Question 1.

What type of cross-link bond is present between the DMDHEU and the cotton cellulose?
Answer.
Intra-fibre cross-link.

Question 2.
Other than DMDHEU, what other types of cross-linking agents are capable of crosslinking cotton cellulose? Indicate possible toxicity problem.
Answer.
1. Urea Formaldehyde (UF) gave little evidence of cell cross-link but can undergo
hydrolysis and yield amino secondary groups. These amines can form chloro-amines
when comes in contact with bleach (containing chlorine). Hot ironing results in
decomposition of chloro-amines and forms hydrochloric acid.
2. Melamine formaldehyde derivative, three possible bonding methylol links.
3. BTCA (1,2,3,4 - Butane Tetracarboxylic Acid), ester cross-link.
4. Citric Acid, only three possible cross-link and only two available for stability.
5. Maleic Acid, no cross-link, but by incorporating free radical initiator this results in the
availability to many carboxylic acids for cross-linking.
6. Polymaleic Acid, causes fibre damage and yellowing.
Formaldehyde release is a problem it is a skin and eye irritant, affects breathing, produces
headaches and nausea and at very high levels is potentially carcinogenic.

Question 3.
Propose the detailed cross-linking mechanism for formaldehyde cross-linking agents with
cellulose and intermediates formed.
Answer.
Formaldehyde cross-linking with cellulose, little evidence for cell cross-links. Derived from
2 moles of formaldehyde and 1 mole of urea, both cheap and readily available to textile
industry. Reactive groups, -CH2OH, termed methylols, two for cross-link.

UF, cyclic ethylene urea and some other N containing products can undergo hydrolysis,
usually due to acid retained from the catalyst used to bring about polymerisation, to yield
secondary amino groups. These amines can form chloro-amines when in contact with
chlorine (usually present in bleach).

With the melamine formaldehyde derivative there are three possible bonding methylol
links.

With DMDHEU, low formaldehyde and four reaction sites.

Bulk chemical derived from urea, formaldehyde and glyoxal (OHC - CHO). Unlike U/F
resin, DMDHEU is a reactant finish which reacts directly with fibre and provides definite
intra-fibre cross-link.

Use of ammonium based catalysts produces ammonia which reacts with free
formaldehyde.

 2NH3 + 3CH2OCH3NH2 + CO2 + H2O

2CH3NH2 + 3CH2O2(CH3)2NH + CO2 + H2O
2(CH3)2NH + 3CH2O2(CH3)3N + CO2 + H2O

Question 4.
Identify the types of cellulosic fibres and films available commercially.
Answer.
Cellulosic Fibres

Cellulosic Films

Cotton

Viscose

Kapok

Rayon

Fique
Sisal
Banana
Agave
Flax
Jute
Kenaf
Hemp
Ramie
Rattan
Vine
Coir
Bamboo

Question 5.
Identify and briefly describe the types of test available to assess creasing performance of
cellulosics.
Answer.

British Standard Test, measures crease recovery. Cut the fabric into rectangles, fold in
half, apply weight, wait, release and measure recovery after set time. 180 degrees
recovery is perfect. Dry and wet tests may be conducted to determine washing machine
recovery.
AATCC Method, Cut fabric into large rectangles, add 3kg weight to fabric and
reproducibly crush. Wait and release, for 5 minutes up to 24 hours, 5 minutes is a
dynamic. Fast response test Compare against standard plastic creased panels in grey
light-box. Compare rate creased fabrics against standards.
Standard sheet 5 smooth, no creases - Fenland
Standard sheet 1 Himalayas
Standard sheet 3 Snowdon
Typical performance 4 - 5
Question 6.
Calculate the wet pick up necessary to achieve a 1% o.w.f application of a 1.25% (w/v)
crease resist.
Answer.

Question 7.
Compare and contrast properties of cotton and polyester.
Answer.
Polyester;
Strong
Resistant to stretching and shrinking
Resistant to most chemicals
Quick drying
Crisp and resilient when wet or dry
Wrinkle resistant
Mildew resistant
Abrasion resistant
Retains heat-set pleats and crease
Easily washed
Cotton;
It is soft
It breathes
It absorbs body moisture
It is comfortable
It is strong and durable
It is versatile
It performs well
It has good colour retention
It is easy to print on
It wrinkles easily
It is easy to care for, easy to wash
It is a natural resource that is fully renewable
Question 8.
What are the relative advantages of fluoro-chemical finish in comparison to a reactive
fatty acid water repellent derivative?

Answer.
The difficulty in using fatty acid water repellent finishes is the ease of application and the
subsequent need for re application. The durability of the finish relied on the insolubility of
soap and some hydrogen bonding with cotton cellulose. Fluoro-chemicals are relatively
expensive but are still market leaders and widely used. Washing in detergent solution is
fairly good provided thermal after treatment and abrasion performance of the surface
coating can always be improved requires ensuring chemistry between fibre type and
Fluoro-chemical is correct.
Question 9.
Can silicon water repellent finishes and fluoro-chemicals be used in combination? if not
why?
Answer.
No. They are two different finishes types the surface tension of silicone is low but not as
low to minimise soiling on the other hand, fluoro-chemicals had the same problem of
soiling but that is overcome by the polyethoxylated copolymer structure.
Question 10.
What is the purpose of post-ironing treatment of fluorocarbon treated textiles after
laundering?
Answer.
The clean fabric is ironed after laundering so that the fluorocarbon surface flip back to its
repellent mode.
Question 11.
What potential problems can occur if the wrong type of wetting agent is incorporated
into the fluorochemical finish applied to the textile? what type would you recommend?
Answer.
Wetting agent is a substance that reduces the surface tension of a liquid, causing the
liquid to spread across or penetrate more easily on the surface of a solid. The requirement
of the wetting agent for fluoro-chemical process is to decrease the surface energy of the

fluoro-chemical but not that of water otherwise water along with fluoro-chemical will
absorb in the textile surfaces and when the surface will be dried the chemical will escape
along with water. There are four main types of wetting agents; anionic, cationic,
amphoteric, and nonionic. Anionic wetting agent is required for fluoro-chemicals.
Question 12.
How can fluoro-chemical finishes be applied to textiles? (Machinery)
Answer.
Fluoro-chemical finishes are applied through Pad/Dry/Cure process i.e. Horizontal
Padding Mangle.
Question 13.
Identify the test methods to assess water/oil repellency. Briefly describe.
Answer.
AATCC 118 Oil Repellency Testing (1984)
3M Water/Alcohol (Isopropyl Alcohol) Repellency Test
X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)
Time of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (ToF-SIMS)
Contact Angle Studies Wilhemy Balance
Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)
Question 14.
What are the technical deficiencies of breathable laminated fabrics in terms of longterm water repellent behaviour?
Answer.
The long term performance of PU films can be affected since PU can be degraded by
various agents and are not chemically inert. Contamination of pores of the PU
membranes is a problem, they have poor adhesion to fabrics and therefore can be
delaminated, along with degradation of their breathability with time. The abrasion
performance of the flurocarbon membrane requires Kaizen.

Question 15.
In addition to water/oil repellency, what other technical features can be incorporated into
military apparel?
Answer.
By lamination and coating of the textile the handle of the fabric becomes rigid and stiff
this can result in nosier garment. Use of short staple fibres can address the issue.
Besides this flame retardant finishes may be applied on the garment in order to counter
fire incidents.
Question 16.
You observe a non-wetting stain on a consignment of fabric, how would you determine if
it is a fluorocarbon.
Answer.
Surface Sensitive techniques;
X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)
Time of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry
(ToF-SIMS) and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)

Question 17.
What other applications can you list for fluoro-chemical materials?
Answer.
Refrigerants for freezers, refrigerators and air-conditioners.
Propellants for aerosols Brine, tracer for leak-tests, and blowing agents for plastics.
Working fluids for turbines.
Cleaning solvents for electronic and electric parts, precision machines, etc.
Fluoropolymer Air Filters
Fluoroplactic Fibres
Mold Release Agents
Fluoroelastomers

Question 18.
What is Lyofix MLF New? What is its purpose?
Answer.
Lyofix MLF New (methylolated triazine) is a flame retardant agent. Pad/Cure treatment
may increase the phosphorus level further to enhance char formation.
Question 19.
Flame retardants work by different mechanisms depending on their type. Identify the
phases that FR agents can work.
Answer.
In the solid phase with heating of phosphorus-based FR it breaks into reactive
phosphorus acids or anhydrides and phosphorylates the cellulose. Water is released with
the reaction and dilution of the flame takes place. The phosphorylated cellulose then
breaks down into a non-combustible carbonaceous char isolating the textile and reducing
the fuel available. In the gas phase inhibition activity of the FR is related to its interference
in the combustion reactions in the flame. The halogen FR function release the halogen
atom, Cl or Br or the hydrogen halide, HX. The halogen atom reacts with fuel and
produce the hydrogen halide inhibiting the exothermic reaction.

Question 20.
Identify the technical deficiencies of FR agents for cotton.
Answer.
Treated fabrics are relatively stiff and heavy, the fabrics tend to have afterglow properties
and can flare up again. In addition antimony may be incorrectly linked to cot deaths in
FR foams in mattresses, the durability of Flame Retardants is also a problem.
Question 21.
What is the scaffold effect?
Answer.
With the blending of cotton polyester the cotton component holds the polyester in the

flame and the blend burns more vigorously than the individual component this
phenomena is known as the scaffold effect.

Question 22.
Other than burns, what other potential hazard is there to fire? How can it be reduced?
Answer.
The other potential hazards may include smoke generation while burning and reducing
visibility. Toxic smoke potentially causes irritation, nausea and death. Smoke decreases
atmospheric oxygen content and affects respiration of the victims. To avoid fatalities
smoke filters and metal catalytics can be used. Non-combustible materials of filters can
reduce the amount of polymeric fuel from 100% down to 30-50%. Catalytic converter can
potentially clean up emissions by completing the oxidation of unburnt fuel and
intermediate oxidised gases. Typically platinum, palladium, iron manganese etc are used
as the catalyst.

Question 23.
What is the effect of the fabric structure on the burning of textiles?
Answer.
Heavy close structures ignite with difficulty and burn more slowly (longer) due to the
presence of more flammable material than light, thin, or open fabrics. Fabrics with greater
fibre surface area (Thin, gauzy fabrics, lace, or brushed fabrics), exposed to air (oxygen)
have more oxygen available to support burning and therefore burn more easily.

Question 24.
What test methods are available to assess buring/flammability?
Answer.
Limiting Oxygen Index Apparatus: The amount of oxygen required to support combustion
varies. Arrangement of textiles in order of their ease of ignitability with reference to the

amount of oxygen each textile requires in order to support combustion.

Question 25.
Distinguish between flame retardant and non-flammable.
Answer.
Non-flammable means it will not burn under any (typical) condition. Whereas, Fire
retardant means it will resist catching fire, but it might still burn if it is subjected to major
flames.
Question 26.
Identify a potential early warning system that can be built into textiles to warn of burning.
Answer.
Incorporation of thermochromic liquid crystals which are capable of displaying different
colours at different temperatures into textiles. A change in the crystal temperature can
result in a change of spacing between the layers and reflect colour on the varrying
wavelength.
Question 27. How do softeners function on textiles?
Answer.
Adsorption onto Negatively Charged Fibre Surface.
Formation of Bilayers/Multi-layers, Crystallisation.
Lateral Inter-layer Cohesion is Low.
Question 28.
How would you assess softening effects on textiles? Subjectively and objectively.
Answer.
Kawabata Evaluation System (KES).
Fabric Assurance by Simple Testing (FAST), Compression, Extension, Bending,
Dimensional Stability.

 Sledge Method
Modified Instron
Compare the fabric (With and without softening) by feeling, handle, Touch
Question 29.
What other application Areas/Products are there for softeners?
Answer.
Softeners for hair.
Softeners used cosmetics such as silicone softener.
Softeners for conditioning.
Softeners for Art utensils.

Question 30.
List other softeners used in textiles and hair.
Answer.
Silicone Softeners
Cationic Softeners
Nonionic Softeners
Amphoteric Softeners
Anionic Softeners
Question 31.
Where are lubricants used in the textile industry?
Answers.
There are various kinds of lubricants available for different types of textile processes.
Lubrication of Yarns (Natural and Manmade)
Lubrication of Fabrics (Grey, Garments)
Lubrication of Machinery (To reduce tension and friction)
Anti static and anti corrosive lubricants.

Question 32.
What are the potential effects of excess lubricant on textiles?
Answers.
Excess lubrication results in hydrophobicity of textile materials. Excess lubrication may
also cause problems in processes like knitting by creating a log jam in the needle hook. In
order to achieve optimum results the amount of lubrication applied on textiles should be
ideal.