Scientists make progress by using the scientific method, a process of

checking conclusions against nature. After observing something, a

scientist tries to explain what has been seen.
The explanation is called an hypothesis. There is always at least one
alternative hypothesis.
A part of nature is tested in a "controlled experiment" to see if the
explanation matches reality. A controlled experiment is one in which all
treatments are identical except that some are exposed to the
hypothetical cause and some are not. Any differences in the way the
treatments behave is attributed to the presence and lack of the cause.
If the results of the experiment are consistent with the hypothesis,
there is evidence to support the hypothesis. If the two do not match,
the scientist seeks an alternative explanation and redesigns the
experiment.
When enough evidence accumulates, the understanding of this natural
phenomenon is considered a scientific theory. A scientific theory
persists until additional evidence causes it to be revised.
Nature's reality is always the final judge of a scientific theory.

Seven Characteristics of Life

You are a living thing. But so is the tree in your backyard, the bird that
sits on one of its branches, and the worm in that bird's mouth...at least
until that bird finishes its morning snack! Each of these things looks
very different on the outside. But because they are all living organisms,
they are more similar than you might think.
In fact, there are seven characteristics that we can use to define 'life.'
All living things can be described by these properties, which help us
explain in universal terms why a rock is not a living thing, but a flower,
a fish, and a ladybug are!
1. Cellular Organization
The first thing that makes living organisms unique is that they are all
made of cells, which are considered the building blocks of life. Cells are
amazing, because while they are very small themselves, they can work
together to form very large structures like the tissues and organs in
your body. Cells are also specialized - for example, liver cells are only
found in your liver, and brain cells are best kept up in your head!
Some organisms are made of just one cell, like many bacteria, while
others are made of trillions of cells, like you and me. Multicellular
organisms are very complex beings that have incredible cellular
organization. This organization begins way down in your DNA and
extends all the way to you as a whole organism.
2. Reproduction
How do living things on Earth get here? They don't simply appear out
of thin air, but instead come from reproduction, the next common
characteristic of all living things. There are two ways that offspring are
produced. The first is probably what you're most familiar with, sexual
reproduction. This is when organisms produce offspring by combining
gametes. Humans fall into this category.
The other type of reproduction is asexual reproduction, which is when
organisms produce offspring without gametes. Unlike sexual
reproduction where offspring have a different genetic makeup than
either parent, asexually produced offspring are genetically identical to
the parent.
3. Growth and Development
Once an offspring is produced, it doesn't stay like that forever. You
know this all too well - you've probably changed a lot since you were
first born into this world! Other living organisms experience these life
changes too, and this brings us to our third characteristic of life,

growth and development. Organisms grow and develop throughout

their lives, but these two terms do not mean the same thing.
Growth is when features change from a small size to a larger size.
Think about when you were first born - you had all the same features
you do now: fingers, toes, eyes, heart, etc. The difference is they were
much smaller before and then grew into larger versions as you aged.
Development, on the other hand, is when features change or
transform. This is the process you went through before you were born you started as a single cell and ended as a baby, with many different
transformations in between.
4. Energy
Growth and development, cellular processes, and even reproduction
can only occur because living organisms take in and use energy, the
fourth common characteristic of life. All of life's energy ultimately
comes from the sun, and this energy powers everything on Earth.
Many living organisms, such as plants and some algae, use the sun to
make their own food. This process of converting sunlight into chemical
energy is called photosynthesis, and these organisms that can produce
their own food are called autotrophs, or 'self-feeders.' However, many
organisms cannot make their own food, and therefore have to eat
other living organisms to get the energy and nutrition they need.
Organisms that eat other organisms are called heterotrophs, or 'otherfeeders.'
5. Response to the Environment
The next characteristic of all living things is that they respond to
environmental stimuli. What this means is that changes in the
environment trigger certain responses in organisms.
For example, a Venus flytrap will snap shut very quickly when a fly
lands on it, a turtle will come out to bask on a log when it's sunny, and
you will go to the fridge to make a sandwich when your stomach growls
at lunchtime.
Stimuli can be external (outside of the body) or internal (inside of the
body), and they help living organisms maintain balance. Stimuli are
detected through various senses in organisms, such as sight, taste,
smell, and touch. And, the speed of response varies from organism to
organism, and from stimuli to stimuli. For example, if while in the
middle of leisurely making that sandwich for lunch, a bear appears in
your kitchen, your response to that stimulus is likely to be much faster,
and in the opposite direction!

6. Regulation
The balance that is obtained from responding to stimuli is very
important to all living things and is the next common characteristic of
life. This regulation of an organism's internal environment is called
homeostasis: 'homeo' for 'same' and 'stasis' for 'standing still.' It
simply means that an internal environment is maintained within set
limits, which are different for every type of organism.
For example, temperature regulation is very important for all living
things, because body temperature influences critical processes like
metabolism. When the body gets too cold, these processes slow down
too much, and the organism can die. The opposite may happen if the
body gets too hot - the processes may increase too much, leading to
the same detrimental outcome.
Nutrition and Respiration

Living organisms take in nutrients from the environment around

them to provide energy and continued growth. This can be
accomplished in a number of ways. Plants take in nutrients from the
soil and water while animals take in nutrients by consuming plants and
sometimes other animals. Living organisms must also go through
respiration, meaning they release energy obtained through food
according to the Cambridge University Press. This energy is then used
to power other characteristics of living organisms.
Movement and Excretion

All living organisms move. This can be easily seen in organisms

with legs like lions and tigers though more subtle in plant life which
moves very slowly. Organisms must also excrete waste to be
considered living. Excretion is a necessary process when converting
food into energy as not all components of food can be used by the
body. Excretion is also used to remove toxic components from the
bodies of living organisms.
Growth and Reproduction

Living organisms must grow and develop according to the

Cambridge University Press. Growth is defined as a permanent increase

in cell number and size which is fueled by the intake of nutrients.

Living organisms must also display the ability to reproduce. Offspring
can be produced through asexual or sexual reproduction.
Sensitivity

Organisms must show sensitivity to stimuli to be considered

alive. Stimuli can include light, sound, heat, cold, chemical substances
and gravity. Organisms must also show a response to a given stimulus
to be considered alive. Responses can include plants growing towards
light sources and animals showing an innate fear or attraction to fire.

WATER PROPERTIES
1. Water is a great solvent. Water, because of its polarity (which is due
to the highly electronegative oxygen atom drawing electron density to
itself), is able to dissolve many organic and inorganic molecules
necessary for life. e.g. amino acids, sugars
2. Water experiences cohesion, tension, and adhesion. Water
molecules can hydrogen bond to one another (cohesion) and to polar
surfaces (adhesion). Surface tension is due to the fact that water
molecules are more attracted to other water molecules than to the air.
Cohesion, tension, and adhesion are necessary for water movement in
plants.
3. Water has a high heat capacity. It takes a lot of energy to raise the
temperature of water because of the strong hydrogen bonding
between water molecules. As the water heats up the molecules move
faster--it takes more energy to weaken the hydrogen bonding
interactions. This is good for evaporative cooling. When water does
evaporate, it takes a lot of heat with it--this is why sweating cools you
down. Water's high heat capacity is also important for the climate of
biomes. Oceans hold a lot of heat. This is why areas near the ocean
have more mild temperatures than areas inland. Water slower to
change temperature than land due to high heat capacity.
4. Ice is less dense than liquid water. This is again due to hydrogen
bonding between molecules. The hydrogen bonds that form when ice
forms prevent close packing of molecules. Therefore, liquid water is
more dense than ice. This is important for aquatic environments such
as ponds, lakes, etc. that freeze over in the winter. Because ice is less

dense, it floats at the top and insulates the water below. This allows
fish and other organisms to survive the winter in the water.
BIOMOLECULES
Which Organic Molecules Are Important for Life?

Carbohydrates are a class of important organic molecules that

provide energy and structure.
o

Sugars are the building blocks of carbohydrates.

There are 4 types of complex carbohydrates found in

animals or plants.

Lipids are a large class of hydrophobic organic molecules.

o

Triglycerides (typically called fats) are made of glycerol

plus fatty acids; saturated fats have been linked to heart
disease.

Phospholipids contain a polar group and are amphipathic;

they form cellular membranes.

Steroids have a characteristic ringed structure; they

include cholesterol and sex hormones.

Proteins are crucial to life and perform a wide range of functions.

o

Amino acids are the building blocks of polypeptide chains

which fold to form proteins.

Shape is critical for protein function and creates specific

regions called domains; a protein that isdenatured loses its
domains and the ability to function.

Protein denaturation causes proteins to unfold and clump

in a random configuration; understanding the denaturation
process helps in understanding the structure of intact
proteins.

Proteins can combine with other macromolecules to

form lipoproteins and glycoproteins.

Nucleic acids are the primary information-bearing molecules of

life.

Nucleotides, the building blocks of nucleic acids, are also

important as energy carriers.

The nucleic acid DNA is composed of two chains of

nucleotides in a helical structure; RNA is a similar nucleic
acid of equal importance.