Chemistry Revision Notes

Contents
Section 1: Principles of Chemistry........................................................................................ 4
States of Matter................................................................................................................. 4
Atoms................................................................................................................................ 5
Diffusion and Dilution..................................................................................................... 5
Separation of Mixtures................................................................................................... 5
Atomic Structure................................................................................................................ 7
Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)............................................................................................... 8
Electronic Structure........................................................................................................ 8
Relative Formula Masses and Molar Volumes of Gases......................................................8
The Mole......................................................................................................................... 9
Calculations.................................................................................................................... 9
Chemical Formulae and Chemical Equations...................................................................10
Empirical Formulae....................................................................................................... 10
Molecular Formula........................................................................................................ 11
Percentage Yield........................................................................................................... 11
Ionic Compounds............................................................................................................. 11
Covalent Bonding............................................................................................................ 13
Metallic Bonding.............................................................................................................. 15
Electrolysis...................................................................................................................... 18
Conductivity................................................................................................................. 18
Ions............................................................................................................................... 18
Products of Electrolysis................................................................................................. 18
Electrolysis and Redox.................................................................................................. 18
Electrolysis calculations................................................................................................... 20
The Chlor-Alkali Industry.................................................................................................. 21
Section 2: Chemistry of the Elements.................................................................................23
The Periodic Table......................................................................................................... 23
Group I (The Alkali Metals)............................................................................................... 25
Group VII (The Halogens)................................................................................................. 25
Group 0 The Noble Gases.............................................................................................. 26
1

Oxygen And Oxides......................................................................................................... 27

Hydrogen and Water........................................................................................................ 29
Reactivity Series.............................................................................................................. 30
Reduction and Oxidation................................................................................................. 31
Test for Ions..................................................................................................................... 31
Section 3 Organic Chemistry............................................................................................ 33
The Alkanes..................................................................................................................... 33
Naming Hydrocarbons.................................................................................................. 33
Bromination.................................................................................................................. 33
Isomerism..................................................................................................................... 34
Combustion.................................................................................................................. 35
Alkenes............................................................................................................................ 35
Addition Reactions........................................................................................................ 35
Ethanol............................................................................................................................ 36
Fermentation:............................................................................................................... 36
Addition of Steam to Ethene......................................................................................... 36
Dehydration of Ethanol.................................................................................................... 36
Section 4 Physical Chemistry........................................................................................... 38
Acids, Bases and Salts..................................................................................................... 38
Reactions of Acids........................................................................................................ 38
Definitions.................................................................................................................... 39
Salt Preparation............................................................................................................... 39
Rules for Solubility:....................................................................................................... 39
Precipitation................................................................................................................. 39
Titration........................................................................................................................ 40
Reaction of an Acid with an Insoluble Base..................................................................40
Energetics........................................................................................................................ 41
Measuring Enthalpy Changes....................................................................................... 41
Calculating Enthalpy Changes...................................................................................... 42
Rates of Reaction............................................................................................................. 44
Factors that affect the rate of reaction.........................................................................44
Equilibria.......................................................................................................................... 45
Le Chateliers Principle................................................................................................. 45
Section 5 Chemistry in Society......................................................................................... 46
Extraction of metals........................................................................................................ 46
The Blast Furnace......................................................................................................... 46
2

Aluminium Extraction................................................................................................... 47
Uses of Iron.................................................................................................................. 47
Uses of Aluminium........................................................................................................ 48
Crude Oil.......................................................................................................................... 48
Crude Oil Processing..................................................................................................... 48
Cracking....................................................................................................................... 48
Polymerisation................................................................................................................. 49
Addition........................................................................................................................ 49
Drawing Polymers......................................................................................................... 50
Condensation Polymerisation....................................................................................... 51
Chemical Manufacture..................................................................................................... 52
The Haber Process........................................................................................................ 52
The Contact Process..................................................................................................... 53

Section 1: Principles of Chemistry

States of Matter
STATE

DESCRIPTION

PROPERTIES AND EXPLANATIONS

High density, cannot be compressed and
has a fixed shape.

Solid

Particles in close
contact, they are
arranged in a lattice.
Vibrate around a fixed
point.

MELTING
FREEZING
LI

As the solid is heated, the particles gain kinetic energy, and

vibrate more rapidly. When the melting point is reached, the
particles have sufficient energy to overcome the forces of
attraction between them sufficiently and the particles will move
apart

In close contact in an
irregular fashion. Can
move around but
cannot separate.

QUID

They are less dense than solids, and still

incompressible. They fill the shape of
their container.

BOILING
CONDENSING
GAS

As temperature rises, the particles gain kinetic energy. When the

boiling point is reached, the particles have sufficient energy to
overcome completely the forces of attraction between them, and
become separated.

Particles are spread

far apart, and in no
regular pattern. They
are in rapid, constant,
random motion.

Low density and easily compressed. They

expand to fill their containers.

SUBLIMATION

Atoms
An atom is the smallest particle of an element which can exist. An element is a substance
containing one kind of atom. A compound is two or more elements chemically combined in
a fixed ratio as shown by its formula, where as a molecule is two or more atoms joined
together by chemical bonds. A mixture is two or more substances combined.
Diffusion and Dilution
Some experiments can be done to prove the presence of tiny moving particles. If a small
crystal of potassium permanganate is placed in a beaker of water, it begins to dissolve,
giving a purple solution. The purple colour slowly spreads out from the crystal, as the
particles (permanganate ions) move around randomly and spread out through the water
molecules. If the solution is then diluted further, the purple colour becomes paler, as the
permanganate ions become spread further apart. Since the colour caused by the particles
can still be seen even if only a tiny crystal is dissolved in a large volume of water, the
crystal -must contain very many particles. These particles must, then, be very small. The
same effect can be seen if a drop of bromine is placed at the bottom of a covered gas jar.
The bromine evaporates, and the red vapour spreads out to fill the jar, as the bromine
molecules diffuse throughout the molecules in the air. This is much more rapid than
diffusion of a coloured solution, since the particles in a gas are much further apart, and
move more rapidly.
Separation of Mixtures
To separate a compound into the elements from which it is made requires a chemical
reaction; chemical bonds must be broken, and this often requires a lot of energy. To
separate the components of a mixture, it usually requires a physical reaction. The
appropriate method depends on the type of mixture.
Filtration
This is used to separate a solid from a liquid. The mixture is poured through a filter paper
within a filter funnel. Liquid (filtrate) passes through, whilst the solid (residue) remains in
paper. This can be used to separate two solids, if one is soluble and the other insoluble.
Crystallisation
When a solid is dissolved in water, it is possible to obtain the solid in the form of crystals.
The solution is gently heated in an evaporating basin, until about half of the water has
evaporated. The remaining concentrated solution is then left to cool, and the liquid to
evaporate.
Simple Distillation

This is used to separate a

liquid solvent and a solute.
The flask is heated, causing
the solvent to boil off. The
vapour rises, passes into the
condenser, and is cooled,
causing it to condense. The
liquid will run ne run off. The
solute, having a much higher
boiling point, will remain in
the flask.

Fractional Distillation
This is used to separate a
mixture of liquids, based on
their different boiling points.
The apparatus is similar to
simple distillation, but also
has a fractionating column
between the flask and the
condenser, giving a large
surface area. The substance
with the lowest boiling point
will boil off first. As the
vapour rises through the
column, into the condenser,
it turns to a liquid and is
collected. The process
repeats with a higher
temperature for another
liquid, and the next liquid is
collected. The process
continues, until all of the
components in the mixture
have boiled, condensed,
and been collected.

Chromatography
It is used to separate mixtures of coloured compounds which are soluble. A pencil line is
drawn just above the solvent line, and a small spot of each substance to be tested is
placed on this line. The paper is then suspended in a beaker with a solvent in it.
The solvent soaks up the filter
paper, and dissolves the coloured
substances in each sample,
carrying them up the paper with it.
Different substances are carried
different distances. This can show
how many different components
are present, and is often used to
compare several inks to see if one
matches an original sample used
for comparison.

Atomic Structure
An atom is the smallest particle of an element which can exist. It is possible to split an
atom into smaller particles, but these will no longer display the properties of a particular
chemical element.

RELATIVE MASS

RELATIVE
CHARGE

LOCATION

Proton

+1

nucleus

Neutro
n

nucleus

Electro
n

Negligible
(1/2000)

-1

orbiting
nucleus

The mass of the atom is found in the nucleus (protons and neutrons). Electrons have a
relatively insignificant mass, and orbit the nucleus. The atomic number is the number of
protons in one atom of a particular element. This number determines which element a
particular atom is. The atomic number is shown at the bottom-left of the elements
symbol. An atom has no overall charge. It has an equal number of protons (positively
charged) and electrons (negatively charged). The mass number is the total number of
protons and neutrons in one atom. This tells us the mass of the atom, since the mass of
the electrons is insignificant. The mass number is written at the top-left of the symbol.
9

Isotopes are atoms of the same element, with the same number of protons and electrons,
but a different numbers of neutrons.
Mass number =15

e.g. a nitrogen-15 atom:

Atomic number = 7

15
7

Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)

The relative atomic mass is the average mass of one atom, relative to 1/12 of the mass of
a carbon-12 atom.
This can be calculated, if the isotopes and their abundances are known:
Chlorine consists of two isotopes, chlorine-35, and chlorine-37. 75% of chlorine atoms are
Cl-35, and 25% are Cl-37.
R.A.M.

= (75/100) x 35 +

(25/100) x 37

= 35.5
The relative atomic mass is shown on the Periodic Table above the symbol of each
element.
Electronic Structure
The electrons in an atom orbit the nucleus at certain fixed distances shells. Each shell
can hold a certain maximum number of electrons the pattern becomes quite complex
beyond the element calcium, but for the first 20 elements it is relatively simple:
Shell

Maximum number of
electrons

(2)

The electrons fill up the shells, beginning with the 1 st shell (closest to the nucleus), and
moving on to the next shell out when one is full. The number of outer electrons in the
outer shell of an atom is equal to its group number on the periodic table. Because all
chemical reactions are the result of changes in the outer shell electrons of the reacting
atoms, atoms in the same group, having the same number of electrons in their outer shell,
will react in a similar way.

Relative Formula Masses and Molar Volumes of Gases

The relative formula mass of a compound can be found by adding up all of the individual
atoms in the formula. The percentage of an element in a compound in term of its mass is
important, and can also find the formula of an unknown compound.
10

What is the percentage by mass of oxygen in sodium nitrate, NaNO 3?

Relative formula mass

= 23 + 14 + 3 x 16

Total relative mass of oxygen

= 85

= 3 x16

= 48

Oxygen therefore accounts for 48/85 of the total mass, so:

Percentage of oxygen by mass

48
85

x 100%

= 56.5% (3 s.f.)

The element in question may appear in more than one place in the formula.
e.g. What is the percentage by mass of oxygen in hydrated copper(II) sulphate,
CuSO4.5H2O?
Relative formula mass

= 64 + 32 + 4 x 16 + 5 x (2 x 1 + 16)

Total relative mass of oxygen

= 9 x 16 (there are 9 O atoms in total) = 144

Percentage by mass

= 144/250 x 100%

= 250

57.6%
The Mole
The mole is an amount of a substance. It is equal to 6.02x10 23, which is also known as
Avogadro s number. 2 moles of AlCl3 contains 2 moles of Al3+ ions, but 6 moles of Cl- ions.
Moles also equal the amount of a substance. Moles = mass/relative formula mass.

Calculations
Reacting Masses
e.g What mass of oxygen is needed to burn 3.00kg of propane, C 3H8?
.
Mr of propane = 3 x 12 + 8 x 1 = 44
mass
relativeformulamass

1. Calculate the number of

moles of propane given in the
question.

moles

2. Write a balanced equation

for the chemical reaction.

C3H8 + 5O2

3. Use the ratio given by the

balancing numbers in the
equation to find the number of
moles of O2 required to react

11

3000g
= 68.2 mol of
44g
C3 H 8

3CO2 + 4H2O

1 mol of C3H8 : 5 moles O2

68.2 x 5 = 341

with the C3H8.

so 68.2 mol C3H8 : 341 mol O2

4. Convert the moles of

oxygen back into a mass.

mass = moles x Mr

= 341 x
32

= 10,900g

Mass of O2 = 10.9 kg (3 s.f.)

Gas Volumes
At room temperature and pressure one mole of a gas has the same volume 24dm3.

Moles of gas =

volume of gas (dm 3 )

24

or

volume of gas (cm3 )

24000

Solution Calculations
A concentration of 1mol/dm3 means that 1 mol of the substance is dissolved in each dm 3
of water.

amount (mol)/gram s(g)

volume (dm 3 )
Concentration (mol / g dm-3) =

Chemical Formulae and Chemical Equations

The formula of a compound tells us the number of each type of atom in a molecule. The
formula of sulphuric acid is H2SO4. This tells us that there are two moles of hydrogen, one
mole of sulphur and four moles of oxygen. For ionic compounds, the formula can be
worked out by making sure the total charge equals zero. The valency can also be used.
The valency represents the total numbers of covalent bonds an atom can form, or the
charge on an ion. Valencies can be worked out by using the periodic table:
Group
Valenc
y

I
1

II
2

III
3

IV
4

V
3

VI
2

VII
1

O
0

The valencies of some elements in some compounds are given in the name in roman
numerals, in brackets. For example: Iron (III) Chloride. The valencies of some compounds
and elements must be learned:
Name
Hydrogen
Zinc
Nitrate

Formul
a
H 2+
Zn
NO3
12

Valenc
y
1
2
1

Hydroxide
OH
1
Carbonate
CO3
2
Sulphate
SO4
2
Ammonium (forms positive
NH4
1
ion)
Diatomic elements are hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and the halogens.
Empirical Formulae
The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a
compound.
e.g
.

2.88g of magnesium is heated in nitrogen, and forms 4.00g of magnesium

nitride. Find the
empirical formula of magnesium nitride.

Mass of nitrogen = 4.00 - 2.88 = 1.12g

Write the mass, or percentage
by mass, of each element.

Mg

2.88g

1.12g

Divide each mass (or

percentage) by the relative
atomic mass of the element,
to convert to moles.

2.88
24

1.12
14

=0.120mol

=0.0800mol

Simplify this mole ratio by

dividing each number by the
smallest.

0.120
1.50
0.0800

0.0800
1.00
0.0800

If this does not give whole

number, multiply each by an
appropriate figure in this
case, the values are doubled.

1.50 x 2 = 3.00

1.00 x 2 = 2.00

Having arrived at a whole-number ratio, state the ratio as a formula:

Empirical formula = Mg3N2
Molecular Formula
This is the actual number of each type of atom in one molecule of a molecular substance.
This must be a whole number multiple of the empirical formula, which means the relative
molecular mass must be a whole number multiple of the empirical formula mass.
A compound has the empirical formula CH 2O, and a relative molecular mass of 120. What
is its molecular formula?
Relative mass of CH2O = 12 + 2 x 1 + 16 = 30
120 / 30 = 4, so there must be 4 lots of CH 2O in the molecule to give the mass of
120
Therefore molecular formula must be C4H8O4
13

Percentage Yield
Percentage yield = actual yield/theoretical maximum yield x 100%
The percentage yield may not be 100% for several reasons. The reaction may not be
complete, there may be other side reactions occurring, or the product cannot be fully
separated.

Ionic Compounds
There are three different types of bonding which hold together the atoms in substances
which are ionic, covalent and metallic. These occur because of the redistributing of
electrons. Ionic bonding occurs in compounds of a metal with a non-metal, as well as
ammonium compounds. When dissolved in water, acids also form ions. The atoms become
stable from a full outer shell of electrons. The gaining/losing of electrons cause these to
become ions.
e.g. calcium chloride
CaCl2
1.

X XX X

XX
XX
Cl

Ca

Cl

Calcium atoms have 2 electrons in

their outer shell.
Chlorine atoms have 7 electrons in
their outer shells.

2.

X XX X

XX
XX
Cl

Ca

Cl

Electrons are transferred from the

metal, calcium, to the non-metal,
chlorine.

3. Draw the final result, placing the ions in square brackets, and remembering to show
the charge on each ion. Each ion must have a full outer shell of electrons:

14

Ca

XXXX

2+

XX
Cl

XX
Cl

Calcium has lost 2 electrons, so has

become a 2+ ion. The chlorine atoms
have gained one electron each, and
have a charge of 1-. These are now
attracted to each other, and held
together by strong electrostatic
attractions between ions with opposite
charges.

Metals ions always form positive ions. Non-metals form negative ions - except for
hydrogen (H+) and ammonium (NH4+) ions. The ions are generally arranged in an ionic
lattice a giant structure, placing positive ions next to negative, to maximise the total
attraction, such as in the sodium chloride lattice:

Na+ ion

Cl- ion

They have high melting and boiling points, because of their giant structure, with strong
electrostatic attractions between positive and negative ions throughout the entire
structure. They are also brittle. When being bent the similarly charged ions touch and
repel, shattering the object. The size of the charge on an ion is equal to its valency.
Magnesium is in Group II, so has 2 outer electrons; it will therefore lose these when it
reacts, and forms a Mg2+ ion. Oxygen is in Group VI, and has 6 outer electrons; it therefore
needs to gain 2 electrons to fill the shell, and will form an O 2- ion. The size of the charge on
the ions affects the properties of the ionic compound. For example, the melting point of
magnesium oxide, MgO, is much higher than that of sodium chloride, NaCl. MgO consists
of ions with two units of charge Mg2+ and O2- - which therefore attract each other much
more strongly than the singly charged Na + and Cl- ions in NaCl, so much more heat energy
is required to separate them.

Covalent Bonding
A covalent bond is a shared pair of electrons. The outer shells overlap as the atoms share
pairs of electrons, so that both atoms can achieve a full outer shell. The bond holds the
atoms together, because the positively charged protons in the nuclei of the two atoms are
both electrostatically attracted to the negatively charged electron pair in the bond.
Covalent bonding can also be represented by a dot-and-cross diagram
e.g. oxygen
Draw correct number of electrons on outer shell:

15

X
X X
X

X
X

Oxygen is in group VI, so there are six electrons in

the outer shell of each atom.

Draw a diagram of the molecule

representing each bond as a line between
the atoms. One line represents one covalent
bond (a pair of electrons). In the dot-andcross diagram, this is represented as one
dot and one cross:

X
X

X
X

XX

XX

Hydrogen

XX

XX

Cl

Chlorine

Cl

Cl

16

Cl

X
X
X
X

Cl

X
X X
X

WaterC

Ethene

H
C

X
X
H

H
H

Methane

H
H

C
H

C
H

X
X
XX

Ammonia

Cl

XX

X XX

Carbon
dioxide

XX

Hydrogen
chloride

Nitrogen

17

Ethane

H
H

C
H

H
H

Most covalently bonded compounds have a simple molecular structure, meaning they
have low melting and boiling points due to the weak intermolecular forces which are easily
broken. The covalent bonds are not broken when it melts or boils.
Some form giant structures, in which each atom is covalently bonded to several others,
with this pattern repeating indefinitely to form a single, giant macromolecule, of unlimited
size. This type of substance is best illustrated using two allotropes of carbon. Allotropes
are different structural forms of the same element.
Diamond

Graphite

Giant lattice, with each carbon atom

forming four strong covalent bonds to four
other carbon atoms.

Layer lattice, with each carbon atom

forming three covalent bonds to three
other carbon atoms, giving hexagonal
layers of atoms.

18

High sublimation temperature strong

covalent bonds need to be broken, hence
more energy is required. The result is single
carbon atoms with no bonds, between
them, meaning it is sublimated.

High sublimation temperature strong

covalent bonds need to be broken, hence
more energy is required. The result is
single carbon atoms with no bonds,
between them, meaning it is sublimated.

Uses: coating saw blades and drill bits its

extreme hardness allows it to cut through
any substance.

Uses: in lubricating oils, and as pencil

lead the weak layers allow it to slide
and be transferred to items such as paper.

Ionic compounds have higher melting points than covalent compounds as the ions are
held together in a giant structure by strong electrostatic forces. Covalent compounds have
a simple molecular structure although the covalent bonds holding the hydrogen and
oxygen atoms together are very strong, these are not broken on melting, only the weak
intermolecular forces are broken.

Metallic Bonding
This is found in metals and alloys. Each metal atom loses its outer shell electrons,
becoming a positive ion. These positive metal ions are closely-packed in a lattice. The
outer shell electrons are delocalised and they are free to move throughout the entire
metal. It is the electrostatic attraction between the positive metal ions in the lattice, and
the cloud of delocalised negative electrons which holds the metal together.

e-

e-

e-

2+
2+
2+
2+
Mg
Mg
Mg
Mg
2+
2+
2+
2+
Mg
Mg
Mg
Mg
2+
2+
2+
2+
Mg
Mg
Mg
Mg
e-

e-

e-

e-

Regular lattice of positive metal

ions.

e-

e-

e-

e-

e-

e-

e-

e-

e-

e-

e-

e-

e-

e-

e-

e-

e-

Delocalised cloud of electrons,

free to move between the ions.

Property

Explanation

High melting and boiling

point, high tensile
strength

Ionic compounds have a giant structure, with strong

electrostatic attraction between positive metal ions and
delocalised electrons, requiring large amounts of energy to
overcome it.

19

Malleable

The layers of metal ions can slide easily over each other. This
can happen without disrupting the metallic bonding.

Electrical conductors

There is a sea of delocalised electrons, free to carry the

current.

Type Of
Substance

Formed
From

Metallic

Metals

Ionic

Metals
and nonmetals.

Covalent
Molecular

Nonmetals

Giant
Covalent

Nonmetals

Structur
e

Giant

Giant

Simple

Giant

Bonding

Description

Properties

Metallic

Lattice of positive metal ions

held in a cloud of delocalised
electrons.

High melting and

boiling points;
electrical
conductors

Ionic

Lattice of alternatingly
charged ions, held by
electrostatic force.

High melting and

boiling points

Covalent

Help together by a shared

pair of electrons, with weak
intermolecular bonds.

Low melting and

boiling points

Giant three-dimensional
tetrahedral structure with no
free electrons..

Sublimes at very
high
temperatures;
hard: electrical
insulator

Layered hexagonal structure

with some free electrons.

Sublimes at very
high
temperatures;
soft; electrical
conductor

Covalent

20

Electrolysis
Conductivity
There are two types of electric conductors: metallic conductors and electrolytes.
In metallic conductors, the electrons are delocalised, and carry the charge. These
are solid metals, liquid metals, and graphite. Electrolytes conduct electricity
because of free moving ions. If an ionic substance melts or is dissolved, it is an
electrolyte. Covalently bonded acids which are dissolved in water are also
electrolytes, due to the disassociated ions. Electrolytes have a higher resistance
than metallic conductors, and electrolytes are decomposed by the passage of an
electric current. This decomposition is called electrolysis.
Ions
There are two ions present in the electrolyte, anions (positive) and cations
(negative.) The anion is attracted to the anode (negative electrode) and the
cation is attracted to the cathode (positive electrode). There are three main rules
used to find the charge of an ion: metal ions, hydrogen ions, and ammonium ions
are ALWAYS positive. Non-metal ions are always negative. The size of the charge
is equal to the valency of the element.
Products of Electrolysis
The simplest examples of electrolysis involve a molten binary ionic substance.
When this is electrolysed, it breaks down into the two electrons from which it is
made. The metal (cation) will form at the cathode, and the non-metal (anion) will
form at the anode.
If the compound is aqueous, the H+ and OH- ions complicate things. These may
be discharged as hydrogen and oxygen. When there are two ions of the same
type involved in electrolysis, their reactivity is the main factor. The less reactive
element will be discharged, as its compound is less stable.
The results of electrolysing an ionic compound in aqueous solution can be
predicted by using the rules below:

Hydrogen will be discharged at the cathode unless copper, silver or gold

ions are present in which case they will be discharged.
Oxygen will be discharged at the anode unless chlorine, bromine or iodine
are present (in high concentrations), in which case they will be discharged
as the halogen.

The electrodes are usually made from platinum or graphite, as they are
unreactive.
Electrolysis and Redox
All electrolysis reactions are redox reactions. Oxidation is the loss of electrons,
reduction is the gain of electrons (OILRIG). Reduction will take place at the
cathode, oxidation at the anode. The redox reactions can be represented by two
half equations, which show electrons being lost or gained, represented with the

21

symbol e-. When the two half equations are combined, the electrons must cancel
out, giving an ordinary equation for the whole reaction. Some examples:
Molten Zinc Chloride
As it is molten, the zinc chloride is split into molten zinc and chlorine gas. The
positive Zn2+ ions are attracted to the cathode, where they gain two electrons,
and are reduced to zinc metal:

22

Anode

23

Dilute Sulphuric Acid

The electrolysis of any acid produces hydrogen and oxygen. Electrolysis of
compounds which produce gases is done by a Hoffman voltameter, which
collects the gases. The electrolysis occurs at platinum electrodes, and the gas
bubbles up into inverted burettes. The volume of hydrogen is double the amount
of oxygen, as the formula H2O suggests. The water is electrolysed, the acid is just
used as an electrolyte. The hydrogen ions go to the cathode and are reduced,
and then pair up as diatomic molecules:

Concentrated Aqueous Sodium Chloride

There are no copper, silver, or gold ions, so hydrogen will be produced at the
cathode. The high concentration of chloride ions mean chlorine will be produced
as the anode and discharged as chlorine gas.
Aqueous Copper (II) Sulphate Graphite Electrodes
The Cu2+ ions are present in the solution, so they are attracted to the cathode
and are reduced to Copper atoms. A salmon pink coating forms on the graphite
cathode. No halide ions are present, so oxygen is produced at the anode, as the
OH- ions are oxidised.

Electrolysis calculations
It is possible to calculate the amount of a substance produced in electrolysis. The
quantities depend on the total number of electrons supplied to the ions, and the
charge of the ions. The charge on one mole of electrons is one faraday, and is
equal to 96,500 Coulombs.
1 mol e- 1 F = 96500 C
Moles of electrons = charge (C) / 96500

24

The charge which has passed through a circuit can be found using:
Q=Ixt
Where
(seconds)
e.g.

Q = charge (Coulombs);

I = current (Amps);

t = time

A current of 0.5A is passed through an aqueous solution of copper(II)

sulphate for 2 hours. What mass of copper metal is deposited on the
cathode?

Q=Ixt

= 0.5A x 7200s

= 3600C

Moles of electrons

= charge / 96500
2+

Cu

(aq)

+ 2e

--

= 0.0373 mol e-

Cu(s)

2 moles of electrons gives 1 mole of Cu

moles of Cu = moles of electrons / 2 = 0.0373 / 2

0.0187

Mass = moles x molar mass

= 1.19g

mol

Cu
= 0.0187 x 63.5

Mass of copper = 1.19 g

e.g.

For how long must a current of 0.1A be passed through dilute sulphuric
acid in order to produce 240cm3 of oxygen gas?
Moles of gas = volume / 24000
0.010 mol O2
--

4OH (aq)

= 240/24000

2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e

--

4 moles of electrons give 1 mole of O2

Moles of electrons = moles of O2 x 4 = 0.010 x 4

= 0.040 mol e-

Charge = moles of e- x 96500

= 0.040 x 96500 = 3860 C

t=Q/I

= 38600 s

= 3860 / 0.1

time = 643 minutes (3 s.f.)

The Chlor-Alkali Industry

The electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution (brine) produces three
important chemicals, chlorine, hydrogen, and sodium hydroxide. The method of

25

manufacture is called the chlor-alkali industry. This is carried out in a diaphragm

(membrane) cell:

26

chlorine

diaphragm

27

The electrodes are in separate compartments, partitioned by a permeable

diaphragm. At the anode chlorine ions are oxidised, forming chlorine gas,
collected from the top:
2Cl

--

Cl2(g) + 2e

(aq)

--

At the cathode, hydrogen ions are reduced, to form hydrogen gas, which is also
collected at the top of the cell:
+

2H (aq) + 2e
+

H2O(l)

--

H2(g)

H (aq) + OH (aq) .

The H+ ions are formed when the water disassociates,

and they are removed by the electrolysis. Due to Le Chateliers principle, more
water is then disassociated:

The OH- ions are not involved in the electrolysis, and accumulate in the cathode
compartment. The Na+ ions are attracted to the cathode, but are not removed
by electrolysis, so they remain in solution. The solution in the cathode
compartment is now enriched in sodium and hydroxide ions, aka sodium
hydroxide solution.
The diaphragm stops the hydroxide ions from diffusing back into the anode cell
where they would react with the chlorine., as the anode cell has a higher level of
solution, meaning the flow is from anode cathode. Some sodium chloride
remains in the solution, so the solution is heated till the sodium chloride
crystallises out, so it can be removed.
Sodium hydroxide is used:

To
To
To
To

purify bauxite to make alumina, so aluminium can be extracted.

make soap
break down wood when making paper
manufacture chemicals

Chlorine is used to make bleach, hydrochloric acid, PVC, and to sterilise water.
Hydrogen is used to manufacture ammonia and margarine, and as an alternative
power source.

28

Section 2: Chemistry of the Elements

The Periodic Table
The elements in the Periodic Table are arranged in order of increasing atomic
number. The number of shells is given by the Period of an element. The number
of electrons in the outer shell is given by the Group. The elements in Group 0 all
have full outer shells. The elements can be classified as either metals or nonmetals largely on the basis of their electrical conductivity. Metals conduct
electricity well, whereas non-metals (except graphite) are insulators.

The vast majority of elements are metals. The metals are found to the left of the
Periodic Table, and the non-metals towards the right. Some elements close to the
line, example: silicon, display properties between those of metals and nonmetals, are classed as semi-metals. The metals tend to form positive ions, as

29

they lose their outer shell electrons. The non-metals generally gain electrons,
and form negative ions, or bond covalently with other non-metals.

A further distinction between the metals and non-metals is in the chemical

behaviour of their oxides. Metal oxides are basic they will react with acids to
form salts, and some of them dissolve in water to give alkaline solutions:

Non-metal oxides are acidic they react with alkalis to form salts, and dissolve in
water to give acidic solution. Important examples are carbon dioxide, which is
dissolved under pressure in fizzy drinks, and sulphur dioxide, which dissolves in
rainwater to make sulphuric acid, causing acid rain.

30

Group I (The Alkali Metals)

Properties
They have a low density and lithium, potassium and sodium float. They are shiny
when freshly cut, but rapidly tarnish. They are soft and have low melting points.
They are silvery except for Caesium which is pale gold, and they are very
reactive and are stored under oil or in argon.
Trends
On descending the group, the alkali metals become more reactive, softer, and
denser. The outer electrons become further from the nucleus, meaning the
attraction becomes weaker, making it easier to remove the outer electrons,
making it more reactive.
Reactions
With oxygen, to form oxides:

4Na(s) +O2(g)

2Na2O(s)

31

With water, to form hydroxides (hence the name, the alkali metals) and
hydrogen:

2K(s) +2H2O(l)

2KOH(aq) +H2(g)

Lithium reacts vigorously, fizzing around on the surface of the water, and
appearing to dissolve, as it forms soluble lithium hydroxide.
Sodium reactions are the same as Lithium, but slightly more reactive, and forms
soluble sodium hydroxide. With more heat produced, and sodiums lower melting
point, the sodium becomes molten, and forms a ball of liquid metal.
Potassium reacts violently, fizzing around very rapidly in a molten ball, and
appearing to dissolve as it forms soluble potassium hydroxide. It also burns with
a purple flame.

Group VII (The Halogens)

These are reactive diatomic non-metals, which give off poisonous fumes.
Fluorine, F2

Pale yellow gas, very toxic and extremely reactive.

Chlorine, Cl2

Pale green gas, dense and toxic.

Bromine, Br2

Dense, dark red liquid, gives off red-brown vapour. Toxic and
corrosive.

Iodine, I2

Dark grey solid, sublimes to give a purple vapour. Forms a brown

solution in water, and a purple solution in hexane.

Trends
On descending the group, they become darker, and have a higher melting/boiling
point. They become less reactive as the distance of the outer shell from the
nucleus increases, making it harder to attract a new electron.
Reactions
The halogens burn vigorously when heated with the alkali metals, to form white
crystalline halide salts. These are ionic compounds.

2Na(s) +Cl2(g)

2NaCl(s)

Any halogen can be displaced from its compound (halide) by using a more
reactive halogen. Such reactions are done in aqueous solution.
1. Chlorine + sodium bromide

32

Word equation:
bromine

Chlorine + sodium bromide sodium chloride +

Cl2(aq) +2NaBr(aq)

Formula equation:

2NaCl(aq) +Br2(aq)

The colourless chlorine water reacts with the colourless sodium bromide solution,
producing a solution which is orange due to the formation of aqueous bromine.
2. Chlorine + sodium iodide
Word equation:

Chlorine + sodium iodide sodium chloride + iodine

Cl2(aq) +2NaI(aq)

Formula equation:

2NaCl(aq) +I2(aq)

The colourless chlorine water reacts with the colourless sodium iodide solution,
producing a solution which is brown due to the formation of aqueous iodine.
3. Bromine + sodium iodide
Word equation:

Bromine + sodium iodide sodium bromide + iodine

Br2(aq) +2NaI(aq)

Formula equation:

2NaBr(aq) +I2(aq)

The orange bromine water reacts with the colourless sodium iodide solution,
producing a solution which is brown due to the formation of aqueous iodine.

Group 0 The Noble Gases

The gases of group 0 (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, radon) are all
colourless gases, and are extremely unreactive they do not form compounds
with other elements and so are stable.

Oxygen And Oxides

Oxygen is the second-most abundant gases in the atmosphere:
GAS

ABUNDANCE

Nitrogen

78%

Oxygen

21%

Argon

0.9%

Carbon dioxide

0.04%

33

Water vapour

Variable

To find the percentage of oxygen in air, attach two gas syringes together with a
glass tube, which contain copper filings. Fill one gas syringe, empty the other,
and heat the tube. The metal will be oxidised, and the volume of air (at room
temperature) is now 21% less.

Preparation Of Oxygen
Oxygen can be prepared by the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. A
manganese dioxide catalyst is needed:

2H2O2(aq)

M nO2

2H2O(l) +O2(g)

34

Formation Of Oxides
Magnesium burns vigorously in air, with a brilliant white flame, to form
magnesium oxide, a white powder. Magnesium oxide is a metal oxide, and so is
basic. It is slightly soluble in water, giving a slightly alkaline solution of
magnesium hydroxide (pH 10). It will react with acids, to form a salt and water:

2Mg(s) +O2(g)
MgO(s) +H2O(l)

2MgO(s)
Mg(OH)2(aq)

MgO(s) +2HCl(aq)

MgCl2(aq) +H2O(l)

Carbon burns steadily if heated in air, to form colourless carbon dioxide gas. If
the supply of oxygen is limited, some toxic carbon monoxide is also produced.
Carbon dioxide is a non-metal oxide, and so is acidic. It is slightly soluble in
water, giving a weakly acidic solution of carbonic acid (pH 6).

C(s) +O2(g)
CO2(g) +H2O(l)

CO2(g)
H2CO3(aq)

Sulphur is a yellow solid, which burns in air with a bright blue flame, to form
white fumes of sulphur dioxide. It dissolves readily in water to form an acidic
solution of sulphurous acid, H2SO3.

35

S (s) +O2(g)

SO2(g)

SO2(g) +H2O(l)

H2SO3(aq)

Carbon Dioxide
To prepare carbon dioxide add hydrochloric acid to marble chips (calcium
carbonate).

CaCO3(s) +2HCl(aq)

CaCl2(aq) +H2O(l)

Carbon dioxide is also formed in the thermal decomposition of metal carbonates.

Green copper (II) carbonate becomes black copper (I) oxide.

CuCO3(s)

heat

CuO(s) +CO2(g)

Carbon dioxide is used in fire extinguishers it is unreactive, and denser than air,
so gathers around the fire, depriving it of oxygen. It is especially useful for
electrical fires, when it is dangerous to use water. Carbon dioxide is also
dissolved, under pressure, in fizzy drinks. When the bottle is opened, the
pressure is released, and the carbon dioxide bubbles out of solution.
Acid Rain
Sulphur dioxide is formed when coal is burned in power stations. This dissolves in
rainwater, forming acid rain. This damages trees, kills fish in rivers and lakes,
and damages limestone buildings. Similar pollutants include nitrogen oxides (NO,
NO2), formed when nitrogen in the air reacts with oxygen in hot car engines. It
can dissolve in rain water to form nitrous and nitric acids, which also contribute
to acid rain.

Hydrogen and Water

Hydrogen is the least dense but most abundant element in the universe.
Test for Hydrogen
To test for the presence of hydrogen gas, a sample of the gas is collected in a
test tube, and a lit splint is applied. Hydrogen ignites with a squeaky pop and a
blue flame will be seen.
Combustion of Hydrogen
When hydrogen burns it forms water (hydrogen oxide). Because the flame is hot,
this will form as water vapour.

2H2(g) +O2(g)

H2O(g)

36

Test for Water

White anhydrous copper (II) sulphate turns blue in the presence water and pure
water boils at exactly 100C.

Reactivity Series
A more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal from a compound, and
this usually occurs in solution, but can occur in solids, if the metal is heated.
Copper metal + magnesium chloride solution: no reaction copper is less
reactive than magnesium.
Magnesium metal + copper sulphate solution: Magnesium is more reactive than
copper, so can displace it. A pink coating of copper forms on the surface of the
magnesium, and the blue copper sulphate solution slowly turns colourless, as it
is converted to magnesium sulphate:

Mg(s) +CuSO4(aq)

MgSO4(aq) +Cu(s)

Displacement reactions can be used to establish a reactivity series for common

metals:

37

METAL

REACTION WITH ACID

REACTION WITH WATER

Violent - hydrogen produced is
ignited

Potassium
Sodium

Very vigorous shoots around on

the surface of the water

Dangerously violent

Vigorous fizzes around on the

surface of the water

Lithium
Calcium

Fizzes vigorously, forming

hydrogen gas

Fizzes rapidly, forming hydrogen

gas

Magnesiu
m

Fizzes rapidly, forming hydrogen

gas

Reacts very slowly, forming

hydrogen gas

Zinc

Fizzes steadily, forming hydrogen

gas

Reacts very slowly, forming

hydrogen gas

Iron

Fizzes very slowly, forming

hydrogen gas

Rusts slowly, but only if oxygen

is present

Copper

No reaction

No reaction

Reduction and Oxidation

Any reaction which involves oxygen being transferred between two other
elements is a redox reaction. A redox reaction is one in which both oxidation and
reduction occurs.
Oxidation is the gain of oxygen and the loss of electrons.
Reduction is the loss of oxygen and the gain of electrons.
A substance which provides oxygen and takes electrons is the oxidising agent.
A substance which removes oxygen and provides electrons is the reducing agent.
Rusting
Rusting is the oxidation of iron, to form hydrated iron(III) oxide.
Only iron (and alloys of iron, such as steel) can rust. Other metals corrode.
Rusting requires oxygen and water. Rusting can be prevented by placing grease
or oil on the iron which repels water. This is applied regularly and is messy,
normally for machinery. Paint and plastic coatings form a protective layer, but
once scratched the metal below starts to rust. Galvanising involves coating the
iron in a layer of zinc. If scratched the zinc acts sacrificially
Sacrificial protection involves placing a more reactive metal (such as magnesium
or zinc) in contact with the iron object. Because this sacrificial metal is more
reactive, it will corrode in preference to the iron it is sacrificed to protect the

38

iron from rusting. This is used mainly on ships. Blocks of zinc are bolted to the
hull at regular intervals. These slowly oxidise, and protect the ship from rusting.
They must be regularly replaced, when they become corroded.

Test for Ions

+

Li
Na+
K+
Ca2+
NH4
+

Cu2+
Fe2+
Fe3+
Cl

Cations:
Flame test add conc. HCl
to the compound, dip wire
loop in the paste and hold
in a Bunsen burner blue
flame.
Add sodium hydroxide and
warm.
Add sodium hydroxide
solution

Red colour
Persistent orange colour
Lilac colour
Brick red colour
Ammonia gas is produced which has a pungent smell and
turns red litmus blue.
Pale blue precipitate of Cu(OH)2
Dirty green precipitate of Fe(OH)2
Rusty brown precipitate of Fe(OH)3

Anions:
Add nitric acid and then silver (I) nitrate solution.

BrISO42
-

CO3
2-

Add some hydrochloric acid and then barium chloride

solution.
Add hydrochloric acid and bubble gas through
limewater.

Gases:
Ammonia NH3
Carbon Dioxide
CO2
Chlorine Cl2
Hydrogen H2
Oxygen O2
Water H2O

White precipitate of silver

chloride.
Cream precipitate of silver
iodide.
Yellow precipitate of silver
bromide.
White precipitate of Barium
Sulphate.
Carbon Dioxide gas is produced
which turns lime water cloudy.

Damp red litmus paper

Bubble through limewater

Turns damp red litmus blue.

It turns cloudy.

Expose to damp blue litmus

Collect gas in a test tube and apply a lit
splint
Collect gas in a test tube, apply a glowing
splint
Pass through anhydrous copper sulphate
crystals, or test with anhydrous cobalt
chloride paper

The paper is bleached white.

Squeaky pop and blue flame.

39

Splint relights.
Copper sulphate white to blue,
cobalt chloride paper blue to
pink.

Section 3 Organic Chemistry

The Alkanes
The alkanes are a homologous series of hydrocarbons. This means they have the
same general formula, same chemical properties and follow a trend in physical
properties. The general formula of alkanes is CnH2n+2.
Naming Hydrocarbons
When naming an organic molecule, look for the longest continuous chain of
carbon atoms, which determines the root:
Number of carbon
atoms
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

40

Root
MET
HETHPRO
PBUTPENT
HEXHEPT
-

8
OCTThe root is also given a suffix to identify the series to which the compound
belongs, and all alkanes have names ending in ane.
Bromination
Alkanes will react with bromine if they exposed to ultraviolet light. This is a
substitution reaction, where one hydrogen atom is replaced with one bromine
atom. Hydrogen Bromide is also produced:
CH4 + Br2

CH3Br + HBr

Isomerism
Isomers are molecules with the same molecular formula, but different structural
formulae.

41

The formulae shown above are displayed formulae they show every bond and
every atom. One line connecting the atoms represents one covalent bond.
Combustion
Alkanes are not very reactive, and so they are mostly used as fuels. When a
hydrocarbon is completely burned, it forms carbon dioxide and water.

C3H8 +5O2

3CO2 +4H2O

If insufficient oxygen is available, incomplete combustion occurs, and this

produces the poisonous carbon monoxide:

2C3H8 +7O2

6CO +8H2O

42

If there is even less oxygen, carbon is produced, leading to a sooty, yellow flame.

Alkenes
The alkenes are another homologous series of hydrocarbons, with the general
formula CnH2n.

Addition Reactions
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons, as they only contain single bonds. This
means they are unreactive, and are used as fuels. Alkenes are unsaturated, as
they contain double bonds. They are more reactive as the double bond can be
broken, leading to an addition reaction. Bromination is an addition reaction:

43

H
C

Br

Br

Br

Br

This can be used to distinguish between alkanes and alkenes. When bromine
water is added to an alkene it rapidly decolourises, but when added to an alkane
the solution stays orange.

Ethanol
Ethanol is part of the alcohols homologous series:
OH H
H

C C

H H

There are two main methods for its production:

Fermentation:
This is the conversion of glucose to ethanol and carbon dioxide which is done by
anaerobic respiration of yeast. A valve must be used to allow the carbon dioxide
to escape, without allowing air to enter the vessel. This is done at 40 degrees,
which is the optimum temperature for the zymase enzyme. This produces alcohol
of 15% concentration, and is the only method used to produce alcoholic drinks,
as the flavour of the fruit juices fermented provides the flavour of the drink. The
alcohol is then distilled to produce more concentrated drinks, such as vodka. This
is a batch process, and so takes much longer.

C6H12O6(aq)

zy mase

2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)

Addition of Steam to Ethene

This is carried out at a high temperature and pressure (300C, 60-70 atm), and is
passed over a phosphoric acid catalyst. This method is a continuous process, and
is used in oil rich countries. This produces purer alcohol.
C2H4 + H2O

C2H5OH

Dehydration of Ethanol
The above reaction (addition of steam to ethane) can be reversed. This is an
elimination reaction.

44

Some mineral wool is soaked in ethanol and placed at the bottom of a horizontal
boiling tube. Some aluminium oxide is placed in the middle of the tube (catalyst)
and a bung is inserted. The catalyst and the ethanol are heated, and the
vaporised ethanol passes over the catalyst, and breaks down to form ethene and
steam. The ethene can be collected over water.
C2H5OH

C 2H 4 + H 2O

45

Section 4 Physical Chemistry

Acids, Bases and Salts
Indicators are substances which determine whether a solution is acidic or
alkaline.
Indicator
Colour in Acid
Colour in Alkali
Litmus
Red
Blue
Phenolphthalein
Colourless
Pink
Methyl Orange
Red
Yellow
There are two types of litmus, red litmus which turns blue in alkalis, and blue
litmus which turns red in acids.
Universal indicator shows how acidic or alkaline something is, and it goes from
red (strong acid) to green (neutral) to purple (strong alkali). Acidity is measured
using the pH scale, which goes from 1 (acidic) to 7 (neutral) to 14 (alkaline).A pH
probe can also be used.
Reactions of Acids
When acids react, they form salts:
ACID
Hydrochloric acid

FORMULA

SALT FORMED

HCl (aq)

Sulphuric acid

H2SO4 (aq)

Nitric acid

HNO3 (aq)

chloride salts
valency 1)
sulphate salts
valency 2)
nitrate salts
valency 1)

(Cl,
(SO 4,
(NO 3,

Acid + Metal Salt + Hydrogen

Metals which are below hydrogen in the reactivity series do not react with
dilute acids.
Magnesium reacts rapidly with dilute acids to make colourless solutions
of magnesium salts.
Zinc reacts readily to make colourless salts.
Aluminium does not react due to impervious aluminium oxide coating.
Iron reacts slowly to form pale solutions of Iron (II) chloride or Iron (III)
sulphate.
Acid + Metal Oxide Salt + Water
Acid + Metal Carbonate Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide
Acid + Metal Hydroxide Salt + Water

46

ACID +
METAL
METAL OXIDE
METAL CARBONATE
METAL HYDROXIDE

PRODUCTS
SALT + HYDROGEN
SALT + WATER
SALT + CARBON DIOXIDE + WATER
SALT + WATER

Definitions
Acids are substances which dissociate in water and form an H +(aq) ion. Acids are
proton donors. Acids only behave like acids when dissolved in water. Hydrogen
chloride dissolves in water to form hydrochloric acid, in methylbenzene is does
not dissociate, and so does not behave like an acid.
Bases are substances which react with acids and form a salt and water. This
includes metal oxides, metal carbonates and metal hydroxides.

Alkalis are bases which dissolve in water to form the OH-(aq) ion. Most
alkalis are metal hydroxides, but ammonia is also an alkali.

NH3(aq) +H2O(l)

--

NH4 (aq) +OH (aq)

Salts are formed when the hydrogen in the acid is replaced by a different
positive ion usually a metal ion.
Neutralisation is the reaction of an acid with a base. A salt and water is
always produced.

Salt Preparation
Rules for Solubility:
All sodium, potassium and ammonium compounds are soluble.
All chlorides except silver chloride are soluble.
All sulphates are soluble, except for barium and calcium sulphate.
All hydroxides are insoluble, except sodium, potassium and ammonium.
All nitrates are soluble.
Precipitation
This is used to prepare insoluble salts. Two solutions are mixed, each one
containing one of the necessary ions. On mixing, the ions combine and form the
salt, which precipitates. This is filtered off, rinsed and left to dry. For example, to
make Barium Sulphate, two solutions are needed, one of Barium Nitrate, one of
Sodium Sulphate (both are soluble). The solutions are mixed, the precipitate
filtered, rinsed and left to dry.

47

Equation:

Ba(NO3)2(aq) +Na2SO4(aq)

Ionic equation:

Ba2+(aq) +SO42--(aq)

BaSO4(s) +2NaNO3(aq)
BaSO4(s)

Note that the ionic equation for the formation of any salt follows this simple
pattern, of two aqueous ions combining to make the precipitate, e.g.:

Ag+(aq) +Cl --(aq)

AgCl(s)

Titration
This is used to prepare soluble salts from an acid and a soluble base. It is
normally used to prepare sodium, potassium and ammonium salts. A known
volume of acid is measured into a conical flask, using a pipette, and some
indicator is added. The alkali is placed in a burette and slowly added into the
indicator shows the solution is now neutral. The amount of alkali is noted, and
the experiment is repeated, until concordant titres are found. The titre is then
added again, but this time no indicator is added. The solution is then boiled till it
is saturated, and then slowly heated till it crystallises.
Reaction of an Acid with an Insoluble Base
This method is used to prepare soluble salts, from an insoluble base. The acid is
placed in a beaker and warmed with a Bunsen burner. The insoluble metal oxide
or carbonate is added and stirred. It is added until it stops disappearing, and is in
excess the reaction is complete. It can now be filtered off, leaving the pure salt
solution behind. The solution is now gently warmed until it is saturated, and then
it is left to crystallise.

48

49

Energetics
All chemical reactions result in a conversion of energy. Chemical reactions which
release heat energy are exothermic, and those which take in heat energy are
endothermic. Due to the conservation of energy, exothermic reactions result in
the chemical energy of the products decreasing, and endothermic reactions have
the chemical energy of the products increasing.
Enthalpy is the chemical energy change, and is given the symbol H. H is
always given in terms of the chemicals, and not the surroundings. This means
exothermic reactions have negative enthalpy changes, and endothermic
reactions have positive ones.
Measuring Enthalpy Changes
It is possible to measure the enthalpy change by using a reaction to heat or cool
a known mass of water. The enthalpy change can be measured by using the
formula:
E = m c T
Where: E = energy supplied by water (joules), m = mass of water (grams), c =
specific heat capacity of water (4.2 J/g/C), and T = the change in temperature
of the water (C). Since an increase in the temperature of the water means a
decrease in the energy of the chemicals, to find the enthalpy change of the
reaction, use:

50

H = - m c T
If the reaction occurs in solution, the mass of the solution is used.
Enthalpy change is commonly given per mole, and the molar enthalpy change is
given in kilojoules per mole.
e.g. 100g of water were placed in a copper calorimeter above a fuel burner
containing hexane, C6H14. Burning the hexane caused the temperature of the
water to rise from 18 to 44. The mass of the burner decreased from 98.30g to
97.87g. What is the enthalpy of combustion of 1 mole of hexane?
Formula mass of hexane = 6 x 12 + 14 x 1 = 86
Temperature rise

= 44 18

= 26C

Mass of hexane burned

= 98.30 97.87

= 0.43

Moles of hexane burned

= mass / molar mass

= 0.43 / 86 = 0.005

mol
Energy supplied to water = m c T
10920 J
So

Enthalpy change

= - m c T

= 100g x 4.2 J/g/C x 26C

= -10920 J

Enthalpy change per mol = -10920J / 0.005 mol

H

= -2184000 J/mol

= -2184 kJ/mol

Calculating Enthalpy Changes

Making bonds releases energy and breaking them requires energy.

51

To calculate the enthalpy change for any reaction:

1

Write a balanced equation for the reaction.

Find the total bond energy of every bond in the reactant molecules,
remembering to take into account the balancing numbers (it may help to
draw out the molecules).

Find the total bond energy of every bond in the product molecules,
remembering to take into account the balancing numbers.

4 The overall enthalpy change is given by:

H = bond energy of reactants bond energy of products

e.g.

What is the enthalpy change when one mole of methane is burned?

CH4 + 2O2

CO2 + 2H2O

H
H

O
O

H
O

BOND
BOND DISSOCIATION ENTHALPY
(kJ/mol)

Total bond energy for reactants

412

496

= 4 (C H) + 2 (O = O)

743

463

= 4 x 412 + 2 x

496
= 2640 kJ/mol
Total bond energy for products
+ 4 x 463

= 2 x (C = O) + 4 x (O H)

= 3338 kJ/mol

52

= 2 x 743

Reactant product energies = 2640 3338

H

= -698 kJ/mol

= -698 kJ/mol

The negative value shows that the reaction is exothermic.

In some cases, the actual change is different to the theoretical one, and if
the obtained value is lower, there is either some heat loss, or incomplete
combustion.

Rates of Reaction
The rate of reaction is the change in amount of reactant (or product) per unit
time.
The rate of reaction may be monitored in several ways:

The volume of gas produced in a gas syringe

The loss of mass due to gas escape
pH change
temperature change
colour change

To measure the above, it is crucial to have a unit time.

Factors that affect the rate of reaction
The four factors which affect the rate of a chemical reaction:

concentration/pressure of liquid/gaseous reactants

surface area of solid reactants
temperature
catalysts

For a reaction to take place the reactant particles need to collide with energy greater
than the activation energy. Increasing the first two factors increases the rate at which
they collide, so there are more frequent collisions. Increasing the third factor increases
the success rate of the collisions (as each particle has energy closer to the activation
energy). The addition of the catalyst lowers the activation energy of the reaction. Thus
increasing all four factors ensures there are more frequent, more successful collisions.
The catalyst increases the rate of a chemical reaction without being used up in the
overall reaction. The catalyst provides an alternative pathway for a reaction, with a lower
activation energy. Catalysts are specific certain ones catalyse certain reactions, but not
others. The catalyst is not a reactant, and should not be written as part of the equation. It
is written above the arrow.

Measuring the rate

53

Equilibria
Most chemical reactions will proceed to completion once started, but others are
reversible, and can occur in both the backward and forwards directions. These

are dented by the

arrow. These reactions do not reach completion, they
reach an equilibrium, where the rates of the forwards and the rate of the
backwards reactions are the same. Chemical equilibria are dynamic equilibria in
that the change is constantly occurring, but as both reactions are occurring at
the same rate, the amount of products and reactants remains constant.
Le Chateliers Principle
This principle is a way of predicting the outcome of changing an equilibrium
mixture, and it states:
When a change of conditions is imposed on a system in equilibrium, the position
of equilibrium will shift in a direction so as to oppose the change in conditions.
Change Imposed

Effect on Equilibrium

54

Increase in
temperature
Decrease in
temperature
Increase in pressure

Moves to the endothermic reaction

Moves to the exothermic reaction

Decrease in pressure
Adding a reactant
Removing a reactant
Using a catalyst

Moves to the side with fewer moles of

gas
Moves to the side with more moles of
gas
Moves to the opposite side
Moves towards the side involving that
reactant
No effect but increases the rate of
both.

Section 5 Chemistry in Society

Extraction of metals
Metals are extracted from ores. Ores are rocks which contain a sufficient amount
of a peculiar metal.
The extraction of metal can be divided into three categories:

Least reactive may be found unreacted. They still need to be removed

from their ores, but not chemically broken down. This includes gold and
platinum.
Moderately reactive metals they are below carbon in the reactivity
series. Extracted in a displacement reaction with carbon. This includes
lead, copper and iron.
Metals which are more reactive than carbon need to be extracted by
electrolysis. This includes aluminium.

The Blast Furnace

Three things are added to the top of the blast
furnace:
Iron ore often haematite, Fe2O3
Coke mainly consists of carbon. Made by purifying
coal.
Limestone calcium carbonate, CaCO3

Hot air is fed through the bottom. The coke burns in

this air:

55

The carbon
carbon monoxide:

form molten

This reaction is exothermic, and heats up the furnace.

dioxide then reacts with more coke to form

The carbon monoxide reacts with the haematite, to

iron and carbon dioxide.

The calcium carbonate thermally decomposes to form

calcium oxide and carbon dioxide:

The Calcium oxide reacts with the silicon oxide (an

impurity in haematite) to make calcium silicate, which
forms slag, floating above the molten iron. Slag is used
for road surfacing and making cement:

In the process, the iron oxide is reduced, and the carbon monoxide is oxidised.

Aluminium Extraction
The main ore of aluminium is bauxite, which consists of alumina (aluminium
oxide). Aluminium is above Carbon in the reactivity series, so it must be
displaced with electrolysis.

Aluminium Oxide has a high melting point, and is insoluble in water, and so is
dissolved in molten cryolite, so it can be electrolysed. The cryolite is at 900
degrees, whereas molten aluminium oxide would be at 2000 degrees. This
means using cryolite is cheaper and easier. The cathode is the lining of the cell,

56

and the anodes are the large blocks dipped in the electrolyte. The electrodes are
made of graphite. The molten aluminium, after forming on the cathode, sinks to
the bottom, and is tapped off. The hot oxygen reacts with the electrodes, forming
carbon dioxide, and so they often need replacing. This process is expensive due
to the electricity needed.
The aluminium oxide consists of aluminium ions (Al 3+) and oxide ions (O2-). The
aluminium ions (cations) are attracted to the cathode, where they are reduced to
aluminium atoms:
3+

Al + 3e

--

Al

The oxide ions (anions) are attracted to the anodes, where they are oxidised to
oxygen gas:
2O

2--

O2 + 4e

--

Uses of Iron
It is very cheap and abundant, and therefore used in lots of things:

Pig iron which is straight from the blast furnace can be moulded. If it is
remelted and remoulded, it is cast iron and is very impure (4% carbon).
This is very hard and brittle, and used in manhole covers and guttering.
Steel which has 1.5% carbon is called high-carbon steel, and is very hard
but brittle. It is used in drill bits.
Mild steel contains 0.25% iron, and is stronger and harder. This is used in
car bodies, girders and ships.
Pure iron, also called wrought iron, is used as decorative railings, as it is
soft and malleable.
If the iron is alloyed with chromium and nickel, stainless steel is formed.
This protects the iron from rust and corrosion. It is used in cutlery, kitchen
sinks, and in gardening tools.

Uses of Aluminium
Aluminium is not very strong, and is used as an alloy, due to its low density,
corrosion resistance and as it is a good conductor. It is used in aircraft (low
density, corrosion resistance, strength when alloyed), saucepans (low density,
corrosion resistance, high thermal conductivity); high-voltage power cables (low
density; corrosion resistance; high electrical conductivity the cables have a
steel core to increase strength).

Crude Oil
Crude Oil Processing
Crude Oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons. These are simple covalently bonded
molecules, with weak intermolecular forces.

57

Fractional distillation is used to separate crude oil into useful components

(fractions). The more carbon atoms the molecule contains, the stronger the
intermolecular forces and the higher its boiling point.
The crude oil is heated to around 350C in a furnace, and the compounds in the
oil enter the bottom of the fractional distillation tower as a mixture of gases.
They rise up the tower, and as they do so, they cool down. When a molecule
reaches a temperature below its boiling point, it condenses, turns to a liquid and
falls down the tower, to be collected in a series of trays. The compounds with a
similar boiling point condense in the same area, and are removed as part of the
same fraction. The compounds with the lowest boiling points reach the top of the
tower without condensing, and are removed as part of the refinery gases section.
There are many types of hydrocarbon straight chain, branched chain, and ring
molecules but the carbon always forms four bonds, and the hydrogen one.
Crude oil consists of mostly alkanes.
Cracking
If alkane vapour is passed over a heated catalyst, it thermally decomposes. The
alkane is broken down into two smaller molecules, an alkane and an alkene, or
an alkene and hydrogen. If an alkane and an alkene are produced, the alkene is
usually smaller. The hydrogen can be burned as a fuel to power the refinery. The
catalyst is a mixture of silicon dioxide and aluminium oxide, and this is done as
500 degrees centigrade. Cracking is very useful, as it breaks down the longer,
less useful alkanes found in crude oil such as diesel and naptha into shorter
alkanes like petrol, which is in high demand, and into alkenes, which are more
reactive than alkanes, and are can be used to make plastics.

C8H18

C8H18

catalyst
HEAT

C6H14 +C2H4

C8H16 +H2

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Polymerisation
Addition
Alkenes can add to other alkenes, and the monomers join to form polymers.
H

High temperature and pressure

Catalyst

The chain above shows three repeat units, with one repeat unit being a
length of polymer made from a single monomer.
Polymers:
Name

Monomer

Poly(ethene)

Ethene

Repeat Unit

59

Notes, Uses, and

Properties
Also called
polythene, and is
used to make
plastic bags,
carrier bottles and
packaging.

Poly(propene)

Propene

Commonly called
polypropylene, it
is used to make
ropes, crates, and
many other items.

Poly(chloroethe
ne)

Chloroethene

Commonly called
PVC, it is the
strong rigid
material used to
make doors,
window frames
and drainpipes.

Drawing Polymers
To draw a polymer, draw out a monomer so that the C=C bond is horizontal, and
all the other groups are vertical. Then break the C=C double bond, and draw the
new bonds at the side, then add the brackets.
H3C

CH3
C

redraw

CH3

CH3

CH3

CH3

polymerise

2-methylbut-2-ene

CH3

CH3

CH3

poly(2-methylbut-2-ene)

To find the monomer from which a polymer is made, isolate two adjacent carbon
atoms, and then replace the C=C double bond.
CH3

CH3

CH3

Cl

Cl

Cl

is made from

60

CH3

Cl

The name of a polymer is always poly followed by the name of monomer

in brackets e.g. ethene goes to poly(ethene)
Condensation Polymerisation
A condensation reaction can be used to join many monomers to form a polymer,
and this reaction differs from addition reactions as different monomers are used.
If one monomer contains an OH group, and the other contains an H, these
combine to form water. The remainders of the monomers join to form the
condensation polymer.
Polyamides
One of the most important condensation polymers is nylon, which is used in ropes,
carpets and clothing. Nylon is a polyamide, which is made from a carboxylic acid (-COOH)
and an amine (-NH2). Each of the monomers is double ended, which lets them join
together alternately by forming an amide link (-CONH-) to make the polymer. This can be
seen below, with the central portion of the monomers being represented by a block:

O
C

HO

H
N

OH

H
O

Polyesters
Polyesters are condensation polymers, which are like polyamides, but are formed
from a carboxylic acid (-COOH), and an alcohol (-OH), and both monomers are
double ended. This results in the formation of an ester link (-COO-), with water
being produced as a side product.
O

O
C

HO

O
OH

O
H

Polyesters such as terylene are used to manufacture material for clothing.

61

O
HOOC

C 6H 4

COOH

HO

C 2H 4

OH

O
C 6 H4

C2 H 4

O
H

Chemical Manufacture
The Haber Process
This is the combination of hydrogen and nitrogen to make ammonia.

N2(g) + 3H2(g)

2NH3(g)

The hydrogen is obtained by reacted methane with steam, or by cracking hydrocarbons:

CH4(g) + H2O(g)

C10H22

heat
cataly st

Ni

CO(g) + 3H2(g)

C10H20 + H2

The nitrogen is obtained from the air.

The hydrogen and nitrogen are fed into the reaction vessel in the ratio of 3:1 respectively.
The reaction is reversible:

N2(g) + 3H2(g)

2NH3(g)

H =
-92kJ/mol
Temperature: 450C
Pressure:

200 atmospheres

Catalyst:

Finely divided iron

The forward reaction is exothermic, so the temperature is low enough to give a

reasonable yield, but high enough to produce that yield at an acceptable rate. The iron
catalyst increases the rate of the reactions. Increasing the pressure increases the rate of
the forward reaction, and also increases the rate, but a too high pressure is dangerous
and expensive, meaning a pressure of 200 atmospheres is used. The yield of ammonia is
15%, and the mixtures of gases which leave the vessel are cooled, until the ammonia
condenses, and is removed as a liquid. The hydrogen and oxygen are recycled into the
reaction vessel. The ammonia produced is used to manufacture fertilisers, and to make
nitric acid.

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Nitrogen from fractional distillation of liquid air

450C
200 atm
iron catalyst
H2 and N2

Cooling

3:1 ratio

NH3
condenses

Liquid
NH3

Unreacted gases
recycled

Hydrogen from natural gas and steam

The Contact Process

This is the manufacture of Sulphuric Acid.
Firstly, sulphur is burned in oxygen to make sulphur dioxide.
S(s) + O2(g)

SO2(g)

The sulphur dioxide is then reacted with more oxygen to produce sulphur
trioxide:
2SO 2(g) + O2(g)

2SO3(g)

This is a reversible reaction, and the forward reaction is exothermic, so the

temperature is a compromise between a higher yield and a fast rate of reaction.
Increasing the pressure would increase the yield and increase the rate, but the
yield is already very high at one atmosphere, so the pressure is kept low. The
catalyst increases the rate of reaction.
Temperature: 450C
Pressure:

1-2 atm

Catalyst:

Vanadium(V) oxide V2O5

The sulphur trioxide will dissolve in water to form sulphuric acid, but this is
incredibly exothermic, and will vaporise the solution. Instead, the sulphur trioxide
is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid, to give oleum. Water is then added to
the oleum, producing concentrated sulphuric acid.
H2SO4(l) + SO3(g)

H2S2O7(l)

H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l)

2H2SO4(l)

Sulphuric acid is used in the manufacture of fertilisers, manufacture of

detergents, and manufacture of paints.

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64