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Syllabus:
Simple harmonic motion, Damped simple harmonic
motion, types of damping, Forced oscillation, resonance,
group velocity and dispersion, Types of waves, Energy
Transport in Wave motion, Wave motion in one
dimension, the one dimensional Wave equation.
Objective:
To illustrate the physics involved in the description and
analysis of waves through a wide range of examples,
from purely mechanical and purely electromagnetic to
coupled electro-mechanical waves, such as plasma
oscillations and hydro magnetic waves.
Introduction
Types of wave
Oscillating Properties of waves
Wave equation
Simple Harmonic Motion
Damped oscillation
Forced oscillation
Waves:
Any traveling disturbance that carries energy from one place to place through
repeated motion of medium particle about their mean position.
Electromagnetic waves :
The waves which travel in form Of oscillating electric & magnetic fields are
called electro-Magnetic waves. For e.g. visible light ,radio waves, etc.
3.Matter waves:
The waves associated with microscopic Particles ,such as electrons protons,
neutrons, atoms, molecules, etc., when they are in motion are called matter waves or
De- Broglie waves.
Types of Wave
Energy Transfer
Oscillation
Energy transfer
Characteristics of waves:
The velocity of the particle is different than the velocity of the wave
in the medium
Displacement - Distance
Displacement
Wavelength
Amplitude
Distance
Displacement Time
Displacement
Time Period
Amplitude
Time
Oscillating Properties
Term
Description
1. Wavelength ()
2. Amplitude (A)
3. Frequency (f)
5. Speed (v)
Intensity of a wave is the power per unit area incident upon a surface, in
Wm-2. (It is proportional to the square of the amplitude, so I A2)
Speed = Distance
Time
Wave speed = Wavelength
Time period
substituting gives
v=
T
v=f
This is called the wave equation.
but T = 1
f
Destabilizing forces
NF = 0
net
W
Destabilizing forces
N
Destabilizing forces
Fnet = away from equil
N
restoring forces
N
Fnet = 0
restoring forces
N
Fnet = toward equil.
restoring forces
Fnet
N
= toward equil.
Simple Pendulum
Displacement:
x(t ) = xm cos(t + )
Amplitude :
xm
F =k x
d 2x
F =m 2 =k x
dt
d 2x
k
= x
2
dt
m
x1 = C1 cos k t
m
x2 = C2 sin k t
m
satisfies the differential equation
= km
How
varies?
x = a cos( t + )
=0
xm
o
xm
xt
x1 = xm1 cos(t + 1 )
{ x =x
2
m2
cos(t + 2 )
= 0
= (t + 2 ) (t + 1 )
= 2 1
=
x
t
Different amplitude
x = xm cos(t + )
Different period
v = x m sin( t + )
a = xm 2 cos(t + )
= kx
d 2x
kx = m 2
dt
d 2x
ax = 2
dt
d 2x k
+ x=0
2
m
dt
Solution of Equation
Rewrite Equation of SHM as;
k
d 2x
=
(
)x
2
m
dt
(1)
x = x m cos(t + ) (2)
Now differentiate Eq (2) twice with respect to the time.
d 2x
2
=
x m cos(t + )
2
dt
k
2
x m cos(t + ) = x m cos(t + )
m
Therefore, if we choose the constant
such that
k
=
m
Potential energy:
1 2 1 2
kx = kxm cos 2 (t + )
2
2
1 2 1
mv = m 2 xm2 sin 2 (t + ) 2 = k / m
2
2
1
K (t ) = kxm2 sin 2 (t + )
2
K (t ) =
Kinetic energy:
Mechanical energy:
E =U + K =
1 2
1
1
kxm cos 2 (t + ) + kxm2 sin 2 (t + ) = kxm2 [sin 2 (t + ) + cos 2 (t + )]
2
2
2
1
E = U + K = kxm2
2
kinetic energies oscillate with time t and vary between zero and
1
2
kx . Both U and K vary with twice the frequency of the displacement
2
K =. 0
.U
=0
1
2
U = kx m
2
K =
1
2
kx m
2
1
1 2 1
2
2
K + U = mv x + kx = kx m
2
2
2
vx
k
2
= ( xm x 2 )
m
k
2
vx =
( xm x 2 )
m
Torsion pendulum
Restoring torque:
torque:
T = 2
external force.
force.
Example: Block oscillates vertically on a spring
Example:
spring.. From
block, a rod extends to a vane submerged in liquid
liquid..
motion
Liquid exerts a damping force opposed to the motion
Fd = bv
b = damping constant (kg/s)
d 2x
dx
bv kx = ma m 2 + b + kx = 0
dt
dt
d2x
dx
2
+
2
K
+
0 x =0
2
dt
dt
Solution::
Solution
x(t ) = xm e
bt / 2 m
k0
b
2K =
and 0 =
m
m
cos( ' t + )
Displacement of
damped oscillator
d 2x
If we replace the value of
in above equation,
2
dt
d 2
2
2
(t ) = 0
k
+
0
2
dt
(t ) = xm cos(t + )
Three Cases:
Case-I: (02 > K2)
d 2
2
2
0 (t ) = 0
2
dt
(t ) = A exp( K 2 02 t ) + B exp( K 2 02 t )
x(t ) = A exp( K + K 2 02 t ) + B exp( K K 2 02 t )
d 2
=0
2
dt
The Solution will be
Small Damping
(t ) = At + B
x(t ) = ( At + B) e Kt
Again there is no oscillation
and motion is called
Critically damped.
Amplitude : xm e bt / 2 m
Frequency of damped
oscillator:
k
b2
' =
m 4m 2
If b=0
(no damping)
' =
k
=
m
Mechanical energy
Un
Un--damped
oscillator::
oscillator
1 2
E (t ) = kxm
2
Damped
oscillator:
1 2 bt / m
E (t ) = kxm e
2
Frestoring = kx
We should add some damping force:
Fdamping = bv
Fdamping
dx
= bv = b
dt
damping force proportional to velocity
b = damping constant
(characterizes strength of damping)
dE
=0
dt
dE
0
dt
dE
= Fdamping v = (bv)v
dt
= bv 2 < 0
ma = Frestoring + Fdamping
d 2x
dx
m 2 = kx b
dt
dt
Three Classes of Damping, b
small (under damping)
b < 2 mk
b = 2 mk
b 2 mk
b > 2 mk
x(t ) = Ae ( b / 2 m ) t cosh( over t + )
over
b2
k
=
2
4m
m
( a frequency!)
Application
Shock absorbers:
want critically damped
(no oscillations)
not over damped
(would have a
slow response time)
Forced Vibration
If the body is allowed to vibrate by itself, without any influence of the
external force, it oscillates with particular frequency known as natural
frequency.
However, if the external force is applied, then it forces the body to oscillate
with frequency similar to frequency of the applied force. Such kind of
vibration under influence of external driving force are called forced vibration
or driven vibrations.
n =
k
m
F=A Cos(ft)
x
F
d 2x
dx
m 2 = F cos t b k0 x
dt
dt
F
b
G = ; 2K =
m
m
d 2x
dx
2
+
2
K
+
0 x (t ) = G cos t
2
dt
dt
Solution of the above equation will be of the form,
x(t ) = a cos(t )
dx
= a sin(t )
dt
d2x
2
a
=
cos(t )
2
dt
a(02 2 ) = G cos
2 Ka = G sin
If we square and add, we have
a=
G
(02 2 ) 2 + 4 K 2 2
1
2
Further
2 K
tan =
02 2
a=
(02 2 ) 2 + 4K
4 K 2 2
1
2
This clearly shows that it depends upon frequency of the driving force
2
2 2
2 2
and is maximum when (0 ) + 4K is minimum, i.e.
d
(02 2 ) 2 + 4 K 2 2 = 0
dx
= 0 1
2 02 2 (2 ) + 8 K 2 = 0
2K
02
2
1
2
d2x
dx
F (t )
2
+ 2
+ 0 x =
2
dt
dt
m
Unfortunately,
the
bridges
natural resonant frequency was
the same as the wind blowing
across the Puget Sound on
certain days.
During
times
when
the
conditions were just right, the
energy from the wind was
transferred to the bridge.
Microwave ovens
Frequency of microwaves
= Natural frequency of vibration of
water molecules
Water molecules in food resonate and food
get heated up and we can cook the food.
is
used
for
medical
diagnoses
( z , t ) = 2 A cos (t kz ) cos ( ( )t (k ) z )
In fig. (a) the variation of the rapidly varying cos(t-kz) term at t = 0 has
shown, the distance between two consecutive peaks is 2 / k.
Phase Velocity
n( )
1
dk 1
dn
=
= n ( ) +
vg d c
d
2 c
02 dn
dn dn d 0
=
=
d d 0 d
2 c d 0
1 1
dn
= n ( 0 ) 0
vg c
d 0
ng =
c
dn
= n ( 0 ) 0
vg
d 0
Group Index
Every source of light would have certain wavelength spread i.e. spectral
width (0 )of the source. Since each wavelength component travels with
group velocity it will result in broadening of the pulse.
This broadening is measured as the time taken to traverse a length L of the
dispersive medium by the pulse,
L L
dn
= n ( 0 ) 0
vg c
d 0
L0
d
m =
0 =
d 0
0 c
2 d 2n
0
2
d
Material
Dispersion
E ( z , t ) = Aei (t kz )
However, the above equation is practically impossible as displacement is finite
only over a certain domain of time and we have what is known as wave packet.
A wave packet can always be expressed as superposition of
different frequencies,
E ( z, t ) =
A( )e
i (t kz )
plane waves of
E ( z = 0, t ) =
1
A( ) =
2
A( )eit d
E ( z = 0, t ) e it dt
Now, in most problems, A(w) is a very sharply peaked function, because for
> 0 + and for < 0 + , the function. A(w) is negligibly small.
A Gaussian pulse and corresponding frequency spectrum, which is usually a very sharply
peaked function around = 0.
For a sound wave propagating through a gas, the energy per unit volume is
given by
When waves emanate from a point source in an isotropic medium, all the points on the
surface of a sphere (whose center is at the point source) have the same amplitude and the
same phase; in other words, the locus of points which have the same amplitude and the same
phase is a sphere. Such waves are known as spherical waves. Far away from the source, over
a small area, the spherical waves are essentially plane waves.
or
If the string is pulled in the y direction, then forces will act on the string
which will tend to bring it back to its equilibrium position. Let us consider a
small length AB of the string and calculate the net force acting on it in the y
direction.