Topic: Sensors and actuators (MEMS), Conductivity of semiconductors, crystal planes and orientation.

Presented by: Praveengouda Patil

Univ Reg no: 09GAMB4009
Course: Advanced material Technology
Semester: II
Contents

1) Introduction to Sensors and actuators

2) MEMS Technology Pressure Sensors

3) Applications of MEMS sensors/actuators in Auto industry

4) Actuators and types of actuators

5) Introduction to Semiconductors

6) Conductivity in Insulators, conductors and semiconductors

7) Change in conductivity of Si (semi conductor) atom due to addition of

heat.

8) Crystals structure of semiconductors

9) Growth of semiconductor Crystals

10) Bibliography
SENSORS AND ACTUATORS
Introduction

An electronic control unit is in many ways similar to human brain. It received messages from various
sources and after processing the information, it either instruct actuators to perform some physical
action or it stores the data away in its memory for use at some time in the future.

Electronic sensors perform the information gathering role in this system. Each sensor feeds the
electronic control module (ECU) with information that relates to some particular mechanical action or
thermal effect. A sensor or transducer as it is called when it gives an output signal proportional to the
physical quantity it is measuring converts physical actions it notices into either an analogue or digital
electrical signal.

Sensors can be separated into two main classes, viz., active or self gathering and passive or modulating.
The passive type requires an external energy source to drive it and the sensor acts only as an energy
controller.

Block diagram of key pressure sensor components.

The pressure is measured by monitoring its effect on a specifically designed mechanical structure,
referred to as the sensing element. The application of pressure to the sensing element causes a change
in shape, and the resulting deflection (or strain) in the material can be used to determine the magnitude
of the pressure.

The application of MEMS to the measurement of pressure is a mature application of micro machined
silicon mechanical sensors, and devices have been around for more than 30 years. It is without doubt
one of the most successful application areas, accounting for a large portion of the MEMS market.
Pressure sensors have been developed that use a wide range of sensing techniques, from the most
common piezoresistive type to high-performance resonant pressure sensors.

The suitability of MEMS to mass-produced miniature

high-performance sensors at low cost has opened up a wide range of applications. Examples include
automotive manifold air and tire pressure, industrial process control, hydraulic systems, microphones,
and intravenous blood pressure measurement. Normally the pressurized medium is a fluid, and pressure
can also be used to indirectly determine a range of other measurands such as flow in a pipe, volume of
liquid inside a tank, altitude, and air speed. Many of these applications will be highlighted in this chapter,
demonstrating MEMS solutions to a diverse range of requirements.
MEMS Technology Pressure Sensors
1) Micromachined Silicon Diaphragms

MEMS pressure sensors typically employ a diaphragm as the sensor element. This is because of its
compatibility with a range of bulk and surface silicon micromachining the most common fabrication
method is anisotropic wet silicon etching, which allows good control over diaphragm dimensions and is
a batch process capable of producing hundreds of devices simultaneously across a group of wafers
When combined with a (100) wafer orientation, a wet potassium hydroxide (KOH) etch, for example,
produces a rectangular diaphragm with sloping side walls that follow the (111) planes. A cross-section of
a typical diaphragm is shown in Figure 6.14. Diaphragm thickness can be controlled by timing etch
duration, or more precisely by using boron doping or electrochemical etch stops. Surface
micromachining techniques are becoming increasing applied since they offer the opportunity for
reduced device size and compatibility with integrated electronics.

Anisotropically etched silicon diaphragm

2) Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors

The piezoresistive nature of silicon makes the use of diffused or implanted resistors an obvious and
straightforward technique for measuring the strain in a micromachined silicon diaphragm. The
piezoresistive effect of silicon was first exploited by bonding silicon strain gauges to metal diaphragms
[7], but this is an unsatisfactory approach given the thermal mismatch between the metal, adhesive
Layer and silicon. Diaphragms were first micromachined into the silicon itself by mechanical spark
erosion and wet isotropic etching [8]. This was not a batch approach and therefore device costs were
high. The use of anisotropic etching, anodic and fusion bonding, ion implanted strain gauges, and
surface micromachining have since reduced the size and improved the accuracy of piezoresistive
pressure sensors.

Cross-section view of a typical bulk micromachined piezoresistive pressure sensor.

 3) Capacitive Pressure Sensors

Capacitive pressure sensors are typically based upon a parallel plate arrangement whereby one
electrode is fixed and the other flexible. As the flexible electrode deflects under applied pressure, the
gap between electrodes decreases and the capacitance increases. It consists of an anisotropically etched
silicon diaphragm with the fixed electrode being provided by a metallized Pyrex 7740 glass die .The glass
and silicon die were joined using anodic bonding at die level. This device demonstrated the main
attractions of capacitive sensing, these being high sensitivity to pressure, low power consumption,
and low temperature cross-sensitivity. The combination of materials and bonding mechanisms
demonstrated remain a common choice for capacitive sensors All silicon devices fabricated by silicon
fusion bonding and glass frit bonding have also been reported along with many surface-micromachined
devices

4) Resonant Pressure Sensors

Resonant pressure sensors typically use a resonating mechanical structure as a strain
gauge to sense the deflection of the pressure-sensitive diaphragm. The resonant approach is more
technically challenging for a number of reasons discussed below, but it does offer performance
specifications beyond that achievable with piezoresistive and capacitive techniques

Cross-section through SOI capacitive pressure sensor

5) Microphones
Microphones are a particular type of MEMS pressure sensor designed to transduce
Acoustic signals into electrical output. MEMS technology is an attractive approach for mass-producing
miniature devices in, for example, hearing aid applications.Microphone diaphragms, or membranes,
should be highly sensitive,exhibit suitable dynamic behavior, and be packaged so as to remain
insensitive to static pressures.
Use of Sensors (MEMS) in an Automobile includes
 Crash Sensing for
Airbag Control
 Vehicle Dynamic
Control
 Rollover Detection
 Antitheft Systems
 Electronic Parking
 Brake Systems
 Vehicle Navigation
 Systems
 Exhaust gas sensor
 Tire pressure sensor
 Fuel sensor( level indicator and vapor pressure ) etc
ACTUATORS

Actuator: Actuator is a device that produces motion (displacement).

ACTUATOR TYPES:

ROTARY ACTUATOR: The rotary actuator is a device use to alternate the rotated position
of an object. Just like the human wrist the actuator enables the rotation of an object,
except that rotary actuators are available in a wide variety of models with different -
Sizes, Torques, Rotation angles. The energy for the rotation is delivered by pneumatic
pressure. The rotary actuator converts the air pressure from a linear motion to a rotating
motion.

LINEAR ACTUATOR: Electric actuators with an output rod that provides linear motion via a motor driven
ball or ACME screw assembly. The actuator's load is attached to the end of screw, or rod, and is often
unsupported. Electric actuators whose load is attached to a fully supported carriage. Rod less linear
actuators provides linear motion via a motor driven ball screw, acme screw, or belt drive assembly.

ELECTRICAL ACTUATOR: Electrical actuators use a motor to drive a combination of

gears that generate the desired torque or thrust level.

Classification of Actuators
Based on Operating Media Actuator Classified as
PNEUMATIC ACTUATOR & HYDRAULIC ACTUATOR: Hydraulic actuators and pneumatic actuators use
pressurized fluid such as air or hydraulic oil to produce Linear or Rotary motion in mechanical
components. Though hydraulic and pneumatic power shares many characteristics in common, there are
some key differences. For example, because hydraulic fluid is much less compressible than a gas,
Hydraulic power is preferred over pneumatic when precise position control is required. On the other
hand, pneumatic power has an edge in applications where the presence of hydraulic oil could cause
problems (e.g. in food processing machines). Pneumatic systems are also typically less expensive to build
than hydraulic.
Based on actuator action:

SINGLE ACTING: cylinders would extend by pneumatic or hydraulic pressure on the ram,
And retract by spring force or gravity.

DOUBLE ACTING: cylinders operate by fluid pressure in both directions: in other words,
there is a pressure connection on both sides of the ram to force it one way or the other
within the cylinder, depending on the valve setting. These actuators are therefore capable
of a power stroke in both directions. Sometimes the piston is even fixed and the cylinder
moves back and forth around it.

ACTUATOR MOUNTING CONFIGURATION:

CYLINDER TYPES ACCORDING TO MOUNTING STYLES

ACTUATOR INPUT VOLTAGE: The voltage supplied to the Actuator 115V, 230V

ACTUATOR STROKE LENGTH: Maximum Travel length of Actuator in mm

ACTUATOR INPUT PRESSURE: The pressure required to move the actuator from its upper
Stop to rated travel in PSI.
Semiconductor

A semiconductor is a solid that has electrical conductivity in between that of a conductor and that of an
insulator, and can be controlled over a wide range, either permanently or dynamically. [1]
Semiconductors are tremendously important in technology. Semiconductor devices, electronic
components made of semiconductor materials, are essential in modern electrical devices. Examples
range from computers to cellular phones to digital audio players. Silicon is used to create most
semiconductors commercially, but dozens of other materials are used as well.

Insulators
Insulators have tightly bound electrons in their outer shell These electrons require a very large amount
of energy to free them for conduction Let’s apply a potential difference across the insulator as shown
below, The force on each electron is not enough to free it from its orbit and the insulator does not
conduct Insulators are said to have a high resistivity / resistance.

Conductors
Conductors have loosely bound electrons in their outer shell these electrons require a small amount of
energy to free them for conduction Let’s apply a potential difference across the conductor as shown
below, The force on each electron is enough to free it from its orbit and it can jump from atom to atom
– the conductor conducts. Conductors are said to have a low resistivity / resistance.
Semiconductors
Semiconductors have a resistivity/resistance between that of conductors and insulators
Their electrons are not free to move but a little energy will free them for conduction
The two most common semiconductors are silicon and germanium.

The Silicon, Si, Atom

Silicon has a valency of 4 i.e. 4 electrons in its outer shell each silicon atom
Shares its 4 outer electrons with 4 neighboring atoms these shared electrons
– Bonds – are shown as horizontal and vertical lines between the atoms.

If we extend this arrangement throughout a piece of silicon, we have the crystal

Lattice of silicon this is how silicon looks when it is cold It has no free electrons – it cannot conduct
electricity – therefore it behaves like an insulator
However, if we apply a little heat to the silicon an electron may gain enough energy
To break free of its bond…It is then available for conduction and is free to travel
Throughout the material Slide

Electron free from bond due to energy absorbed by heat

Let’s take a closer look at what the electron has left behind There is a gap in the Bond – what we call a
hole this hole can also move…An electron – in a nearby bond – may jump into this hole…Effectively
causing the hole to move…

Electron- hole pairs created due to more heat addition.

Take a piece of silicon… and apply a potential difference across it this set up an electric field throughout
the silicon – seen here as dashed lines When heat is applied an electron is released and…The electron
feels a force and moves in the electric field It is attracted to the positive electrode and re-emitted by the
negative electrode.

Now, let’s apply some more heat…Another electron breaks free…And moves in the
Electric field. We now have greater current than before…And the silicon has less resistance… If more
heat is applies the process continues…More heat…More current…
Less resistance…The silicon is acting as a thermistor. Its resistance decreases
With temperature. This property of semiconductor is used in the device called Thermistor.
The thermistor is a heat sensitive resistor when cold it behaves as an insulator i.e. it has a very high
resistance when heated, electron hole pairs are released and are then available for conduction as has
been described – thus its resistance is reduced

Thermistor and its Symbol

Thermistor are used to measure temperature, they are used to turn devices on,
Or off, as temperature changes they are also used in fire-warning or frost-warning circuits.

A semiconductor's intrinsic electrical properties are often permanently modified by introducing

impurities by a process known as doping. Usually, it is sufficient to approximate that each impurity atom
adds one electron or one "hole" that may flow freely. Upon the addition of a sufficiently large
proportion of impurity dopants, semiconductors will conduct electricity nearly as well as metals.
Depending on the kind of impurity, a doped region of semiconductor can have more electrons or holes,
and is named N-type or P-type semiconductor material,
Respectively. Junctions between regions of N- and P-type semiconductors create electric fields, which
cause electrons and holes to be available to move away from them, and this effect is critical to
semiconductor device operation. Also, a density difference in the amount of impurities produces a small
electric field in the region which is used to accelerate non-equilibrium electrons or holes.

In addition to permanent modification through doping, the resistance of

semiconductors is normally modified dynamically by applying electric fields. The ability to control
resistance/conductivity in regions of semiconductor material dynamically through the application of
electric fields is the feature that makes semiconductors useful. It has led to the development of a broad
range of semiconductor devices, like transistors and diodes. Semiconductor devices that have
dynamically controllable conductivity, such as transistors, are the building blocks of integrated circuits
devices like the microprocessor. These "active" semiconductor devices (transistors) are combined with
passive components implemented from semiconductor material such as capacitors and resistors, to
produce complete electronic circuits.

In most semiconductors, when electrons lose enough energy to fall from

the conduction band to the valence band (the
Energy levels above and below the band gap), they often emit light, a quantum of energy in the visible
electromagnetic spectrum. This photoemission process underlies the light-emitting diode (LED) and the
semiconductor laser, both of which are very important commercially. Conversely, semiconductor
absorption of light in photo detectors excites electrons to move from the valence band to the higher
energy conduction band, thus facilitating detection of light and vary with its intensity. This is useful for
fiber optic communications, and providing the basis for energy from Solar cells. Semiconductors may be
elemental materials such as silicon and germanium, or compound semiconductors such as Gallium
arsenide and indium phosphide, or alloys such as silicon germanium or aluminium gallium arsenide.
Band structure Band structure of a semiconductor showing a full valence band and an empty conduction
band.

semiconductor crystal structures

The most common crystal structure among frequently used semiconductors is the diamond lattice,
shown in Figure 1 Each atom in the diamond lattice has a covalent bond with four adjacent atoms, which
together form a tetrahedron. This lattice can also be formed from two face-centered-cubic lattices,
which are displaced along the body diagonal of the larger cube in Figure 2by one quarter of that body
diagonal. The diamond lattice therefore is a face-centered-cubic lattice with a basis containing two
identical atoms.

Figure 1 : The diamond lattice of silicon and germanium

Compound semiconductors such as GaAs and InP have a crystal structure that is similar to that of
diamond.
However, the lattice contains two different types of atoms. Each atom still has four covalent bonds, but
they are bonds with atoms of the other type. This structure is referred to as the zinc-blende lattice,
named after zincblende (ZnS) as shown in Figure 2. Both the diamond lattice and the zinc-blende lattice
are cubic lattices. A third common crystal structure is the hexagonal structure also referred to as the
wurzite crystal structure, which is the hexagonal form of zinc sulfide (ZnS).
Many semiconductor materials can have more than one crystal structure. A large number of compound
semiconductors including GaAs, GaN and ZnS can be either cubic or hexagonal. SiC can be cubic or one
of several different hexagonal crystal structures. The cubic crystals are characterized by a single
parameter, the lattice constant a, while the hexagonal structures are characterized in the hexagonal
plane by a lattice constant a and by the distance between the hexagonal planes, c.

Figure 2: The zinc-blende crystal structure of GaAs and InP

Growth of semiconductor crystals like all crystals, semiconductor crystals can be obtained
by cooling the molten semiconductor material. However, this procedure yields poly-
crystalline material since crystals start growing in different locations with a different
orientation. Instead when growing single-crystalline silicon one starts with a seed
crystal and dips one end into the melt. By controlling the temperature difference
between the seed crystal and the molten silicon, the seed crystal slowly grows. The
result is a large single-crystal silicon boule. Such boules have a cylindrical shape, in
part because the seed crystal is rotated during growth and in part because of the
cylindrical shape of the crucible containing the melt. The boule is then cut into wafers
with a diamond saw and further polished to yield the starting material for silicon device
fabrication.
Bibliography

1) Principles-of-Semiconductor-Devices by Zeghbroek.

2) MEMS mechanical sensors by Stephen Beeby and Graham Hensel.

3) MEMS Exchange http://www.mems-exchange.org/

4) MEMS Industry Group http://www.memsindustrygroup.org/

5) MEMS WWW Bookstore: http://mems.isi.edu/bookstore

6) An Introduction to MEMS Engineering; by Nadim Maluf