheshapeofthewing,airabovethe
winghastotravelagreaterdistancethantheairbeneathit.Sotheairabovemovesfaster.
Fasterairexertslesspressurethanslowerorstationaryair.
Downwardpressureofaironthetopoftheaircraftislessthantheupwardpressurefrom
beneathit.Thisiswhytheupwardforceisgreaterthanthedownwardforceandthereisa
resultantupwardforceontheaircraftwhichiscalledtheaerodynamiclift.
ForceDiagram:
Aircraftflyinghorizontallyataconstantvelocity:
Aircraftgainingheightataconstantvelocity:
cos
sin
Momentum
Momentum:
Momentumistheproductofmassandvelocity.
p=mv
ConservationofMomentum:
Totalmomentumofasystemoftwoormorebodiesremainsconstantbeforeandafter
collisionorexplosion,providednootherexternalforcesactuponthem.
m1u1+m2u2=m1v1+m2v2
m1u1+m2u2=(m1+m2)v
Ifu2=0,
m1u1=(m1+m2)v
m1u1m2u2=m1v1+m2v2
Explosion:
Totalmomentum=0
m1v1+m2v2=0
m2v2=m1v1
The two trolleys will gain equal momentum in opposite direction. So the net change in
momentumiszero.
Butthetotalkineticenergyofthetrolleyincreasesafterthecollision.Thespringdoesnot
workonthetwotrolleysandenergyistransferredfromthespringtothetrolleysandenergy
istransferredfromthespringtothetrolleys.
Totalmomentumofthegunandbulletbeforethefireiszero.
Afterthefire,momentumofthebulletismv1
Forthetotalmomentumtoremainszero,thegunmastrecoil,thatis,movebackwardwith
thesamemomentumasthebullet.
AnExperimenttoinvestigateConservationofMomentum,wheretwobodies
combineaftercollision:
G1isgivenapushtotheright.Itmovesataconstantvelocity.AfterthecollisionwithG2,
boththeglidersmovetogetheratanewconstantvelocity.Duringthesemotions,thecard
interruptsthelightgates.
Measurements:
Massofthegliders,m1andm2
Lengthofthecard,l
Timeoffirstinterruption,t1
Timeofsecondinterruption,t2
Calculations:
Velocityofglider1beforecollisionisu=
Commonvelocityoftheglidersaftercollisionisv=
Totalmomentumbeforecollision=m1u
Totalmomentumaftercollision=(m1+m2)v
Theresultsshouldshowthat,
m1u=(m1+m2)v
So,thelawisverified.
Impulse
Impulse:
Impulseistheproductofforceappliedandthetimeforwhichtheforceisapplied.
Impulse=Force time
Usuallywedealwithimpulsewhenalargeforceisappliedforashorttime.Forexample;
(i)
Whenacricketballishitbyabat
(ii)
Whentwomobbingbodiescollideandetc.
UnitofImpulse=Ns
F=
Or,mvmu=F t
Changeinmomentumofabody=impulseonthebody
ForcetimeGraphs:
i.
ConstantForce:
Areaunderforcetimegraph=impulse
LinearlyChangingForce:
ii.
iii.
Changeinmomentumonimpulse= F t
=AverageForce time
NonuniformlyChangingForce:
Impulse=Areaunderthegraph
=Numberofcompletesquareunderthecurve Areaofonesquare
ImpulsesandConservationofMomentum:
AccordingtoNewtons3rdLawofMotion,
F1=F2
Andtheforcesactforthesamelengthoftime.
F1 t=F2 t
Impulseonm1=Impulseonm2
Changeinmomentumofm1=Changeinmomentumofm2
Netchangeinmomentumiszeroandthetotalmomentumremainsunchanged.
Pm1+Pm2=0
Pm1+Pm2=P(changeinmomentum)
P=0
Thereforethereisnochangeinmomentum
Momentumbeforecollision=Momentumaftercollision
Changeinmomentumonm1=Changeinmomentumonm2
Or,m1v1m1u1=(m2v2m2u2)
Or,m1v1m1u1=m2v2+m2u2
m1v1+m2v2=m1u1+m2u2
Totalmomentumaftercollision=Totalmomentumaftercollision
ToMeasuretheForceofaKick:
Measurements:
Massoftheball=m
Timeofkick=t(fromthetimer)
Height=h(fromwhichtheballiskicked)
Horizontaldisplacement=x
Calculations:
Iftisthetimetheballelapsesinair,consideringverticalmotion,
h= gt2
t=
Consideringhorizontalmotion,
x=v t
v=
F=
F=
Chapter04
Work,Energy&Power
Work:
Itisdefinedastheproductoftheforceappliedandthedistancemovedinthedirectionof
theappliedforce.
Work=Force*Displacementinthedirectionoftheforce
W=F*d(x)
F
W=Fx
W=(FCos90 )*x
W=(FCos)*x
CircularMotion:
Foranobjectwhichismovingincircle,aforcealwaysactsontheobjectwhichisdirectedtowardsthe
centreofthecircle.Here,thedisplacementoftheobjectisalongthetangenttothecircleandtheforce
isperpendiculartothedisplacement.Noworkisdoneontheobject.
Negativeworkisdonewhenthedisplacementoccursintheoppositedirectionoftheunbalancedforce.
Itsconsequenceisthedecelerationofthebody.E.g.workdonebyabrakingforceorfrictionalforce
actingonamovingbodyisnegativework.
W=F*x
F(BrakingForce)
ForceDisplacementGraphs:
i)
ii)
ConstantForce
Workdone
=Areaunderthegraph

=F*x
Forcechanginglinearly
Workdone= Fx
iii)
Forcechangingnonlinearly
Energyofasmallsquare=1x1=1J
No.ofcompletesquares=x
No.ofincompletesquares=y
Totalenergyunderthegraph
1
=(x*1)+( *y*1)
=zJ
WorkDonebyagasthatisexpandingagainstaconstantexternalpressure:PV
Energy
Itistheabilityofdoingwork.Therearetwotypesofmechanicalenergy:
1) PotentialEnergy
2) KineticEnergy
PotentialEnergy
Wheneverworkisdoneagainstanoncontactforce,theenergygainedbythebodyiscalledpotential
energy.Therearetwotypesofpotentialenergy:
a) GravitationalPotentialEnergy(GPE)
b) ElasticPotentialEnergy(EPE)
c) ElectricPotentialEnergy
GravitationalPotentialEnergy
Abodygainsgravitationalpotentialenergywhenitspositionischangedagainstgravitationalforce.A
body loses gravitational potential energy when its position is changed along the direction of
gravitationalforce.
F
h
W=F*h
GPE=mgh
mg
Here,thegainingravitationalpotentialenergy=mgh.
ElasticPotentialEnergy
When work is done against elastic force, the gain in energy is known as elastic potential energy.
Example:elasticpotentialenergyinastretchedspring
AccordingtoHookesLaw,forceisdirectlyproportionaltodisplacement.
HookesLaw:
Fx
F=kx,
where,k=springconstant(stiffnessofthespring)
F(N)
Energy=Areaunderthegraph= Fx
E.P.E= Fx(i)
E.PE.= (kx)x = kx2(ii)
x (m)
Whenworkisdoneagainstacontactforce,nopotentialenergyisgainedbythebody.Inthiscase,the
bodyusuallygainsthermalorinternalenergy.
ElectricPotentialEnergy:
KineticEnergy
Energypossessedbyabodybecauseofitsmotioniscalledkineticenergy.Ifabodyofmassmmoves
atavelocityv,itskineticenergy,K.E.= mv2.
Derivationofmv2:
v
Smoothsurface
Aconstantforce,F,isappliedonabodyofmassm,whichisinitiallyatrest.Thebodyundergoesa
constantaccelerationa,andgainsavelocityvafteradisplacementofx.
v2=u2+2ax
or,
v2=2ax
or,
ax= v2
KineticEnergy,K.E.
=F*x
=ma*x
=m*(ax)
K.E.
= mv2
=m*( v2)
Relationshipbetweenkineticenergyandmomentum:
Momentumofabody=itsmass*itsvelocity
Momentum=m*v
=m*v
mv2*
K.E.=
Unit:kgms1
K.E.
Internal Energy: Some of potential energy and kinetic energy of the molecules in matter is called
internalenergy.
Power
Itisdefinedastherateofdoingworkortherateofenergytransferred.
Power=
P=F*v
(Watt)
Power=
(J/s)
Efficiency
Itistheratioofusefulenergyorusefulpoweroutputtothetotalenergyortotalpowerinput.Itis
expressedinbothrationandpercentage.
Efficiency=
*100%
*100%
LawofConservationofEnergy
Energycanneitherbecreatednordestroyed.Itcanonlybetransferredfromoneformtoanother.The
totalamountofenergyintheUniverseisconstant.
EXPERIMENT:Toinvestigatethelawofconservationofenergy
Procedure:
Astheloadfalls,itlosespotentialenergy.Boththegliderandthefallingmass(weight)gainskinetic
energy.
Measurements:
Massofthegliderwithcard
m1
Massofthefallingload
m2
Lengthofthecard
Distancetravelledbythegliderbeforeitinterruptsthelightgate
Timeofinterruption=t
Calculations:
Velocityofthegliderwhenitinterruptsthelightgate:v=
LossofG.P.E.oftheload:m2ghorm2gx
GaininKineticenergyofglider:
GaininKineticenergyofload:
Iftheresultsshowthat:
thatthetotalenergyofthesystemisconserved.
Assumption:
= m2gx then it is proved
Nofrictioninthepulley
Thestringisinextensibleandweightless.

ElasticCollision
Whenthekineticenergyofasystemoftwoormorecollidingbodiesremainsconstantbeforeandafter
thecollision,itiscalledelasticcollision.
InelasticCollision
Whenthetotalkineticenergyofasystemchangesaftercollision,itiscalledinelasticcollision.
Whentwobodiescollidewithspringsbetweenthem,thecollisionisapproximatelyelastic.Perfectly
elasticcollisionoccursbetweenatomsandmolecules.Usually,inothercollisions,totalkineticenergy
decreasesbecausesomeenergyistransferredtointernalenergy.
EXPERIMENT:Tostudyanelasticcollision
L1
L2
Procedure
m1
m2
Thetwoglidersaregivenasmallpushtowardseachother.Thegliderscollideandrebound.During
thesemotions,eachofthecardsinterruptsonthelightgatetwice.
Measurements:
1) Lengthofthecards
=
L1andL2
2) Massofthegliders
=
m1andm2
3) Timeofinterruptionofglider1beforecollision
=
T1sec
4) Timeofinterruptionofglider2beforecollision
=
T2sec
5) Timeofinterruptionofglider1aftercollision
6) Timeofinterruptionofglider2aftercollision
=
=
T3sec
T4sec
u1
velocityofglider2
Calculations:
Beforecollision:
velocityofglider1
Totalkineticenergy
Aftercollision:
velocityofglider1
velocityofglider2
m1u12+ m2u22
v1
Totalkineticenergy
u2
v2
m1v12+ m2v22
If,
m1u12+ m2u22
m1v12+ m2v22,
the
collision
elastic.
EXPERIMENT:Tomeasurethespeedofanairriflepellet
Procedure
Therifleisfiredhorizontallysothatthepelletisembeddedinthesuspendedplasticblock.
Measurements:
Massofpellet
m1
is
Massofblock
=
m2
Maximumheightgainedbythepelletandtheblock
=
h
Calculations:
GPEgainedbythepelletandtheblock
=
(m1+m2)*g*h.
Ifthecommonvelocityoftheblockandthepelletjustafterthecollisionisv,theirkineticenergyis
(m1+m2)v2.
Accordingtothelawofconservationofenergy,
(m1+m2)gh
(m1+m2)v2.
=
2 h
Ifthespeedofthepelletbeforecollisionisu,thenthelawofconservationofmomentum,
m1u1
(m1+m2)v
u1
*v
Chapter05
Fluids
Pressureinfluid
Pressureexertedbyafluidisdefinedastheweightoffluidperunitarea.
Weight of fluid
Area
P=
P=hg
where, h height of fluid
density of fluid
g gravitational field strength
AtmosphericPressure
Atmosphericpressureisthepressureduetothehugeamountofairaboveus.
=1.2kgm3
Atmosphericpressure=9000*1.2*9.81
100,000Pa
Pressureanddepth,h
Pressureatagivendepthisindependentofdirection.

The pressure is same in all directions. The pressure on a submerged object is perpendicular to the
surfaceateachpointonthesurface.
The pressure at a given depth is independent of direction -- it is the same in all directions.
This is another statement of the fact that pressure is not a vector and thus has no direction
associated with it when it is not in contact with some surface. The pressure on a
submerged object is always perpendicular to the surface at each point on the surface.
Upthrust
Upthrustistheforceexertedonanobjectbyafluidintheupwarddirectionwhenthe
objectisimmersedinthefluid.Upthrustistheresultofpressuredifferencebetweenthetopsurface
and the bottomsurface ofa solid immersed in a fluid. Upthrust ofa fluid on aparticularsolidata
particulartemperatureremainsconstant.
P1=h1g
P1
P2=h2g
h1
Since,
h2
h2>h1,
P2>P1,
P2
Resultantpressure
P2P1
(h2h1)g
hg
Ahg
vg
F
offluid,g=gravity)
(v=volumeoftheobject,=density
ArchimedesPrinciple
Upthrustonabodybyafluidisequaltotheweightofthefluiddisplacedbythebody.
Volumeofcan =
volumeoffluiddisplaced
Volumeoffluiddisplaced(v)*Densityoffluid()
Upthrust
(v)*g
massoffluid(m)
Upthrust
mgWheremgistheweightofthefluiddisplaced.
Floatation
Anobjectwillfloatifitsweightisequaltotheweightofthefluiditdisplaces.
TITANIC
Upthrust
Weight
Theshipwillfloatif,
Weightofthefluiddisplaced
Weightoftheship
Inordertostayafloat,anobject(e.g.aship)inafluid(e.g.water)needstodisplacefluidofweight
equaltotheobjectsownweight.Iftheweightoftheobjectislarge,itwillneedtodisplacealarge
volumeofthefluid,elseitwillsink.Ontheotherhand,ifthedensityofthefluidishigh,theobjectwill
needtodisplacelessvolumeofwater(sincedensityismore,asmallervolumeofthefluidwillproduce
theweightrequiredtobalancetheobjectsweight)andsotheobjectwillfloatmore.
MomentsandCouples
Therearetwotypesofmotion:
1) Translation
2) Rotation
Translation:
Translationoccurswhenallthepointsofanobjectaredisplacedoverthesamedistanceat
thesamespeed.
AA1=BB1CC1
A,B,Cundergoesthesamedisplacementatthesamespeed.So,thebodyundergoesonly
translation.
Rotation:
ThepointsA,B,andCundergodifferentdisplacementsatdifferentspeeds.
Inrotation,differentpointsofabodymovethroughdifferentdistancesatdifferentspeeds,and
thereisatleastasinglepointwhichdoesnotdisplaceatall.
Sometimesabodyundergoesbothtranslationandrotation.Example;themotionofatop,motionof
theEarthandetc.
Moments:
Theturningeffectofaforceiscalleditsmoment.
Quantitativelymomentistheproduceoftheforceanditsperpendiculardistancefromthe
turningpoint.
Moment=Force 1distancefromtheturningpoint/pivot/fulcrum
TwotypesofEquilibria:
(i)
Translational
(ii)
Rotational
Theblockisatrestontheplane
Theblockdoesnottranslateorrotate,soitisinbothtranslationalandrotationalequilibria.
Aballetdancerspinningonhertoeatafixedpointisinatranslationalequilibrium,
butnotinrotationalequilibrium.
Acarmovinginastraightlineisinrotationalequilibrium,butnotintranslational
equilibrium.
ConditionforTranslationalEquilibrium:
Resultantforceonthebodymustbezero
ConditionforRotationalEquilibrium:
Resultantmomentbytheforcesonthebodyaboutapointiszero.Thisiscalledprincipleof
momentswhichstatesthat:
Whenabodyisinequilibrium,thetotalclockwisemomentaboutapointisequaltothe
totalanticlockwisemomentaboutthesamepoint
fd=0
Whenafanismoving,momentoftheforcesonthefanisnotzero,buttheresultantforceis
zero.Sothefanonlyrotatesanddoesnotundergotranslation
ResultantForce=0
ResultantMoment 0,becausebothareclockwisemoments
Couple:
Acoupleisformedwhentwoequalforceshavingdifferentlinesofactionactonadifferent
bodyinoppositedirection
[d1=d2]
Couplealwayscausesrotationnottranslation.Themomentofthecouple:
=F d2+F d1
=F(d1 d2)
=F d
Totalmomentofacouple=oneoftheforces distancebetweentheforces
Torque( ):
TheresultantmomentofanumbersofforcesiscalledaTorque( ).
MomentofacoupleorasystemoftwoormoreforcesiscalledTorque.
CentreofGravity(G):
Centreofagravityofabodyisapointthroughwhichthetotalweightofthebodyseemsto
act
Tolocatethecentreofgravityofirregularshapedobjects(thin),twomethodsareused:
(i)
BalancingMethod
(ii)
HangingMethod
ConditionsforEquilibrium:
Whenastaticsystemisacteduponwithanumberofcoplanarforces,thentheconditions
forequilibriumare:
(i)
Sumoftheforcesinanyonedirection(horizontal)iszero
(ii)
Sumoftheforcesinanotherdirection(vertical)iszero
(iii)
Sumofthemomentsaboutapointiszero
2m
MatterandDeformingSolids
Accordingtogeneralobservation,solidsarecategorizedintothefollowingtypes:
1)Rigid:
materialswhichdonotdeformeasilywhenaforceisapplied.E.g.blockofmetal,wood
2)Plastic:
materialswhichdeformpermanentlyanddonotreturntotheiroriginalshapewhena
forceisapplied.E.g.wetclay,dough,etc.
3)Elastic:
materialswhichdeformeasilywhenaforceisappliedandreturnstoitsoriginalshape
whenth0eforceisremoved.E.g.spring,rubberband
DifferentTypesofsolids:
Malleable
Materialsthosecanbehammeredintothinsheets.Gold,asanexample,ismalleablematerialandcan
behammeredintoGoldleaf.
Ductile
Ductilematerialscanbedrawnintowires.Copperwiresareusedextensivelyforelectricalconnections
andareproducedbydrawingoutcylinderstothedesiredthickness.Mostductilematerialsarealso
malleablebutnotallmalleablematerialsarenotductile.
Tough
Toughmaterialsarethosewhichareabletowithstandlargeimpactforceswithoutbreaking.Tough
metalsusuallyundergoconsiderableplasticdeformationinordertoabsorbtheimpactenergy.
Brittle
Abrittleobjectwillbreakorshatterwithlittledeformationwhensubjectedtoshocksorimpacts.
Hard
Thematerialswhichresistplasticdeformationcausedbydentingorscratchingorcuttingaresaidtobe
hardmaterials.
Strong
An object is strongif it can withstand alarge force before it breaks. The strength ofamaterial will
dependonitssize.Fore.g.thickcottonthreadrequiresabiggerbreakingforcethanathinwire.
Thestrengthofamaterialisdefinedintermsofitsbreakingforce
HookesLaw
Extensionofanelasticbodyisdirectlyproportionaltotheforceappliedordirectlyproportionalto
therestoringforcebutintheoppositedirectionuntilitexceedsitselasticlimit.
Original unextended length
F eorFs e(F=appliedforce,Fs=RestoringForce,e=extensionalsorepresentedbyx)
F=ke Or
Fs = ke (The negative sign represents that the extension of the spring and the
restoringforceareproportionalbuttakesplaceintheoppositedirection.)
K=F/e=springconstant/orstiffnessofthespring.
Qualitativedefinitionofk=Howmuchforceisrequiredtoextendorcompressthespring.Carsprings
arestifferthanordinarylaboratorysprings.
Quantitativedefinition:Springconstantistheforceneededperunitextension.
ForceExtensiongraphofaverageextendablematerials:
Limitofproportionality:Theforceuptowhichextensionisdirectlyproportionaltoforce,thatis,F
againstegraphisstraightline,iscalledthelimitofproportionality.
ElasticLimit:Theforcebeyondwhichanelasticmaterialbehaveplasticallythatis,thematerialdoesnot
return to its original shape or length when the force is removed is called elastic limit. Limit of
proportionalityandtheelasticlimitareverycloseandthelimitofproportionalityisalittlelessthanthe
elasticlimit.Theextensionordeformationbeyondtheelasticlimitiscalledplasticdeformation.
YieldPoint&BreakingPoint
Beyond elastic limit, at a certain point, known as the yield point, the extension of a body increases
rapidlywithevenasmallincreaseinforce.
Iftheobjectkeepsextending,atacertainpoint,knownasthebreakingpoint,theobjectbreaksdown.
F(N)
k3
3
k2
k3>k2>k1
Spring(3)ismorestiffthanspring(2)
Spring(2)ismorestiffthanspring(1)
Gradient =k1
e(m)
Areaunderaforceextensiongraph
=
Energystoredinspring
ElasticPotentialEnergy
E =
or,
kx2
=
Fx
(kx)x =
kx2
Unit:Joule
Stress,Strain&YoungsModulus
Stress:
Itistheforceperunitareaofcrosssection.
i.e.
stress =
Force
Area of cross section
Therearethreetypesofstress:
1) Tensile
2) Compressive
3) Shear

ShearStress
TensileStress
CompressiveStress
TensileStress:
Itisdefinedasthetensileforceperunitareaofcrosssection.
Tensilestress
Unit:Nm orPascal
Force
Area of cross section
S.I.
Strain:
Theextensionperunitlengthiscalledthestrain
Strain =
Extension,
L1
or,
L1L2
L2
YoungsModulus
FormaterialsthatobeyHookesLaw,thetensilestressisfoundtobedirectlyproportionaltotensile
straini.eStressStrain.
StressStrain
Stress=E*Strain
E=youngModulus
Youngsmodulus(E)

Strain
Unit:Pa(Yes!ItissameasPressuresunit)
StressStrainGraphbeyondtheelasticlimitofaductileMaterial:
u=
ALimitofproportionality:
Itisthepointuptowhichthestressisproportionaltostrain
andthegraphisastraightline.Afterthatthestressisnotdirectlyproportionalbutwillcome
backtooriginalshapeaftertheremovalofstress.
BElasticlimit: Itisthestressbeyondwhichthebodyorthematerialbehavesplasticallyand
itfailstoreturntoitsoriginalshapeafterthestressisremoved.
y=YieldPoint:Thepointatwhichmaterialshowslargeincreaseinstrainforasmallincrease
instress.
CUltimatetensilestress:UltimateTensileStrength=Ultimatetensilestrength(UTS),often
shortenedtotensilestrength(TS)orultimatestrength,isthemaximumstressthatamaterial
canwithstandwhilebeingstretchedorpulledbeforefailingorbreaking.
RelationshipBetweenYoungModulusandStiffness.
Youngsmodulus:
k*
Strain
k*
If the gradient of the forceextension graph or stressstrain graph is large, that means the Young
Modulusofthematerialislargeandthematerialwillbestiffer.
CompressiveForce
Whenaforcetriestoreducethevolumeofamaterial,theforceiscalledacompressiveforce.
F
CompressiveStress
Itisthecompressiveforceperunitarea.
4r2
Compressivestress
Thestressbeyondwhichamaterialbreaksiscalleditscompressivestrength.
EnergyDensity
Theenergystoredperunitvolumeortheworkdoneperunitvolumeinanelasticdeformationiscalled
theenergydensity.
i.e
Energydensity
Stress =
Stress
Strain
Stress=E*strain
Strain
Area=*stress*strain
Stress*Strain

=Energydensity
* =
ExperimenttomeasuretheYoungModulusofastraightwire
Beforeaddingtheloadsthelengthofthewirelfromtheendofthewoodenblocksandmiddleofthe
pulleyismeasuredusingameterjusthangingthemasshangeronly.
Thediameterofthewireisalsomeasuredatseveralplacesofthewireusingascrewgaugeandan
averagediameterdiscalculated.
Aknownmassmishungwiththehelpofthemasshangerandtheextensionsefoundwiththehelp
ofthemeterrule.
Theexperimentrepeatedwithseveralknownmassesandthecorrespondingextensionsofthewireare
measured.
Calculations
Radiusofthewire:r=
CrossSectionalAreaoftheWire:A= r2
Force applied to the wire F mg
Stress applied to the wire F/A
Strain e/l
A graph of Stress against Strain in plotted and the gradient of the graph gives the young modulus
of the material.
Safety Precaution: Safety goggles should be worn in case of snapping wires. The apparatus should
be set up at low height so that falling load cant do much damage. Also floor mats must be used to
avoid bouncing back of loads to feet.
Precaution: The screw gauge should be handled carefully to avoid damage of the wire.
ElectricField&CoulombsLaw:
Twochargedbodiesattractorrepeleachotherbyaforcecalledelectrostaticforce.Somepointsto
rememberaboutelectrostaticphenomenaandelectricchargesare:
(i)
Byfriction,electronsaretransferredfromonesubstancetoanother.Example:From
Perspextoclothorfromclothtopolythene.
Positivelychargedbodymeansthereisalackofelectronsand,negativelychargedbody
meansthereisexcessofelectrons.
Likechargesrepelandunlikechargesattract.
Electricchargesalwaystransferdiscretely,i.e.atwholenumberofelectroniccharge
1.6 10
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
CoulombsLawofElectronicForce:
Theforceofattractionorrepulsionbetweentwochargedbodiesisdirectlyproportionaltotheproduct
oftheamountoftheircharges,i.e. 1 2(i)
Theforceisalsoinverselyproportionaltothesquareoftheirdistanceapart,i.e.
Combining(i)and(ii),
(ii)
,where isaconstantwhichdependsonthemediumbetweenthecharges.Forvacuum
9
orair,
10
Calculatetheelectrostaticforcebetweentwospheres,12
95 and106 .
6.29
apartinair,havingpositivechargesof
10
If ispositive,theforceisrepulsiveandif isnegative,theforceisattractive.
Intheexpression,
,where
,
isaconstantcalledthepermittivityofthemediumbetweenthecharged
bodies.
i.e.
Forvacuum,permittivityis
8.85
10
RelativePermittivity:
Therelativepermittivityofamediumistheratioofitspermittivity, ,tothepermittivityofvacuum,
o.
Forair,
Forwater,
1.005
o
80
Permittivityofwaterisabout80timesthatofair.
When NaCl is in water,electrostatic forceof attraction between Na+ and Cl becomes . So, NaCl
dissolvesinwater.
ElectricField:
Theregionaroundanelectriccharge,whereitexertsanelectrostaticforceonanotherchargeiscalled
anelectricfield.
Electricfieldisrepresentedbylinesofforces.Itisavectorquantity;thedirectionofthefieldatany
pointisdefinedasthedirectionoftheforceonasmallpositivechargeplacedatthatpoint.
Foranisolatedpointcharge,theelectricfieldisradial.
Forahollowchargedconductor,thereisnoelectricfieldinsideand,iftheconductorisspherical,then
thefieldoutsideisradial.
Atagreaterdistance,fluxdensitydecreases,sofieldstrengthdecreases.
Betweentwoparallelchargedplates,thefieldisuniform.
ElectricFieldStrength(E):
Electricfieldstrengthatapointistheforceexertedbythefieldon1Ccharge.
i.e.
Thefieldstrengthat is,
Or,
ExperimentalInvestigationstofindthepatternofElectricFieldLines:
(i)
Betweentwopointelectrodes
(ii)
Betweentwoparallelplateelectrodes
(iii)
Fieldbetweentwoparallelplates
Inregion ,thefieldlinesareparallelandequalspaced.Suchafieldiscalledauniformfield.
Inauniformfield,fieldstrength, ,remainsconstanteverywhere.
WorkDoneinanElectricField:
Also,
Since
therefore W/q = Ex
SoE=V/d
Problem:
Electricity
ElectricCurrent:
Qualitatively,anelectriccurrentisaflowofchargeorchargedparticles.
Inametalconductor,thechargedcarriesarefreeelectronsandso,anelectriccurrentisusuallyaflow
ofelectrons.
Qualitatively,anelectriccurrentisdefinedastherateofflowofcharge,i.e.

Current=
I=
I=
SIunit:Ampere(A)
1A=1Cs1
Chargeisalwaystransferreddiscretely.
Chargeofanelectron=1.6
10
Since fractionof electroncannotbe transferred, it isnot possible for anyamount ofcharge to be

transferred,i.e.theamountofchargemustalwaysbewholenumbermultipleofelectroniccharge.
Howmanyelectronshavetomovedtotransfer0.5Ccharge?
Q=ne
N= =
thereforen=3.125x1018
Tomakethefreeelectroninametalflow,apushisrequired.Qualitatively,thiselectricalpushiscalled
e.m.f.orelectromotiveforce.Usuallyacellorabatteryorageneratorprovidesthiselectricalpush.
ElectromotiveForce:
Quantitatively,e.m.f.isdefinedastheamountofworkdoneorenergytransfertomoveonecoulomb
chargeinacompleteloopofanelectricalcircuit.
E.m.f.ofacellistheamountofchemicalenergytransferredtoelectricalenergypercoulombcharge
bythecell.
E.m.f.=
E= or
W=
Unit:JC1orVolt(V)
1V=1JC1
TerminalPotentialDifference:
E.m.f
T+lostvoltage
VT=V1+V2+V3
VT=terminalvoltage
E=E1+E2+E3+Elost
Thepotentialdifferencebetweenthetwopointsisanelectricalcircuitistheamountofworkdoneto
flow1Cofchargebetweenthepoints.
Potentialdifference=
Terminal potential difference is the potential difference between the positive and the negative
terminalsofthecell,whenconnectedinanelectricalcircuit.
Somevoltageisalwayslostduetotheinternalresistanceofthesupplyitself.
Vlost=Irr=internalresistance
E=VT+Vlost
E=VT+Ir
E=e.m.f.
Ifthecelldoesnothaveanyinternalresistance,
E=VT
Therefore,e.m.f.isthetotalenergytransferredbythecellpercoulombchargeandterminalpotential
differenceisthetotalenergyuseduppercoulombchargebyallthecomponentsintheexternalcircuit.
Tomeasurethee.m.f.( )andtheInternalResistance(r)ofacellroughly
Whentheswitchisopened,thevoltmeterreadingisrecorded.Thisreadingisanapproximatevalue
forthee.m.f.ofthecell.
When the switch is closed, the voltmeter reading is again recorded. This reading is the terminal
potentialdifference,Vt.alsotheammeterreading,Iisrecorded.
VT+Vlost
VT+
r=
r=
VT
OhmsLaw:
Thecurrentinaconductorisdirectlyproportionaltothepotentialdifferencebetweentwopointsof
theconductor,providedthetemperatureisconstant.
or,
[Ristheresistanceoftheconductor]
SOMETHINGMISSINGABSENTWRITTENINCOPY
OhmsLaw:
Underconstantphysicalconditions,theresistance
of or ortheirdirections
ofaconductorisconstant,i.e.Risindependent
ObeyingOhmsLaw
Experiment:ToinvestigateOhmsLawusingacoilofwireandtomeasureitsresistance
Asetofvaluesfor
areobtainedbyalteringthetotalresistanceofthecircuitwiththehelpof
thevariableresistor.Thefixedresistorisusedtolimitthemaximumcurrentofthecircuitwithina
smallvalue,likenotmorethan1(A).Otherwise,withgreatercurrent,thecoilwouldbecomehot,
causingachangeinresistance.Ifthewireisthin,thenitmightburnormeltfromoverheating.
Thewholeexperimentisrepeatedbyreversingthepolarityofthebattery.
Agraphisplottedwith
.Thebestfitlineisastraightlinethroughtheorigin.
R=gradientoftheline.

AdvantagesofGraphicalCalculationofResistanceoveratabularmethod:
i.
ii.
Thegraphicalmethodaveragesthesetofgoodreadings,avoidingthewrongvalues.
Anysystematicerroriseliminatedinthegraphicalmethods.
CurrentinMicroscopicView:
(Macroscopicview)

=carrierdensity,i.e.thenumberoffreeelectronsinunitvolume.[unit:m3]
=areaofcrosssectionoftheconductors.[unit:m2]

electroniccharge=1.6 10
driftvelocityofthechargecarriers.[unit:ms1]
Accordingtoconductivity,materialsareofthreetypes:
i.
ii.
iii.
conductors
Semiconductors
Insulator
Inconductors,therearealwaysaremarkablenumberoffreeelectrons,i.e.carrierdensity islarge.
Thechangeintemperaturedoesnotaffecttheircarrierdensity.
Semiconductorshaveveryfewelectronsatnormaltemperature.Astemperatureincreases,number
offreeelectrons,i.e.thecarrierdensity increases.So,atlowtemperatures,semiconductorsarelike
insulators,andathightemperatures,theybehavelikegoodconductors.Example:silicon,graphiteand
etc.
Insulatorsdonothaveanyfreeelectronswhateverthetemperatureis.
RandomSpeedandMeanfreepath:
The mean free path is the average distance travelled by free electrons between two successive
collisions.
Thefreepathistravelledbytheelectronatalargespeed,around106ms1.Thisspeediscalledthe
randomspeed.
DriftVelocity:
Whenapotentialdifferenceisappliedbetweentheendsoftheconductor,freeelectronsdriftslowly
intheoppositedirectionoftheconvectionalcurrent.Thisaveragedisplacementofthechargecarriers
in1secondiscalledtheirdriftvelocity(typicalvalue:103mor104m)
Volumecoveredbythechargedparticlesin1sis
Numberoffreeelectronspassingthroughanycrosssectionin1sis
Chargetransferredin1sis
1
1.6 10
10
Calculatethedriftvelocity
10
1
1
V=
10
10
.
)
.
V=6.25
10
Thelengthofthewireconnectingthelampwiththebatteryis1m.Howlongwillittakeforafree
electrontomovefromthepowertothelamp?
Time=
1.6
10
Whentheswitchisclosed,ittakesalongtimeforthefreeelectronstomovefromthepowersupply
tothefilamentofthelamp.Butpracticallythelamplightsinstantlyastheswitchisclosed.Thisis
because,whentheswitchisclosed,allthechargecarriersinthecircuitstarttomovetogetherata
time, and the electrical effect travels around the circuit at the speed of light in the form of
electromagneticwave.
ApplicationofI=nAqvtointerpretsomecases:
Case1:
Iisconstantbecausewiresareconnectedinseries
Aissamebecausematerialissame
qisconstantbecauseitiselectroniccharge
Experiment:TocomparetheDriftVelocityofChargeCarriersintwowires
[I,n&qareconstant]
Thinwirehasasmallerareaofcrosssection.So,driftvelocityvinthethinwireisgreaterthaninthe
thickwire.
Filamentdiameter 1cm
AreaofcrosssectionAofthewireis106timesthatoftheareaofcrosssectionofthefilament.
Driftvelocityofthechargecarriersinthefilamentis106timesinthewire.
Ascalculatedbefore,inwire
6.25
Infilament,
10
6.25
6.25
10
625
10
10
Case2:
Experiment:ComparetheDriftVelocitiesofthechargedCarriersinthetwomaterials
I,A&qareconstant
Forconductor,
10
Forsemiconductor,
10
Forconductor, is105timesthatforsemiconductor.
Since ,insemiconductor,thechargecarriersmove105timesfasterthanintheconductor.
VI&IVGraphsforsomenonohmicConductorsorElectricalComponents:
FilamentofaLamp:
Withincreasingtemperature,resistanceofaconductorincreases.Atgreatercurrent,thefilamentis
heatedupmore;itstemperatureincreases,sodoesitsresistance.Asaresult,thegradientofVIgraph
increasesandthegradientoftheIVgraphdecreases.
MicroscopicView:
Athighertemperature, ,
doesnotchangebecauseoftheincreaseininternalenergy,the
fixed ions in the metal vibrate more vigorously. The free electrons collide with fixed ions more
frequently.Asaresult,thepassageofchargecarriersishinderedmore,theirdriftvelocityvdecreases.
Hence,current decreasesandresistanceRincreases.
Thermistor:
Atemperaturesensitiveresistoriscalledathermistor.
Therearetwotypesofthermistors:
I.
NTC(NegativeTemperatureCoefficient)Thermistor
Resistanceofthistypesofthermistorsdecreaseswiththeincreaseintemperature.
II.
PTC(PositiveTemperatureCoefficient)Thermistor
Resistanceofthistypesofthermistorsincreaseswiththeincreaseintemperature.
ForNTCThermistor:
Atlowertemperature,thesematerialshaveverysmallcarrierdensity .Astemperatureincreases,
more electrons become free from the atoms. So, carrier density increases significantly and drift
velocitydecreasesslightly.Consequently,thecurrentincreasesi.e.resistancedecreases.
SemiConductingDiode:
An electrical component, which allows current to flow only in one direction, is known as a diode.
Thediodeinthisseriesisinforwardbias.Whenvoltageacrossthediodeisverysmallnocurrentflows
throughthecircuit.Onincreasingthevoltage,thecurrentveryslowlyincreases.Onreachingacertain
voltage (0.1V), the current starts to increase significantly. At this voltage, the carrier density
increasesremarkably.So, increasesandhenceRdecreases.
Inthisdiagram,thediodeisinreversebias.Herethecurrentreadingremainszeroevenifthevoltage
is increased too high. This is because in reverse bias, carrier density remains zero or negligible
whateverthevoltageis.
Resistivity:
Atconstanttemperature,resistanceofaconductordependsontwofactors:
i.
ii.
Itslength
(i)[whenareaofcrosssectionAisconstant]
Itsareaofcrosssection(A)
(ii)[when isconstant]
Combining(i)and(ii):

Whereisaconstantcalledtheresistivityofthematerialoftheconductor.
Unit:
IfA=1m2&
=R
Resistivity:
Theresistivityofthematerialofaconductorisitsresistanceperunitlengthandunitareaofcross
section.
Iftemperaturechanges,resistancealsochanges.Thisiswhyresistivitychanges.
Experiment:Tomeasuretheresistivityofthematerialofacoilofwire
MeasurementofR:
Withthehelpofthevariableresistor,asetofvaluesfor
plotted.Thebestfitlineisdrawnthroughthepoints.
R=gradientoftheline
Precautions:
arerecorded.
graphis
Thecurrentshouldbekeptsmall,within1Abecauseatagratercurrent,thewirewillbeheatedup,
changingitsresistance.Forthispurpose,thefixedresistance hasbeenconnectedinseries.
Measurementofl:
NumberofturnsinthecoilisrecordedN.DiameterofthecoilismeasuredDusingaslidecalipers.
Lengthofwire,
MeasurementofA:
Diameter ofthewireismeasuredwithamicrometerscrewgauge.
Usingthemeasuredvalues,resistivityiscalculated.
InternalResistance&ShortCircuitCurrent:
Experiment:TomeasureEandr
Bychangingthetotalresistanceofthecircuitwiththevariableresistor,asetofvaluesforterminal
voltage andcurrentinthecircuit arerecorded.Agraphisplotted
.Itwillbeastraight
line,havingyinterceptandanegativegradient.
ShortCircuit:
Ifthetwoterminalsofacellorabatteryoranyotherpowersupplyaredirectlyconnectedwithavery
lowresistancewire(i.e.withoutanyload),itiscalledashortcircuit.Duringshortcircuit,alargecurrent
flow,whichiscalledashortcircuitcurrent.
Incaseofashortcircuit,R=0
i.e.
Short
Shortcircuitcurrentisthemaximumpossiblecurrentinacircuitandtheinternalresistanceofthe
supplylimitsthecurrent(tothemaximumvalue).
TypicalvaluesofInternalResistancefordifferentPowerSource:
PowerSource
AACell
CarBattery
1.5
InternalResistance( )
12
0.5 (Ishort
0.05 (Ishort
E.h.t.Supply(Extrahightension)
(Ishort
3 )
240 )
5 )
CombinationsofResistors:
SeriesCombination:
Inseriescombinationsamecurrentflowsthroughalltheresistors,butthetotalvoltage isdivided
acrosstheresistor.AccordingtoOhmsLaw,
V1=IR1
V2=IR2
V3=IR3
IftheeffectiveresistanceisR3,V=IRs
AccordingtoKirchhoffsSecondLaw,
V=V1+V2+V3
IRs=IR1+IR2+IR3
Rs=R1+R2+R3
ParallelCombination:
Inparallelcombination,voltagedropacrosstheresistorsremainssamebutthetotalcurrentinthe
circuitisdividedintheresistors.
UsingOhmsLaw,
I1=
I2=
I3=
IntheeffectiveresistanceisRp
I=
AccordingtoKirchhoffs1stLaw,
I=I1+I2+I3
PotentialDivider:
Apotentialdividerisanarrangementofresistororresistancewires,connectedinseries,whichisused
todividethevoltagefromasourceinproportiontotheresistances.
Vout=IR2
I=
in
Vout=
Vout=
Vin
VinVT
Vout=
Vin
Inapotentialdividercircuit,whenacomponentoflowresistanceisconnectedacrosstheoutput,the
voltagedropsremarkablyfromtheexpectedvoltage.However,ifaveryhighresistancecomponentis
connectedacrossnearlysameastheexpectedvoltage.
TemperatureSensitivePotentialDivider:
AnNTCthermistorcanbeasatemperatureasatemperaturesensitivepotentialdivider.
V=
Vin
Astemperatureincreases,resistanceofNTCthermistorRTdecreases.
Vout=
Vin
WhenRTdecreases,Voutincreases.
Therefore,anincreaseinvoltmeterreadingindicatesanincreaseintemperature.
Circuit2:
If temperature increases, resistance RT decreases. So, the voltage across thermistor decreases.
Therefore,adecreaseinvoltmeterreadingindicatesanincreaseintemperature
LightSensitivePotentialDivider:
Alightdependentresistor(LDR)canbeusedasalightsensitivepotentialdivider.Resistanceofan
LDRdecreaseswithincreaseintheintensityoflightfallingonit.
Resistanceishighinthedarkandlowinthebrightlight.
VR=
Vin
Circuit1:
Whenlightintensityincreases,RLdecreases.
Vout=
Vin
ThereforeVoutincreases.So,increaseinvoltmeterreadingindicatesanincreaseinlightintensity.
Circuit2:
VR=
Vin
aslightintensityincreases,RLdecreases.
Voutdecreases.So,decreaseinvoltmeterreadingindicatesanincreaseinlightintensity.
Thislightsensitivitypotentialdividercanbeusedasalightmeter.
Anothertypesoflightmeter:
[i]
[ii]
Currentisnotzero,sinceresistanceisnotinfinite.
Potentiometer:
Apotentiometercanprovideacontinuousvariablepotentialdifferencefromzerotofullvoltageof
thesupply.
AtpositionAoftheslidingcontact,thelampgetsthefullvoltageofthesupply,andsothecurrentin
thelampismaximum.
Asthecontactismoveddown,voltageacrossthelampdecreases.AtpositionC,thevoltageacross
thelampbecomeszero,andsothecurrentinthelampalsobecomeszero.
RotationtypePotentiometer:
Vout=
Vin
AstheknobisrotatedfromAtoC,thevoltagereadingdecreasesfromfullvoltage(ofthesupply)to
zero.
Inparallelconnection,R=maximum
V=0
Rheostat:
AtA,thevoltageacrossthelamp=fullvoltageofthesupply
WhentheslidingcontactismovedtowardsC,thevoltagebecomesminimum,butnotzero.
Arheostatisavariableresistor,bymeansofwhich,voltageacrossanothercomponentinthecircuit
canbevariedfromfullvoltageofthesupplydowntoaminimumvalue,whichisnotzero.
ErrorinAmmeterandVoltmeterReadingswhilemeasuringResistance:
Anidealammetershouldhavezeroresistanceandanidealvoltmetershouldhaveinfiniteresistance.
Butinpractice,metersarenotideal,sotheygiverisetoerror.
Incircuit(i),
Inthiscircuit,thereisnoerrorinthevoltmeterreading.Sincethevoltmeterdoesnothaveinfinite
resistance, some current flows through it. So the ammeter cannot read the current passing only
throughtheresistor.Asaresult,theammeterreadinghaserror.So,thecalculatedresistancevalue
willbelessthantheoriginalvalue.Thepercentageerrorismoreiftheresistanceoftheresistoris
more.
However,inthiscircuit,errorwillbemoreprominentif islarge.Tomeasuresmallresistance,this
circuitissuitable.
Incircuit(ii),
Incircuit(ii),theammeterreadingdoesnothaveanyerror.Sincetheammeterdoesnothavezero
resistance,somevoltageisdroppedacrosstheammeter.Sothevoltmetercannotmeasurethevoltage
droppedonlyacrosstheresistor.Inthiscircuit,thesmallertheresistanceof ,themoreprominentis
theerror.Thiscircuitissuitableformeasuringlargeresistances.
SolarCells:
Symbol:
AsolarcellisasemiconductingdevicewhichcanconvertlightenergyintoDCelectricity.Itdoesnt
produceanyharmfulgaslikeCO2(whichincreasesglobalwarming)andSO2(whichproducesacid
rain),soitisecofriendly.
Problemsregardingsolarcell:Solarcellisveryinefficientintermsofconvertingsunlightinto
electricity.Atlowsunlightitproduceshighcurrentbutlowvoltage.Sooverallpoweroutputofsolar
cellislow.Ontheotherhandathighsolarradiationtheoutputvoltagebecomeshighbutthecurrent
supplyfallsandeventuallythepoweroutputdrops.Themaximumpoweristhereforeobtainedfora
certainvalueofsolarradiation.Sinceintensity(brightness)ofsolarradiationvariesovertheday,so
doesthepoweroutputofthecell.
KirchhoffsLaw
Kirchhoffslawsareusedtofindthecurrentsindifferentpartsofanelectricalcircuitthatconsistsof
differentelectricalcomponents.
Kirchhoffs1stLaw
Kirchhoffsfirstlawreferstoanypointinanelectricalcircuit.Itstatesthatthetotalcurrentarrivingat
anyjunctionoratanypointinacircuitisequaltothetotalcurrentleavingthejunctionorpoint.
AccordingtoKirchhoffs1stlaw,
AtpointB:
Totalincomingcurrent =totaloutgoingcurrent
I1
I2
Currentistakentobepositivewhenitflowstoapointandnegativewhenitflowsawayfromapoint.
Thefirstlawisaconsequenceofthelawofconservationofcharge.Thatis,electricalchargesareneither
producednordestroyedoraccumulatedatanypointofanelectricalcircuit.
Kirchhoffs2ndLaw
Kirchhoffssecondlawrelatestothetotal.m.finaclosedloopwiththetotalpotentialdropinthe
loop. It states that, round a closed loop, the algebraic sum of the .m.f is equal to the sum of the
potentialdifference.
An .m.f is considered positiveifits direction is thesame as thatof the current,andnegativeifits
directionisoppositetothatofthecurrent.
ApplyingKirchhoffs2ndlawalongABEF,
6V
(I1+I2)8+(I1)3
I1(8+3)+I2(8)
6V
11I1+8I2
________(1)
________(2)
I2=
AlongCDEF,
4V
(I1+I2)8+I2(2)
6V
8I1+10I2
I1=
0.61A
&
0.09A
The second law is a consequence of law of conservation of energy. That is, energy transferred per
coulombchargebythecellsisequaltoenergyconsumedbyalltheresistorsinaclosedloop.
PotentiometertofindEMFofunknownbatteries
ElectricalHeight:
AtoBwaterflowsduetodifferenceinheight
CtoDnoflow,sincenodifferenceinheight
AFandXYaretwoidenticalresistancewires.
C=midpointofAF
D=midpointofXY
Currentflowsbetweentwopointswhenthereisapotentialdifference.Currentflowsfromahigher
potentialtolowerpotential.Inthecircuit,AisahigherpotentialandDisalowerpotential.Current
flowsfromAtoD.asthecontactismovedfromAtoC,currentdecreasesbecausepotentialdifference
betweenthecontactandDdecreases.AtC,theammeterreadingbecomeszerobecausethereisno
potentialdifferencebetweenCandD.
AsthecontactismovedfromCtowardsF,currentreadingstartstoincrease,butthistimecurrent
flowsintheoppositedirectionthroughtheammeterbecauseallthepointsbetweenCandFareata
lowerpotentialthanD.Thispotentialdifferenceiscalledelectricalheight.

CIE A Level Notes

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

CIE A Level Notes

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

measure lengths using a ruler, vernier scale and

treatment is not required .

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

It is the rate of change of position or rate of change of distance, travelled in any

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

EXPERIMENT: To investigate that acceleration is directly proportional to force (when mass is

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

Earth pulling Ball downward with

Ball pulling Earth upward

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

Situation: A cat is sitting on a table

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

Floor of the lift

Lift decelerates as it Floor decelerates so

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

E.PE.= (kx)x = kx2(ii)

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

= m2gx then it is proved

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

where, h height of fluid

g gravitational field strength

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608

CIEALEVELPHYSICSNOTESCOURSEINSTRUCTOR ASIFAHSANCONT: 01911784608