The Long Shadow of Borders:

The Cases of Kashubian and Silesian in Poland

Tomasz Kamusella
Motoki Nomachi*
Abstract
Poland was established as a nation-state in 1918. The states administration embarked on the policy of
ethnolinguistic homogenization in the interwar period, because one-third of the population was seen as ethnolinguistically non-Polish. The Polish borders and territory were dramatically altered as a result of World War II, and
the country became a member of the Soviet bloc. The concomitant genocide and ethnic cleansing yielded an almost
ethnolinguistically homogenous Poland. After the end of communism, the German minority, whose existence had
EHHQGHQLHGZDVQDOO\UHFRJQL]HG,QSUHSDUDWLRQIRUDFFHVVLRQLQWRWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQ(83RODQGZRUNHGRXW
as required, a system of minority rights protection. However, it did not cover contemporary Polands largest minority,
the Silesians. Additionally, the system was constructed in such a manner that the acknowledged linguistic difference
of a similar group of Kashubs stopped short of recognizing them as a minority. It appears that in Poland the need
IRUSURWHFWLQJPLQRULWLHVLVIHOWWREHDQLPSRVLWLRQRIWKH:HVWRUWKHROG(8ZKLFKLVQRWREOLJHGWRREVHUYHVXFK
provisions itself. In its de jure observance of minority rights provisions, de facto, the Polish state administration
seems to endeavor to limit such provisions as much as possible, alongside the number of Polish citizens entitled to
them. Hence, it may be proposed that the ongoing project of ethnolinguiustic homogenization continues to be the
ideological backbone of national statehood legitimation in todays Poland.

Introduction: On Borders and Languages

The Dichotomy of Languages versus Dialects
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DYDULHW\GHHPHGWREHDODQJXDJHWKDWLVRQHRIPDQ\$SDUWIURPVXFKYDULHWLHVNQRZQXQGHUWKH
QDPHRIODQJXDJHVWKHUHDUHRWKHUVUHIHUUHGWRDVGLDOHFWV7KHHPHUJHQFHRIWKHGLFKRWRP\EHWZHHQ
languages and dialects, though apparently of Western origin, appears to be closely connected to the invention and subsequent spread of the technology of writing. Writing is not language per se, but a graphic
representation of various salient elements of the spoken word that allows the reader to decode graphically
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*7RPDV].DPXVHOODLV5HDGHURI0RGHUQ+LVWRU\DWWKH&HQWUHIRU7UDQVQDWLRQDO+LVWRU\6FKRRORI+LVWRU\8QLYHUVLW\RI6W$QGUHZV6W$QGUHZV6FRWODQG8.0RWRNL1RPDFKLLV$VVRFLDWH3URIHVVRURI6ODYLF/LQJXLVWLFVDW
WKH6ODYLF(XUDVLDQ5HVHDUFK&HQWHU+RNNDLGR8QLYHUVLW\

35

Eurasia Border Review < Article >

Prior to the rise of the written word, in the popular present-day Western take on this matter,
all people spoke dialects. After writing was invented, those dialects that happened to be employed for
UHFRUGLQJPHVVDJHVZLWKWKHXVHRIJUDSKLFVLJQVEHFDPHHOHYDWHGDVODQJXDJHV%\WKHVDPHWRNHQ
WKHYDVWPDMRULW\RIGLDOHFWVQRWXWLOL]HGIRUWKHSXUSRVHRIZULWLQJZHUHGRZQJUDGHGDVXQZULWWHQGLDOHFWVRUDVGLDOHFWVQRWHQGRZHGZLWKDVSHFLFZULWWHQIRUPRIWKHLURZQ7KHMXGJPHQWDORSSRVLWLRQ
SLWWLQJODQJXDJHVZKLFKDUHEHWWHURUEHWWHUGHYHORSHGDJDLQVWGLDOHFWVZKLFKDUHZRUVHRUXQGHYHORSHGLVQRZDGD\VFRPPRQO\H[SUHVVHGWKURXJKWKH:HVWHUQWHUPVGLDOHFWDQGODQJXDJH%XW
it is assumed that such opposition did emerge time and again in unrelated cases and areas where writing
appeared independently or was transplanted without much connection to its original source.2
As alluded to above, the invention of writing seems to be tied up with large hierarchical organi]DWLRQVRIJURXSVLQKDELWLQJVSHFLFWHUULWRULHV37KHVHWHUULWRULDOL]HGRUJDQL]DWLRQVRIUHODWLYHO\ODUJH
KXPDQJURXSVDUHNQRZQDVVWDWHV,IZULWLQJLVFRQQHFWHGWRVWDWHEXLOGLQJODQJXDJHVDUHDOVRSDUW
and parcel of this process.4
Languages and Nationalism
At the turn of the nineteenth century, in the wake of the American and French revolutions, the
idea emerged that for a state to be a legitimate polity, all its population must be organized as a nation, that
is, a collectivity of citizens enjoying equality before law. In turn, this newly conceived nation became
WKHVROHIRQWRIOHJLWLPDF\IRUWKHVWDWHVJRYHUQPHQWUHSODFLQJLQWKLVUROHDWOHDVWLQ(XURSH*RG
7KHLGHDRIQDWLRQDQGLWVSROLW\RUQDWLRQVWDWHVSUHDGLQWKHHDUO\QLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\WR/DWLQ$PHULFD
where the Spanish colonial empire was replaced by nation-states. The populations of the colonies were
WUDQVIRUPHGLQWRQDWLRQDOO\GHQHGFLWL]HQULHVRIWKHLUUHVSHFWLYHQDWLRQVWDWHV5 At the same time, the
UHOLJLRXVGLIIHUHQFHWKDWRSSRVHG2UWKRGR[&KULVWLDQLW\WR,VODPOHGWRWKHFDUYLQJRI&KULVWLDQ%DONDQ
QDWLRQVWDWHVRXWRIWKH2WWRPDQ(PSLUH7RTXDOLI\DVDFLWL]HQRIWKHVHQDWLRQVWDWHVRQHKDGWRSURIHVV
an appropriate religion.6
Similarly, in the middle of the nineteenth century, languages were elevated to the foundation
RIQDWLRQVWDWHEXLOGLQJSURMHFWVLQ&HQWUDO(XURSH72QO\WKRVHZKRVSRNHDQGZURWHRUZHUHGHQHG

Henry Rodgers, Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach 0DOGHQ0$%ODFNZHOO

Ibid., 7.
3-HUHP\%ODFNHGAtlas of World History: Mapping the Human Journey/RQGRQ'RUOLQJ.LQGHUVOH\3XEOLVKLQJ

4 Martin Kuckenburg, 3LHUZV]HVRZR1DURG]LQ\PRZ\LSLVPD [The First Word: The Birth of Speech and Writing]
:DUVDZ3DVWZRZ\,QVW\WXW:\GDZQLF]\
5%HQHGLFW$QGHUVRQ,PDJLQHG&RPPXQLWLHV5HHFWLRQVRQWKH2ULJLQDQG6SUHDGRI1DWLRQDOLVP/RQGRQ9HUVR

6&KDUOHV-HODYLFKDQG%DUEDUD-HODYLFKThe Establishment of the Balkan National States, 180419206HDWWOH:$
8QLYHUVLW\RI:DVKLQJWRQ3UHVV
7 Tomasz Kamusella, The Politics of Language and Nationalism in Modern Central Europe %DVLQJVWRNH3DOJUDYH
1
2

36

Kamusella and Nomachi

as speaking a national language could be recognized as members of a given nation-in-making. Next, a

collectivity of speakers of the same language aspired to secure a territory contiguously inhabited by them
DVWKHLUSURVSHFWLYHQDWLRQVWDWH7KHUVWWZRLGHRORJLFDOO\HWKQROLQJXLVWLFQDWLRQVWDWHVWKH.LQJGRPRI
,WDO\DQGWKH*HUPDQ(PSLUHZHUHHVWDEOLVKHGLQDQGUHVSHFWLYHO\8 These were followed by
RWKHUQDWLRQDOSROLWLFVWKDWZHUHHWKQROLQJXVLWLFLQFKDUDFWHULQ&HQWUDO(XURSHDIWHU:RUOG:DU,ZKLFK
spread even further across the post-Soviet area following the breakup of the Soviet bloc and the collapse
RIWKH6RYLHW8QLRQ9(OVHZKHUHLQWKHZRUOGLQWKHZDNHRIGHFRORQL]DWLRQHVSHFLDOO\GXULQJWKHWZR
GHFDGHVDIWHUWKHVFRORQLDOSRSXODWLRQVZHUHWUDQVIRUPHGLQWRQDWLRQVDQGVLPXOWDQHRXVO\WUDQVIRUPHGLQWRLQGHSHQGHQWSROLWLHVGHQHGDVQDWLRQVWDWHV
Zones of Multilingual Contact into Ethnolinguistic Frontiers
Although prior to the rise of compulsory elementary education in the standard or national language, dialects differed from village to village and from region to region, the differences did not hinder
mutual comprehensibility. Interlocking chains of such dialects form dialect continua. Incomprehensibility arose when speakers of dialects from two different dialect continua met.11%XWJUDVVURRWVGLJORVVLD
or polyglotism12RUWKHXVHRIDOLQJXDIUDQFDWKDWLV/DWLQ*HUPDQRU)UHQFKLQ&HQWUDO(XURSHE\
leaders of respective communities or the literati easily bridged the gap of incomprehension.
However, the rise of ethnolinguistic nationalism as an ideology that legitimated statehood, required breaking the dialect continua into discrete areas apportioned to standard national languages.13 In
turn, ethnolinguistic barriers coincided with the frontiers of the nations postulated nation-state. After the
IRXQGLQJRIWKHVHHWKQROLQJXLVWLFDOO\GHQHGQDWLRQVWDWHVWKHFRLQFLGHQFHZDVQRWSHUIHFWEXWPDUUHG
by multilingual communities and individuals and ethnolinguistic minorities. The state did its best to
make them monolingual.14,Q&HQWUDO(XURSHWKHSROLFLHVRIHWKQLFFOHDQVLQJDQGJHQRFLGHDVVRFLDWHG

0DFPLOODQ
8(UQHVW*HOOQHUNationalism1HZ<RUN1HZ<RUN8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
9 Ibid.0LURVODY+URFKSocial Preconditions of National Revival in Europe: A Comparative Analysis of the
Social Composition of Patriotic Groups among the Smaller European Nations &DPEULGJH&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\
3UHVV
 Hans Kohn, The Age of Nationalism: The First Era of Global History1HZ<RUN+DUSHU %URWKHUV
11 Peter Trudgill, A Glossary of Sociolinguistics (GLQEXUJK(GLQEXUJK8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
12-y]VHI/LV]ND'DV7DXVFKNLQG6\VWHPLP6ORZDNLVFKHQ7HLOGHU.OHLQHQ7LHIHEHQH>7KH&KLOGUHQ([FKDQJH
6\VWHPLQWKH9LFLQLW\RI%UDWLVODYD@Zeitschrift fr Balkanologie
13 Pieter M. Judson, Guardians of the Nation: Activists on the Language Frontiers of Imperial Austria&DPEULGJH
0$+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV7RPDV].DPXVHOOD7KH,VRPRUSKLVPRI/DQJXDJH1DWLRQDQG6WDWH7KH
&DVHRI&HQWUDO(XURSHLQ1DWLRQDOLVPV$FURVVWKH*OREH$Q2YHUYLHZRI1DWLRQDOLVPVRI6WDWH(QGRZHGDQG
Stateless NationsHGV:%XUV]WD7.DPXVHOODDQG6:RMFLHFKRZVNL3R]QD3RODQG:\V]D6]NRD1DXN
+XPDQLVW\F]Q\FKL']LHQQLNDUVWZD
14 Tara Zahra, Kidnapped Souls: National Indifference and the Battle for Children in the Bohemian Lands, 1900
1948 ,WKDFD1<&RUQHOO8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV

37

Eurasia Border Review < Article >

with World War II and its aftermath allowed for the effective carrying out and enforcement of normative
monolingualism in the national language with regard to entire nations enclosed within the boundaries of
their nation-states.15
Between Germany and Poland
A traditional zone of multilingual communication, between Germanic and Slavic speakers, was
WXUQHG EHWZHHQ  DQG  LQWR D OLQH RI VKDUS OLQJXLVWLF GLVFRQWLQXLW\ FRLQFLGLQJ ZLWK WKH *HUman-Polish frontier16WKDWXQWLOZDVWKHPRVWQRWRULRXVDQGGLVSXWHGFOHDYDJHLQ&ROG:DU(XURSH17
For all practical purposes, after 1945, this border was sealed and became an impenetrable barrier isolatLQJWKHLQFUHDVLQJO\PRQROLQJXDOQDWLRQVWKDWLVWKH*HUPDQVSHDNLQJ*HUPDQVRI(DVW*HUPDQ\DQG
WKH3ROLVKVSHDNLQJ3ROHVRQWKHLUUHVSHFWLYHVLGHVRIWKHIURQWLHU%HWZHHQDQGZKHQ3RODQG
DORQJVLGH RWKHU QHZ (XURSHDQ 8QLRQ PHPEHU VWDWHV MRLQHG WKH 6FKHQJHQ$UHD RI ERUGHUOHVV WUDYHO
three generations of Germans and Poles had already been born and come of age within view of one another across the frontier, but with no meaningful interaction, out of one anothers earshot.
In communist Poland, the existence of minorities and communities speaking languages other
WKDQ3ROLVKHVSHFLDOO\*HUPDQVZDVGHQLHGLQWKHRIFLDO3ROLVKODQJXDJHOLWHUDWXUH18%XWWKHDXWKRULties did monitor minorities, forced them to assimilate or emigrate, or engaged in outright expulsions19 as
LQWKHFDVHRIWKH-HZVDIWHUWKH0D]XUVDQGWKH5RPDLQWKHVRUWKH6LOHVLDQVGXULQJWKH
V A preliminary discourse on these minorities unfolded tentatively only at the end of the commuQLVWSHULRGGXULQJWKHVHFRQGKDOIRIWKHV21

157RPDV] .DPXVHOOD (WKQLF &OHDQVLQJ LQ 6LOHVLD  DQG WKH (QQDWLRQDOL]LQJ 3ROLFLHV RI 3RODQG DQG
*HUPDQ\Patterns of Prejudice
163LRWU(EHUKDUGW3ROVNDLMHMJUDQLFH=KLVWRULLSROVNLHMJHRJUDLSROLW\F]QHM[Poland and Its Borders: From the
History of Polish Political Geography@/XEOLQ:\GDZQLFWZR8QLZHUV\WHWX0DULL&XULH6NRGRZVNLHM
177RPDV].DPXVHOOD7KH7ZHQWLHWK$QQLYHUVDU\RIWKH*HUPDQ3ROLVK%RUGHU7UHDW\RI,QWHUQDWLRQDO
7UHDWLHVDQGWKH,PDJLQLQJRI3RODQGV3RVW:HVWHUQ%RUGHUJournal of Borderlands Studies1R

18-y]HI%\F]NRZVNL0QLHMV]RFLQDURGRZHZ(XURSLH:\EUDQH]DJDGQLHQLD [National Minorities in
Europe: Selected Aspects@2SROH,QVW\WXWOVNL
19$GDP%DUWRV]1LHEyMVL&\JDQD1D'DUD5URPHVDU[Dont Be Afraid of the Roma@6HMQ\3RJUDQLF]H
-DURVDZ6\UQ\NHG$SDUDWEH]SLHF]HVWZD3ROVNL/XGRZHMZREHFPQLHMV]RFLQDURGRZ\FKL
etnicznych oraz cudzoziemcw. Studia [The Security Forces of Peoples Poland Against the National and Ethnic
Minorities, and Against Foreigners: Studies@:DUVDZ,QVW\WXW3DPLFL1DURGRZHM.RPLVMDFLJDQLD=EURGQL
SU]HFLZNR1DURGRZL3ROVNLHPX
  7RPDV] .DPXVHOOD (WKQLF &OHDQVLQJ $QGU]HM 6DNVRQ 0D]XU]\  VSRHF]QR SRJUDQLF]D
[The Mazurs: A Borderland Group@ 3R]QD ,QVW\WXW =DFKRGQL   'DULXV] 6WROD Kampania
DQW\V\MRQLVW\F]QDZ3ROVFH [7KH$QWL6HPLWLF&DPSDLJQLQ3RODQG@:DUVDZ,QVW\WXW
6WXGLyZ3ROLW\F]Q\FK3ROVNLHM$NDGHPLL1DXN
21 Jerzy Tomaszewski, 2MF]\]QDQLHW\ONR3RODNyZ0QLHMV]RFLQDURGRZHZ3ROVFHZODWDFK [The
)DWKHUODQGQRWRQO\RIWKH3ROHV1DWLRQDO0LQRULWLHVLQ3RODQG@:DUVDZ0RG]LHRZD$JHQFMD

38

Kamusella and Nomachi

On both sides of the German-Polish border there were broad changes in the twentieth century,
EXWGLIIHUHQWFRQIHVVLRQDOFRQJXUDWLRQVDQGWKHYDJDULHVRIHDUOLHUKLVWRU\KDGOHGWRWKHHPHUJHQFHLQ
the zone of interaction between speakers of dialects from the Germanic and Slavic dialect continua, of the
IROORZLQJHWKQLFJURXSVZLWKWKHLURZQVSHFLFODQJXDJHVWKH/XWKHUDQ0D]XUVWKH&DWKROLF.DVKXEV
WKH&DWKROLFDQG/XWKHUDQ6RUEVDQGWKH&DWKROLF6LOHVLDQV7KH0D]XUVRULJLQDOO\OLYLQJLQ0D]XULD
WRGD\LQQRUWKHDVWHUQ3RODQGIURP']LDGRZRWR2OHFNRGLVDSSHDUHGDVDJURXSGXULQJWKHV
due to their massive, largely forced, emigration to West Germany. The Sorbs live across the present-day
%UDQGHQEXUJ6D[RQDGPLQLVWUDWLYHERUGHULQHDVWHUQ*HUPDQ\EHWZHHQ&RWWEXVLQWKHQRUWKDQG%DXW]HQ
in the south.
Of the four groups mentioned above, between the mid-nineteenth century and 1945, the Prussians and Germans collected statistical date on the vernaculars of the Kashubs, Mazurs, and Sorbs as the
.DVKXELDQ0D]XULDQDQG6RUELDQ:HQGLVKODQJXDJHVUHVSHFWLYHO\22 Interestingly, in the same statisWLFVWKH6LOHVLDQVYHUQDFXODUZDVFODVVLHGDV3ROLVK23 though most Silesians did not at that time see
their speech or identity as Polish. Since its low-key introduction in 1849, Polish functioned as a language
RILQVWUXFWLRQLQWKHUVWWKUHH\HDUVRIHOHPHQWDU\VFKRROXQWLODQGDVDODQJXDJHRIUHOLJLRXV
songbooks in the areas inhabited by Slavophone and bilingual Silesians.24
Hence, the authors decided to focus on the contrasting cases of the Kashubs and the Silesians,
who survive as important regional / ethnic / ethnolinguistic / linguistic groups in todays Poland. The
former, with Kashubian already recognized as a language in some cases in the nineteenth century, reside
LQ.DVKXELDLQQRUWKHUQ3RODQGRUDWWKH%DOWLFOLWWRUDOQRUWKZHVWZHVWDQGVRXWKZHVWRIWKHFLW\SRUWRI
*GDVNRULQWKHVZDWKRIODQGIURP:DG\VDZRZRLQWKHQRUWKWR%UXV\LQWKHVRXWK2QWKHRWKHUKDQG
WKH6LOHVLDQVOLYHLQWKHKLVWRULFDOUHJLRQRI8SSHU6LOHVLDEHWZHHQWKHFLWLHVRI2SROHDQG.DWRZLFHLQ
the west and in the east, respectively. Concentrated efforts to standardize Silesian and to have it formally
UHFRJQL]HGDVDODQJXDJHEHJDQRQO\DWWKHWXUQRIWKHWZHQW\UVWFHQWXU\
To Recognize or Not to Recognize?
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:\GDZQLF]D
22 *U]HJRU] -DVLVNL 0D]XU]\ Z GUXJLHM SRRZLH ;,; ZLHNX .V]WDWRZDQLH VL ZLDGRPRFL QDURGRZHM [The
Mazurs in the Second Half of the 19th Century: The Shaping of their National Identity@2OV]W\Q2URGHN%DGD
1DXNRZ\FKLP:RMFLHFKD.WU]\VNLHJR)ULHGULFK/RUHQW]Geschichte der pomoranischen
NDVFKXELVFKHQ6SUDFKH [7KH+LVWRU\RIWKH3RPHUDQLDQ.DVKXELDQ/DQJXDJH@%HUOLQ:DOWHUGH*UX\WHU
(UQVW7VFKHUQLN'LH(QWZLFNOXQJGHU6RUELVFKHQ%HY|ONHUXQJYRQELV [The Development of the
6RUELDQ3RSXODWLRQIURP@%HUOLQ$NDGHPLH9HUODJ
23 Felix Triest, 7RSRJUDSKLVFKHV+DQGEXFKYRQ2EHUVFKOHVLHQ [The Topographic Handbook of Silesia@%UHVODX
.RUQ
24 Tomasz Kamusella,6FKORQ]VNDPRZD-]\N*yUQ\OVNLQDFMRQDOL]P [The Silesian Language: Language,
Upper Silesia and Nationalism@9RO,,=DEU]H126

39

Eurasia Border Review < Article >

QDWLRQDOPRYHPHQWLQWKHVWKH.DVKXEVDQG6LOHVLDQVZHUHFODLPHGDV3ROHVZKRKDGIRUJRWWHQ
WKHLUWUXH3ROLVKHWKQLFDQGKLVWRULFDORULJLQ2QWKHRWKHUKDQG*HUPDQ\VXEVFULELQJWRWKHVDPHNLQG
RI QDWLRQDOLVP EXW IDFHG ZLWK WKH XQGHQLDEOH 6ODYRSKRQH RU ELOLQJXDO 6ODYRSKRQH*HUPDQLRSKRQH
character of the two populations,25 claimed them as Germans connected by a shared German culture that
was postulated to trump language.26
These antagonistic claims were simultaneously given credence and frustrated by the fact that
DIWHU:RUOG:DU,WKHDUHDLQKDELWHGE\WKH.DVKXEVZDVVSOLWDPRQJ*HUPDQ\WKH)UHH&LW\RI'DQ]LJ
and Poland, and the Silesians homeland, among Czechoslovakia, Germany, and Poland. In the latter
FDVH WKH 6LOHVLDQ SRSXODWLRQ IURP WKH VRXWK RI SUH *HUPDQ\V 8SSHU 6LOHVLD ZDV DOVR FODLPHG
as Czech by Prague.27 Members of the same ethnic group were subjected to contradictory assimilation
pressures that taught them to adapt to these by formally declaring whatever the authorities wanted. When
WKH\ FURVVHG WKH VWDWHERUGHU RU WKH IURQWLHU FKDQJHG WR WKH VDPH HIIHFW WKH\ VLPSO\ FKDQJHG WKHLU
GHFODUDWLRQVWKDQNVWRWKHLUSRO\JORWLVP%XWDPRQJRWKHU.DVKXEVD.DVKXEFRXOGUHPDLQDQGEHVHHQ
as a proper Kashub, and the same was true of a Silesian in exclusively Silesian company. No switches
RIJURXSDOOHJLDQFHZHUHUHTXLUHGXQOLNHLQWKHFRPSDQ\RIWKHLQGXELWDEOHHWKQLF*HUPDQVRU3ROHV
This facility of adapting to the rapidly changing geopolitical situation proved to be invaluable
ZKHQ.DVKXELDDQG8SSHU6LOHVLDIRXQGWKHPVHOYHVXQGHUWKHVXFFHVVLYHVZD\RIWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\V
two totalitarianisms of Germanys national socialism and of Soviet-style socialism between 1933 and
1989. This pragmatic approach allowed most of them to save their lives and livelihoods, following the
1945 westward shift of the German-Polish frontier to the Oder-Neisse line. Millions of Germans were
H[SHOOHGIURPWKHIRUPHU*HUPDQWHUULWRULHVJLYHQWRSRVWZDU3RODQGE\WKH.UHPOLQWKHLUSODFHWDNHQ
by millions of Poles similarly expelled from the eastern half of interwar Poland, which had been seized
E\WKH6RYLHW8QLRQ28
7KH YDVW PDMRULW\ RI .DVKXEV DQG 6LOHVLDQV FRXOG DQG GLG HYDGH H[SXOVLRQ /LNHZLVH WKH\
could not leave for postwar Germany because from Warsaws ideological vantage it would appear as
allowing for the voluntary Germanization of Poles. In Polands communist economy of constant dearth,
WKHSRVVLELOLW\RIOHDYLQJWKHZRUNHUVSDUDGLVHIRUFDSLWDOLVW:HVW*HUPDQ\EHFDPHRQHRIWKHPRVW
VRXJKWDIWHUUHVWULFWHGJRRGV7KHJUDVVURRWVDQGLQWHUQDWLRQDOSUHVVXUHZDVVXFKWKDW:DUVDZDOORZHG
IRU HPLJUDWLRQ RI WKH PRVW SHUVLVWHQW %HWZHHQ  DQG  WKHUH ZDV D PDVV HPLJUDWLRQ RI RYHU
25 -DPHV ( %MRUN Neither

German nor Pole: Catholicism and National Indifference in a Central European

Borderland$QQ$UERU0,8QLYHUVLW\RI0LFKLJDQ3UHVV
26&DUVWHQ(LFKHQEHUJHUDie Deutschen in Polen: Von der verleugneten Minderheit zur anerkannten Volksgruppe
[Polands Germans: From Suppressed Minority to Recognized National Group@$XJVEXUJ%XNRZLQD,QVWLWXW

279LOpP3ODHNPrajzci. $QHENRVXGP+OXtQVND [7KH3UXVVLDQV2URQWKH)DWHRIWKH+OXtQ
Region@+iMYH6OH]VNX)UDQWLHN0DM
28 Philipp Ther'HXWVFKHXQG3ROQLVFKH9HUWULHEHQH*HVHOOVFKDIWXQG9HUWULHEHQHQSROLWLNLQGHU6%=''5XQG
LQ3ROHQ [German and Polish Expellees: Society and Policies Directed at the Expellees in the Soviet
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40

Kamusella and Nomachi

6LOHVLDQV29
,Q6WDOLQLVW3RODQGQROLQJXLVWLFHWKQLFRUUHJLRQDOVHSDUDWHQHVVRIWKH.DVKXEV
or Silesians was permitted or even publically considered. In 1956, the Zrzeszenie Kaszubskie [Kashubian
8QLRQ@ZDVUHJLVWHUHG%XWLWVDSSDUHQWO\H[SOLFLWHWKQROLQJXLVWLFFKDUDFWHUZDVRIQROLNLQJWRWKHDXthorities. Hence, it became a more regionally oriented organization in 1964, the change sealed by its
QHZQDPH=U]HV]HQLH.DV]XEVNR3RPRUVNLH>.DVKXELDQ3RPHUDQLDQ8QLRQ@3RPHUDQLDLVDKLVWRULF
region, coterminous with the northwestern corner of modern-day Poland, not associated with any ethnic
or linguistic group.
1RVLPLODURUJDQL]DWLRQVZHUHHVWDEOLVKHGIRUWKH6LOHVLDQV7KH\ZHUHXQRIFLDOO\FRQVLGHUHG
as more German/ized than the Kashubs, and as such the Silesians required a more concentrated and
relentless Polonization.31)XUWKHUPRUH8SSHU6LOHVLDFRXOGEHVHHQDVWKH6LOHVLDQVHWKQLFRUQDWLRQDO
KRPHODQG7HOOLQJO\WZRDFDGHPLFLQVWLWXWHVZHUHIRXQGHGIRUWKHVDNHRI3RORQL]LQJWKH6LOHVLDQVWKH
,QVW\WXWOVNL>6LOHVLDQ,QVWLWXWH@LQ2SROHDQGWKHOVNL,QVW\WXW1DXNRZ\>6LOHVLDQ6FLHQWLF,QVWLWXWH@
LQ.DWRZLFH@ZKLOHRQO\RQHZDVHVWDEOLVKHGLQWKHFDVHRIWKH.DVKXEVWKH,QVW\WXW%DW\FNL>%DOWLF
,QVWLWXWH@LQ*GDVN7KHUHIRUHD.DVKXERU6LOHVLDQKDGWREHD3ROHEXWLIDQLQGLYLGXDORSSRVHGWKLV
ascription from above for long enough, the authorities would let the person become a German and leave
IRU:HVW*HUPDQ\'HFODULQJRQHVHOID.DVKXERU6LOHVLDQZDVQRRSWLRQDVQHLWKHU:DUVDZQRU%RQQ
ZDVUHDG\WRDFFHSWVXFKDVLPXOWDQHRXVO\QRQ3ROLVKDQGQRQ*HUPDQFKRLFHRILGHQWLFDWLRQ
With regard to language, in communist Poland, Kashubian and Silesian were treated as dialects
dialektVXEGLDOHFWVgwaraRUJURXSVRIVXEGLDOHFWVgwaryRIWKH3ROLVKODQJXDJH,QWKHFDVHRI
6LOHVLDQPRVWIRUHLJQVFKRODUVGHDOLQJZLWKWKHOLQJXLVWLFGLPHQVLRQRI8SSHU6LOHVLDFRQFXUUHGWKRXJK
some did see it as a language in its own right,32 while others saw it as a mixed, Germanic-Slavic, language
or variety.332QWKHRWKHUKDQGRXWVLGH3RODQG.DVKXELDQZDVRIWHQFODVVLHGDVD6ODYLFODQJXDJH34

297RPDV].DPXVHOOD(WKQLF&OHDQVLQJ
-y]HI%RU]\V]NRZVNL$+LVWRU\RIWKH.DVKXEVXQWLOWKH(QGRI&RPPXQLVPLQ The Kashubs: Past and
PresentHGV&H]DU\2EUDFKW3URQG]\VNLDQG7RPDV]:LFKHUNLHZLF]2[IRUG3HWHU/DQJ
31%HUQDUG/LQHN2GQLHPF]DQLHZRMHZyG]WZDOVNLHJRZODWDFKZZLHWOHPDWHULDyZZRMHZyG]NLFK
[7KH'H*HUPDQL]DWLRQRI6LOHVLDQ9RLYRGHVKLSLQLQ/LJKWRIWKH9RLYRGHVKLS$UFKLYDO0DWHULDOV]
2SROH,QVW\WXWOVNL
32(ZDOG2VHUV6LOHVLDQ,GLRPDQG/DQJXDJHLQSlavonic EncyclopediaHG-RVHSK65RXFHN1HZ<RUN
3KLORVRSKLFDO/LEUDU\
33 Norbert Reiter, 'LH3ROQLVFKGHXWVFKHQ6SUDFKEH]LHKXQJHQLQ2EHUVFKOHVLHQ [7KH3ROLVK*HUPDQ/DQJXDJH
Relations in Upper SilesiD@:LHVEDGHQ2WWR+DUUDVVRZLW]
34 Among contemporary Polish linguists, Alfred Majewicz was the first to classify Kashubian as a language
LQ LWV RZQ ULJKW$OIUHG 0DMHZLF] $ 1HZ .DVKXELDQ 'LFWLRQDU\ DQG WKH 3UREOHP RI WKH /LQJXLVWLF 6WDWXV
RI .DVKXELDQ Collectanea Linguistica in Honorem Adami Heinz &UDFRZ 3ROVND$NDGHPLD 1DXN 
7LPRIHM)ORULQVNLMLektsii po slavianskomu iazykoznaniu II [Lectures on Slavic Linguistics, Vol 2@.LHY
,PSHUDWRUVNLM8QLYHUVLWHWVY9ODGLPLUD5HLQKROG7UDXWPDQQDie Slavischen Vlker und Sprachen.
Eine Einfhrung in die Slavistik [The Slavic Nations and Languages: An Introduction to Slavic Philology@/HLS]LJ
2WWR+DUUDVVRZLW]-DPHV*:LOOLDPV0DUWKD/0DQKHLPHUDQG-D\(OZRRG'DLO\ &ODVVLHG
Library of Congress Subject Headings1HZ<RUN'HNNHU

41

Eurasia Border Review < Article >

The age of totalitarianisms was over in 1989 in Poland, following the simultaneous fall of
FRPPXQLVPDQGWKHEUHDNXSRIWKH6RYLHWEORF3RODQGDVZLWKRWKHUSRVWFRPPXQLVWVWDWHVLQ(XURSH
became democratic and its economy was overhauled from a centrally planned into a free market one.
Ascribing ethnic and linguistic identities from above, with no regard for the feelings and wishes of the
populations concerned, would not do in this new Poland. Kashubian and Silesian activists, not altogether
VXUHRIKRZORQJWKLVXQH[SHFWHGZLQGRZRIIUHHGRPPLJKWODVWWUHDGHGFDUHIXOO\LQWKHV%XWE\
WKHWXUQRIWKHWZHQW\UVWFHQWXU\WKH\KDGFRPHWRWKHFRQFOXVLRQWKDWLWZDVVDIHIRULQGLYLGXDOVDQG
their groups to reassert their own identities whatever they might be. Warsaw awoke to the novel develRSPHQWVLQWKHUVWGHFDGHRIWKHWZHQW\UVWFHQWXU\LQLWLDOO\JLYLQJLQWRWKHNQHHMHUNUHDFWLRQRIWKH
previous, national communist regimes, by denying the right of separate national or linguistic identity to
the Kashubs and the Silesians alike. Recently, the authorities have been nuancing their position so as not
to hurt the international image of Poland as a democratic country that duly observes and protects human
and minority rights.
Distinguishing between National and Ethnic Minorities
Following the collapse of communism, the democratization and the systemic change that Poland underwent afterward entailed recognition and acceptance of the national minorities living in the
FRXQWU\LQFOXGLQJ*HUPDQV7KHUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKH*HUPDQPLQRULW\DIWHUKDOIDFHQWXU\RILWVRIFLDO
QRQH[LVWHQFHDSSHDUHGWRWKH3ROLVKSXEOLFDVDVXGGHQUHHPHUJHQFHRIFU\SWR*HUPDQVRURIIDOVH
*HUPDQV7KLVUHFRJQLWLRQZDVWLJKWO\FRQQHFWHGWRWKHHQGRIWKH&ROG:DULQ(XURSH7KH7UHDW\RQ
WKH)LQDO6HWWOHPHQWZLWK5HVSHFWWR*HUPDQ\SRSXODUO\NQRZQDVWKH7UHDW\LQZKLFK
the four wartime Allies returned full sovereignty to Germany, obliged the latter to contract a treaty with
3RODQGRQWKHQDOUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKH2GHU1HLVVHOLQHDVWKHOHJLWLPDWHIURQWLHUEHWZHHQWKHVHWZRVWDWHV
,QUHWXUQWKH*HUPDQ3ROLVK%RUGHU7UHDW\ZDVIROORZHGE\WKH3ROLVK*HUPDQ7UHDW\RQ*RRG
1HLJKERUOLQHVVDQG)ULHQGO\&RRSHUDWLRQ
7KHODWWHUWUHDW\RIFLDOO\UHFRJQL]HGDQGJXDUDQWHHGWKHULJKWVRIWKH*HUPDQPLQRULW\LQ3RODQG,WZDVWKHUVWHYHUELODWHUDODJUHHPHQWFRQWUDFWHGDIWHU:RUOG:DU,,LQ(XURSHWKDWJXDUDQWHHGWKH
rights of a minority. One explanation for the outbreak of this war maintains that it was triggered by the
SRVWPLQRULW\WUHDWLHVWKDWDOORZHGKRPHFRXQWULHVWRXVHVXFKPLQRULWLHVDVIWKFROXPQVLQ
neighboring states with an eye towards territorial aggrandizement. Hence, after World War II, the quesWLRQRIPLQRULWLHVZDVUVWVHWWOHGE\WKHH[SXOVLRQRIPLQRULWLHVEHWZHHQDQG$IWHUZDUG
WKHLVVXHRIPLQRULWLHVZDVIUR]HQZKHQWKH&ROG:DUFRQIURQWDWLRQDVVXPHGFHQWUDOLPSRUWDQFHLQ
(XURSHDQDQGJOREDOSROLWLFV
7KHVXEVHTXHQWXQIUHH]LQJRIERUGHUDQGPLQRULW\WHQVLRQVIROORZLQJWKHIDOORIFRPPXQLVP
DQGWKHEUHDNXSVRIWKH6RYLHWEORFDQGWKH6RYLHW8QLRQUHTXLUHGVLPXOWDQHRXVO\WKHZRUNLQJRXWRI
DVROXWLRQDQGSUHYHQWLRQPHDVXUHVDVFOHDUO\H[HPSOLHGE\WKHRXWUDJHRIWKHSRVW<XJRVODYZDUV

42

Kamusella and Nomachi

LQFOXGLQJDFWVRIHWKQLFFOHDQVLQJDQGJHQRFLGH)UHQFK3ULPH0LQLVWHUeGRXDUG%DOODGXUV3DFW
RQ6WDELOLW\LQ(XURSHZDVDQLQLWLDWLYHRIWKHUHFHQWO\UHQDPHG(XURSHDQ8QLRQWRGHIXVHSRWHQWLDOWHQVLRQV7RDGHJUHHWKH%DOODGXU3ODQDQGWKH%DOODGXUSDFWV\VWHPDUHWKHVDPHWKLQJ7KH%DOODGXU3ODQ
RIFLDOO\NQRZQDVWKH3DFWRQ6WDELOLW\LQ(XURSHZDVWRSXVKWKHSRVW6RYLHWDQGSRVWFRPPXQLVW
states to sign bilateral treaties, among others, on the inviolability of their mutual borders and protection
of minorities. The signing of the treaties created a treaty system of security and guarantees, sometimes
UHIHUUHGWRDV%DOODGXU3DFW6\VWHP7ZR\HDUVODWHUFRXQWULHVLQ&HQWUDODQG(DVWHUQ(XURSHVLJQHG
the Pact. In its wake, most signed numerous bilateral treaties, modeled on the German-Polish Treaty on
Good Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation, thus guaranteeing their mutual borders and protection
for their respective minorities in the neighboring states.
7KH%DOODGXU3DFW6\VWHPEHDUVDFORVHVLPLODULW\WRWKHPLQRULW\WUHDWLHVLQLQWHUZDU(XURSH
The treaties, devised and often imposed by the victorious Allies were binding for Germany and Austria
DQGWKHWKHQQHZQDWLRQVWDWHVO\LQJHDVWRIWKHPWKH6RYLHW8QLRQVZHVWHUQERUGHUEHLQJWKHOLPLWLQWKH
HDVW/LNHZLVHWKH%DOODGXU3DFW6\VWHPFRQFHLYHGLQWKHFDSLWDOVRI:HVWHUQ(XURSHZDVWREHLPSOHPHQWHGLQ&HQWUDODQG(DVWHUQ(XURSHRQO\LWVZHVWHUQHGJHFRQVWLWXWHGE\'HQPDUN*HUPDQ\$XVWULD
DQG,WDO\+HQFHVRPH:HVWHUQ(XURSHDQVWDWHVHVSHFLDOO\)UDQFHDUHQRWFRPSHOOHGWRUHFRJQL]HDQ\
minorities or grant them any rights.
7KHQDWXUHRIWKH%DOODGXU3DFW6\VWHPLVVXFKWKDWE\LWVVWDWHRULHQWHGQDWXUHLWJXDUDQWHHVWKH
ULJKWVRIPLQRULWLHVWKDWHQMR\WKHLURZQNLQQDWLRQVWDWHV3RODQGV*HUPDQSRSXODWLRQKDVWKHSRVVLbility of formal or informal recourse to Germany in order to intercede on their behalf. The same is true of
WKH+XQJDULDQVLQ5RPDQLDRUWKH%HODUXVLDQVLQ3RODQG%XWIRUWKH5RPD5XV\QVRU*DJDX]HVZLWK
no kin national polity recognition of stateless minorities, and observance of their rights, rest solely in
the hands of the nation-states in whose territory they reside.
The implicit creation of two classes of minorities, those with kin states and stateless ones, was
GXO\UHHFWHGLQ3ROLVKOHJLVODWLRQ3RODQGSURPXOJDWHGLWVUVWSRVWFRPPXQLVWFRQVWLWXWLRQLQ
Article 35 introduced the legal categories of national and ethnic minorities. However, for all practical
purposes, all the minorities recognized in the country, either with kin states or stateless, were treated as
QDWLRQDOPLQRULWLHVEHIRUH35 This was so because no legal distinction was provided for distinguishing between these two types of minorities.
The plan was to adopt a legally binding distinction on minority rights, but an act of this kind
ZDVQRWSDVVHGE\WKH3ROLVK3DUOLDPHQWXQWLORQH\HDUDIWHU3RODQGVDFFHVVLRQLQWRWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQ
,QDFHUWDLQFRQMXQFWLRQZLWKWKHORJLFRIWKHDIRUHPHQWLRQHG%DOODGXU3ODQLQWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQGHOLQHDWHGWKHVRFDOOHG&RSHQKDJHQ&ULWHULDWREHPHWE\DQ\FDQGLGDWHVWDWHEHIRUHLWFRXOG
MRLQWKH(8$QLQWHJUDOSDUWRIWKHSROLWLFDOFULWHULDLVUHVSHFWIRUPLQRULWLHV

356DZRPLURG]LVNL5yZQRLUyQLFD0QLHMV]RFLQDURGRZHZSRU]GNXGHPRNUDW\F]Q\PZ3ROVFHSR
roku [(TXDOLW\DQG'LIIHUHQFH1DWLRQDO0LQRULWLHVLQWKH3ROLVK'HPRFUDWLF2UGHU$IWHU@:DUVDZ6FKRODU


43

Eurasia Border Review < Article >

%UXVVHOVDVSURRIRIIXOOOLQJWKHPLQRULW\VHFWLRQRIWKHSROLWLFDOFULWHULRQZDQWHGWKHFDQGLGDWHVWDWHVWROHJLVODWHDFWVRQPLQRULWLHV3RODQGGLGVRLQHDUO\ZKHQWKH3DUOLDPHQWSURPXOJDWHG
DQ$FW RQ 1DWLRQDO DQG (WKQLF 0LQRULWLHV DQG RQ WKH 5HJLRQDO /DQJXDJH36 7KH$FW GHQHV QDWLRQDO
PLQRULWLHVDVWKRVHWKDWLGHQWLI\ZLWKWKHLUNLQQDWLRQVWDWHV%\WKHVDPHWRNHQHWKQLFPLQRULWLHVDUH
WKRVHWKDWGRQRWKDYHVXFKNLQQDWLRQDOSROLWLHV,QWKHGHQLWLRQVRIERWKW\SHVRIPLQRULWLHVWKLV$FW
HPSKDVL]HVODQJXDJHDVWKHLUPRVWIXQGDPHQWDOGHQLQJIHDWXUH7KLVVKRZVWKHFRQWLQXHGSROLWLFDODQG
legislative importance of ethnolinguistic nationalism as the constitutive and legitimizing principle of
Polish statehood.
On the other hand, the inherent arbitrariness of minority rights protection as guaranteed by inWHUQDWLRQDOODZLVYLVLEOHLQWKHIDFWWKDWWKH$FWLQFOXGHVDVLWVLQWHJUDOSDUWWZROLVWVRQHRIWKHQDWLRQDO
minorities and the other of the ethnic ones that Warsaw decided to recognize. These lists do not contain
DOO WKH PLQRULWLHV LQ 3ROLVK WHUULWRU\ WKXV WKH\ H[FOXGH  DFFRUGLQJ WR WKH UVW WZR SRVWFRPPXQLVW
FHQVXVHVRIDQG3RODQGVODUJHVWPLQRULW\WKH6LOHVLDQVZKRQXPEHUDURXQG7KH
.DUDLPVKRZHYHUPDGHLWRQWRWKHOLVWRIHWKQLFPLQRULWLHVWKRXJKWKH\QXPEHUDPHUHSHRSOH
%ODWDQWH[FOXVLRQVDUHPL[HGZLWKSKRQ\RYHULQFOXVLYHQHVV
7KHVDPHLVWUXHRIWKH$FWVDSSURDFKWRODQJXDJHDVWKHGHQLQJIHDWXUHIRUWKHLGHQWLFDWLRQ
of minorities. The provision for the protection of minority languages sounds rather awkward when in the
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FHQWXU\$QRWKHUVLQJXODULW\LVHYLGHQWLQWKHSKUDVHWKHUHJLRQDOODQJXDJHLQWKH$FWVWLWOH,WZDVD
ERZRIWKH3ROLVK3DUOLDPHQWWRWKH(XURSHDQ&KDUWHUIRU5HJLRQDORU0LQRULW\/DQJXDJHVVLJQHGE\
3RODQGLQLQSUHSDUDWLRQIRULWVUDWLFDWLRQWKDWZDVFRQFOXGHGLQ,QOLQHZLWKWKLV(XURSHDQ
&KDUWHUWKH3ROLVK$FWRQ1DWLRQDODQG(WKQLF0LQRULWLHVDQGRQWKH5HJLRQDO/DQJXDJHGLVWLQJXLVKHV
between minority and regional languages, though the latter is mentioned only in the singular, while it is
generally accepted that there is more than one minority language in Poland.
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PLQRULWLHV$UWLFOHRSSRVHVODEHOLQJWKHPUHJLRQDOODQJXDJHVLPXOWDQHRXVO\VWDWLQJWKDWLWLVGLIIHUHQWIURPWKHVWDWHQDWLRQDOODQJXDJHDQGLVQRWDGLDOHFWRIWKHVWDWHQDWLRQDOODQJXDJH)XUWKHUPRUH
VSHDNHUVRIWKHUHJLRQDOODQJXDJHDUHFLWL]HQVZKRDVLVLPSOLHGUDWKHUREOLTXHO\GRQRWEHORQJWRDQ\
of the recognized national or ethnic minorities. Therefore, speakers of regional languages are deemed to
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7KLVLGHQWLFDWLRQLVUHLQIRUFHGE\WKHUDWLFDWLRQRIDQLQVWUXPHQWWKDWSURYLGHG3RODQGZLWKOLVWV
RIODQJXDJHVWREHSURWHFWHGLQWKHFRXQWU\XQGHUWKHSURYLVLRQVRIWKH(XURSHDQ&KDUWHU7KHODQJXDJHV
LQOLQHZLWKWKHDIRUHPHQWLRQHG$FWDUHGLYLGHGLQWRWKUHHJURXSVWKHODQJXDJHVRIQDWLRQDOPLQRULWLHV
the languages of ethnic minorities, and the group of regional languages that includes the sole specimen

36 8VWDZDR0QLHMV]RFLDFK1DURGRZ\FKL(WQLF]Q\FKRUD]R-]\NX5HJLRQDOQ\P [The Act on National and Ethnic

Minorities, and on the Regional Language@$FFHVVHG0D\KWWSLVDSVHMPJRYSO'HWDLOV6HUYOHW"
LG :'8

44

Kamusella and Nomachi

RI.DVKXELDQ3RODQG37

Interestingly, the aforementioned current legal conceptualization of Kashubian as a regional
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the state and national language of Polish and the regional language of Kashubian. This is not an abnormal organization of ethnolinguistic relations in a polity, but a paradoxical and somewhat delegitimating
QDWLRQDOVWDWHKRRGLQ&HQWUDO(XURSHZKHUHWKHPRGHORIWKHHWKQROLQJXLVWLFDOO\GHQHGQDWLRQVWDWHKDV
ruled supreme since 1918. This model requires that the nation-state be for one nation only and that its
members speak a single national language. The normative drive of this ethnolinguistic principle of stateKRRGFUHDWLRQDQGOHJLWLPDWLRQFRQWLQXHVDVH[HPSOLHGE\WKH<XJRVODYFDVH)ROORZLQJWKHEUHDNXSRI
WKHFRXQWU\LWVRIFLDO6HUER&URDWLDQODQJXDJHKDGWREHVSOLWWRRLQWR%RVQLDQ&URDWLDQ0RQWHQHJULQDQG6HUELDQVRWKDWLQWXUQWKHQHZO\IRXQGHGQDWLRQVWDWHVRI%RVQLD&URDWLD0RQWHQHJURDQG
Serbia could be seen as legitimate national polities by their own inhabitants and by other nation-states in
&HQWUDO(XURSH:LWKRXWWKHLURZQVSHFLFQDWLRQDOODQJXDJHVQRWVKDUHGZLWKDQ\RWKHUVWDWHVRUQDWLRQV
WKHVWDWHVZRXOGVXIIHUGLPLQLVKHGOHJLWLPDF\LQ&HQWUDO(XURSH
Warsaw and the Kashubs: Recognizing the Language but Not the Ethnic Group
Toward the Standardization of Kashubian
To have an elaborated orthography with orthoepic, grammatical, and lexical norms of a given
linguistic system is one of the crucial elements in the development of a written language. In this context,
Kashubian has been unique, because since the mid-nineteenth century until the communist period, an
orthography was developed for Kashubian.
'XULQJFRPPXQLVPWKLVWUDGLWLRQZDVPDLQWDLQHG,QWKH*GDVNEUDQFKRIWKH=ZL]HN
/LWHUDWyZ3ROVNLFK$VVRFLDWLRQRI3ROLVK:ULWHUVKHOGDPHHWLQJRQ.DVKXELDQRUWKRJUDSK\DQGGHWHUPLQHGWKDWLWVRUWKRJUDSK\VKRXOGEHFORVHWRWKH3ROLVKRQH)ROORZLQJWKLVWUHQGLQUHJLRQDODFWLYLVW$OHNVDQGHU/DEXGDSXEOLVKHG6RZQLF]HNNDV]XEVNL[A Small Kashubian Dictionary] in Warsaw.38
According to Popowska-Taborska,39/DEXGDLQWHQGHGWRSXEOLVKWKHGLFWLRQDU\DVD.DVKXELDQ
3ROLVK.DVKXELDQGLFWLRQDU\EXWWKHDXWKRULWLHVGLGQRWSHUPLWWKLVWLWOHKRZHYHUWKLVGLFWLRQDU\LVGH
IDFWR WKH UVW .DVKXELDQ3ROLVK GLIIHUHQWLDO GLFWLRQDU\ ZKLFK LQFOXGHV QHRORJLVPV$FFRUGLQJ WR WKH
author, its primary purpose was to help non-Kashubian teachers working in Kashubia as Polish language
WHDFKHUVXQGHUVWDQGORFDOFKLOGUHQVSHDNLQJLQ.DVKXELDQGLDOHFWV%XWWKHDXWKRUVWUXHLQWHQWLRQZDVWR

37 3RODQG'HFODUDWLRQ&RQWDLQHGLQWKH,QVWUXPHQWRI5DWLFDWLRQ$FFHVVHG0D\FRQYHQWLRQV

FRHLQWWUHDW\&RPPXQ/LVWH'HFODUDWLRQVDVS"&/ (1* 17  9/ 
38 A different type of spelling, developed by two Warsaw scholars, Hanna Popowska-Taborska and Zuzanna
7RSROLVNDZDVDSSOLHGLQWKLVGLFWLRQDU\
39 This information is based on a personal communication with Prof. Popowska-Taborska.

45

Eurasia Border Review < Article >

underscore the lexical differences between Kashubian and Polish.

In 1967 the Polish Academy of Sciences began publishing 6RZQLN JZDU NDV]XEVNLFK QD WOH
kultury ludowej [The Dictionary of the Kashubian Dialects Contextualized Against the Background of the
Kashubian Folk Culture@ZKLFKFRQVLVWVRIPRUHWKDQHQWULHVE\DORFDOSULHVWQDPHG
%HUQDUG6\FKWD$OWKRXJK6\FKWDDLPHGWRFROOHFWDVPDQ\OH[LFDOLWHPVDVSRVVLEOHDQGGLGQRWLQWHQGWR
GLIIHUHQWLDWH.DVKXELDQIURP3ROLVKWKLVGLFWLRQDU\WDSSHGWKHULFKYRFDEXODU\DQGSKUDVHRORJ\VSHFLF
to Kashubian and soon became the most important reference book for Kashubian activists, including
those who were trying to codify the language.
In 1974, on the initiative of local activists, writers, and scholars, a commission on the question
of Kashubian orthography was established, and a year later, the commission published Zasady pisowni
kaszubskiej [3ULQFLSOHVRI.DVKXELDQ2UWKRJUDSK\, 1975]. This publication also illustrates grammatiFDOIRUPVIURPDQRUPDWLYHSHUVSHFWLYH%DVHGRQDQRUWKRJUDSKLFV\VWHPVLPLODUWR3ROLVKQXPHURXV
OLWHUDU\ ZRUNV DSSHDUHG GXULQJ WKH V ,Q WKLV FRQWH[W LW LV ZRUWK PHQWLRQLQJ %UH]D DQG7UHGHUV
Gramatyka kaszubska. Zarys popularny [.DVKXELDQ *UDPPDU$ 3RSXODU 2XWOLQH, 1981], which had
a de facto normalizing effect and became a grammar handbook, contrary to the authors declared inWHQWLRQ6RRQ/DEXGDV6RZQLNSROVNRNDV]XEVNL [$3ROLVK.DVKXELDQ'LFWLRQDU\, 1981] and 6RZ{U]
NDV]sEVNRSROVF]L [$.DVKXELDQ3ROLVK'LFWLRQDU\, 1982] with numerous neologisms were published.
The aforementioned works stimulated the Kashubian elite to elaborate their mother tongue into
DSRO\YDOHQWOLWHUDU\ODQJXDJH$FFRUGLQJWR2EUDFKW3URQG]\VNL41E\WLWOHVDQGRQHPLOOLRQ
copies had been published. Thus, it can be concluded that the late communist period prepared the ground
IRUIXWXUHGLVFXVVLRQVRQDFRGLHGOLWHUDU\.DVKXELDQ$IWHUZDUGWKHUHZHUHVHYHUDODWWHPSWVWRVWDQdardize the language, for instance, 6RZQLNSROVNRNDV]XEVNL [$3ROLVK.DVKXELDQ'LFWLRQDU\] by
Jan Trepczyk and :VN{]sNDV]sEVF]pJzSLVsQN [$*XLGHWR.DVKXELDQ2UWKRJUDSK\] and Kaszb
VF]LVRZ{U]QRUPDWLZQ\ [A Kashubian Normative Dictionary@E\(XJHQLXV]*REHN%XWWKHVH
references were normative-oriented only.42
6LQFH  ZKHQ WKH QHZ .DVKXELDQ /DQJXDJH &RXQFLO ZDV HVWDEOLVKHG LWV PHPEHUV KDYH
been trying to codify a standard literary language.43

7KH ILUVW GUDIWV RI ERWK GLFWLRQDULHV ZHUH SUHSDUHG LQ 7ZR UHYLHZHUV %UH]D DQG7UHGHU QHJDWLYHO\
evaluated the dictionaries and declined to publish them. One of the reasons was the dictionaries include too many
neologisms and pseudo-archaic terms. In addition, the reviewers stated that there was no necessity to publish a
Polish-Kashubian dictionary. Nevertheless, the dictionaries were published. This internal review was consulted in
WKHSHUVRQDODUFKLYHRIWKH/DEXGDIDPLO\ORFDWHGLQ7XF]HZR
41&H]DU\2EUDFKW3URQG]\VNL7KH.DVKXEV7RGD\&XOWXUH/DQJXDJH,GHQWLW\*GDVN,QVW\WXW.DV]XEVNL

42$FFRUGLQJWR*REHNKHKDGWRSXEOLVKDGLFWLRQDU\RIVWDQGDUGL]HG.DVKXELDQDJDLQVWWKHRSSRVLWLRQRIRWKHU
.DVKXELDQDFWLYLVWVIURPDQLQWHUYLHZZLWK*REHNFRQGXFWHGE\WKHDXWKRUVLQ
43,QWKH=U]HV]HQLH.DV]XEVNR3RPRUVNLHSXEOLVKHG:LHONL6RZQLN3ROVNRNDV]XEVNL [$*UHDW3ROLVK
Kashubian Dictionary@FRPSLOHGE\*REHN7KHGLFWLRQDU\LVLQWHQGHGDVDVWHSSLQJVWRQHIRUVWDQGDUGL]LQJ
Kashubian as a literary language, though the author himself did not foresee it as a normative dictionary.

46

Kamusella and Nomachi

Kashubian Publishing in the Communist Period

7KHUVWDFWLYLW\DIWHU:RUOG:DU,,VWDUWHGLQZKHQWKHVRFDOOHG=U]HV]HF\>8QLRQHUV@
published the newspaper Zrzesz Kaszebska [The Kashubian Union@ (YHQ LQ WKH HDUO\ V GXULQJ
6WDOLQLVP WKH .DVKXELDQ HOLWH FRQWLQXHG ZULWLQJ LQ .DVKXELDQ GHVSLWH RIFLDO 3RORQL]DWLRQ Dziennik
%DW\FNL [The Baltic Daily] started to publish Rejsy [Cruises], which included folklore texts in Kashubian.
)XUWKHUPRUHWKH*G\QLDEDVHGSXEOLVKHU:\GDZQLFWZR0RUVNLH0DULWLPH3XEOLVKLQJ+RXVHDQGHYHQ
WKHSXEOLVKLQJKRXVHLQ:DUVDZ/XGRZD6SyG]LHOQLD:\GDZQLF]D3HRSOHV3XEOLVKLQJ&RRSHUDWLYH
published books in Kashubian.
In 1956 when Stalinism ended, the Zrzeszenie Kaszubsko-Pomorskie started its publishing acWLYLWLHV$OWKRXJKWKHUHZDVQRQDQFLDOVXSSRUWIURPWKHVWDWHWKH=U]HV]HQLHDFWLYHO\SXEOLVKHGOLWHUDU\
ZRUNVLQ.DVKXELDQ7KHLURIFLDOMRXUQDO%LXOHW\Q=U]HV]HQLD.DV]XEVNR3RPRUVNLHJR [The Bulletin of
WKH.DVKXELDQ3RPHUDQLDQ8QLRQ], which was later renamed Pomerania, became the main medium for
GLVFXVVLQJUHJLRQDOVRFLDOFXOWXUDOOLWHUDU\OLQJXLVWLFDQGRWKHUWRSLFVUHODWHGWR.DVKXELD,QLWV
UXQUHDFKHGFRSLHVDQGVHQVLWLYHWRSLFVVXFKDVWKHVHSDUDWHQHVVRI.DVKXELDQIURPWKH3ROLVK
language were discussed. Since the Zrzeszenie Kaszubsko-Pomorskie showed a clear anti-communist
VHQWLPHQWWKHSXEOLFDWLRQRILWVMRXUQDOZDVVXVSHQGHGGXULQJWKHV
,QWKHVZKHQWKHUHZDVQRORQJHUDQ\VHULRXVFRQLFWZLWKWKH:DUVDZDXWKRULWLHVORFDO DFWLYLVW:RMFLHFK .LHGURZVNL EHFDPH DQ LPSRUWDQW JXUH LQ .DVKXELDQ SXEOLVKLQJ +H FRQWLQXHG
VXSSRUWLQJWKHGHYHORSPHQWRI.DVKXELDQDVZHOODVWKHLGHDRIFRGLI\LQJLWDVDIXOO\HGJHGOLWHUDU\
language.
Religion and Language: Toward Kashubian Prestige
The existence of the holy texts in a given language can often be one of the main arguments
MXVWLI\LQJWKHFRGLFDWLRQRIDOLWHUDU\ODQJXDJH44 Traditionally, in Kashubia where most are Catholic,
WKHRIFLDOODQJXDJHRIWKH&KXUFKKDVEHHQ3ROLVK6LQFH.DVKXELDQKDVEHHQXVHGLQPRVWFDVHVDVD
ODQJXDJHRIXQRIFLDOFRPPXQLFDWLRQHYHQORFDO.DVKXELDQDFWLYLVWVGLGQRWWU\WRXVHLWLQSUD\HU%XW
LQDORFDOZULWHUDQG%LVKRS)UDQFLV]HN*UXF]DUVWWULHGWRLQWURGXFHD+RO\0DVVLQ.DVKXELDQ45
7KH&DWKROLF&KXUFKLQWKLVUHJLRQUHDFWHGQHLWKHUQHJDWLYHO\QRUSRVLWLYHO\WRWKLVPRYHPHQW%XWWKLV
event triggered a discussion among the Kashubs on the use of their language in church.

44-RKQ(GZDUGVLanguage and Identity: Key Topics in Sociolinguistics&DPEULGJH&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV


45$FFRUGLQJWR.D]LPLHU].OHLQD)DWKHU*UXF]DKDGDOUHDG\JLYHQDVHUPRQLQ.DVKXELDQLQ6HH(XJHQLXV]
Pryczkowski.DV]XEVNL.RUGHFNL\FLHLWZyUF]RNVSUD)UDQFLV]ND*UXF]\ [A Kashubian Kordecki: Life and
Work of Prelate Franciszek Gducza@%DQLQR:\GDZQLFWZR5RVW

47

Eurasia Border Review < Article >

The crucial moment in the Kashubs religious life was the visit of Pope John Paul II to Kashubia
in June 1987. In his address, the Pope stressed that the Kashubs should cultivate their cultural heritage
DQGLGHQWLW\LQFOXGLQJWKHLUODQJXDJH$IWHUWKLVHYHQW%LVKRS%RJXVDZ*RGRZVNLLQWURGXFHGD+RO\
0DVVVDLGLQ.DVKXELDQRQFHDPRQWKLQ*GDVN&DWKHGUDO8QGHUKLVLQXHQFHORFDODFWLYLVW(XJHQLXV]*REHNSXEOLVKHGD.DVKXELDQWUDQVODWLRQRIDSDUWRIWKH1HZ7HVWDPHQWLQ,QWKHVDPH
\HDU%LVKRS*UXF]DDOVRSXEOLVKHGDIUDJPHQWRIWKH1HZ7HVWDPHQWLQ.DVKXELDQ,Q*REHN
SXEOLVKHGKLV.DVKXELDQWUDQVODWLRQRIWKH3VDOPVDQGLQWKHSUD\HUERRN7RMHVRZ{%RH [This
is Gods Word@,QDGGLWLRQ%LVKRS$GDP6LNyUDSXEOLVKHGD.DVKXELDQWUDQVODWLRQRIWKHIRXU*RVSHOV
WUDQVODWHGIURPWKH*UHHNRULJLQDO
$OO WKHVH ERRNV ZHUH RIFLDOO\ SURPXOJDWHG E\ WKH &DWKROLF &KXUFK$V D UHVXOW WKH VWDWXV
RI.DVKXELDQEHFDPHPRUHSUHVWLJLRXV+RZHYHUDVRIWKHUHDUHRQO\DIHZFKXUFKHVZKHUHWKH
Kashubian-language Mass is on offer.
Introducing Kashubian to Schools
'XULQJFRPPXQLVPLWZDVLPSRVVLEOHWRLQWURGXFH.DVKXELDQLQWRWKHHGXFDWLRQDOV\VWHP,Q
1981, a regional education program was adopted, but the introduction of Kashubian to schools failed,
because trained teachers, teaching materials, or curriculum were unavailable. In addition, Kashubian
LWVHOIKDGQRW\HWKDGDXQLHGVWDQGDUGIRUP'HVSLWHWKLVVLWXDWLRQLQLQDQHOHPHQWDU\VFKRROLQ
*RGQLFDIRUWKHUVWWLPHHYHU.DVKXELDQEHJDQWREHRIIHUHGDVDVXEMHFW
,Q  WKH 3ROLVK 0LQLVWU\ RI 1DWLRQDO (GXFDWLRQ LQFOXGHG .DVKXELDQ LQ WKH FXUULFXOXP
IRUPLGGOHVFKRROgimnazjum,QVWXGHQWVZHUHJLYHQWKHRSWLRQRIWDNLQJRQHRIWKHLUVHFRQGDU\VFKRROOHDYLQJH[DPLQDWLRQVmaturaLQ.DVKXELDQ
,Q*GDVN8QLYHUVLW\EHJDQWRRUJDQL]HDQLUUHJXODU.DVKXELDQODQJXDJHFRXUVH,Q
the universitys Institute of Polish Philology established a regular course in Kashubian studies, including
WKHODQJXDJH,QWKLVFRXUVHEHFDPHDQLQGHSHQGHQWHQWLW\UHQDPHGWKH8QLWIRU.DVKXELDQ(WKnophilological Studies.
The Legal Status of the Kashubian Language
In 1991 when a new law on the system of education was adopted, the Kashubs right to maintain
WKHLUUHJLRQDOHWKQLFUHOLJLRXVDQGOLQJXLVWLFLGHQWLW\ZDVRIFLDOO\JXDUDQWHHG,QWKH/DZRQWKH
3ROLVK/DQJXDJHSURYLGHGWKHSRVVLELOLW\RILQWURGXFLQJDQDX[LOLDU\ODQJXDJH+RZHYHUWKHODZODFNV
appropriate executive regulations and it does not contain any provisions for minority language usage in
jurisdiction or state administration.46
46 Tomasz Wicherkiewicz, The Kashubian Language in Education in Poland/MRXZHUW/HHXZDUGHQ0HUFDWRU
(GXFDWLRQ

48

Kamusella and Nomachi

,Q  3RODQG VLJQHG WKH (XURSHDQ &KDUWHU IRU 5HJLRQDO RU 0LQRULW\ /DQJXDJHV ,Q 
WKH3ROLVK3DUOLDPHQWDGRSWHGWKH$FWRQ1DWLRQDODQG(WKQLF0LQRULWLHVDQGRQWKH5HJLRQDO/DQJXDJH
Thanks to this Act, Kashubian gained the status of a regional language. Today, bilingual Polish and
.DVKXELDQ  VLJQDJH LV LQ XVH LQ WHQ FRPPXQHV ZKHUH PRUH WKDQ  SHU FHQW RI WKH LQKDELWDQWV DUH
Kashubs. The Kashubs, however, do not have the status of an ethnic minority since most Kashubs do not
desire such a status and consider themselves to be Poles.47
,Q DGGLWLRQ WKH /DZ RQ 5DGLR DQG 7HOHYLVLRQ %URDGFDVWLQJ  REOLJHV WKH SXEOLF PDVV
media to meet the needs of national and ethnic minorities. Thanks to this law, the sphere of the use of
.DVKXELDQKDVH[SDQGHGWKDQNVWR*GDVN5DGLRVSURJUDPTed jo! [Then, Yes!], Radio Kaszb [Radio
Kashubia], and other local programs. Although this law was employed to this end, the Kashubs were not
and are still not recognized as a minority, and Kashubian gained a modicum of formal recognition as a
UHJLRQDOODQJXDJHRQO\LQ
Research Institute of Kashubian Linguistic and Cultural Heritage
7KHLGHDRIHVWDEOLVKLQJD.DVKXELDQUHVHDUFKLQVWLWXWHEXGGHGLQWKHVEXWLWZDVQHYHU
UHDOL]HG GXULQJ WKH FRPPXQLVW \HDUV )RU GHFDGHV WKH 0XVHXP RI .DVKXELDQ3RPHUDQLDQ /LWHUDWXUH
and Music in Wejherowo has played this role as part of its activities. Only in 1996 did the Institute of
.DVKXELDQ/LQJXLVWLFDQG&XOWXUDO+HULWDJHVWDUWRSHUDWLQJLQ*GDVNDQGKDVEHHQVXSSRUWHGE\VHYHUDO
Polish ministries. It organizes conferences, and engages in educational and publishing activities.
To conclude, in breach of the national communist model of one nation - one language and other
XQIDYRUDEOHSROLWLFDODQGQDQFLDOFLUFXPVWDQFHVWKH.DVKXEVFRXOGVXUYLYHDQGFXOWLYDWHWKHLUOLQJXLVWLF DFWLYLW\ EHIRUH  XVLQJ WKH UKHWRULF RI UHJLRQDOLVP %XW WKH ODFN RI UHFRJQLWLRQ IRU .DVKXELDQ
as a language, and its absence in schools meant constant decline in the Kashubian linguistic heritage.
In 1989, the Kashubs already knew what they should do to ameliorate the situation. Their goals are to
FRGLI\LPSOHPHQWDQGHODERUDWHWKH.DVKXELDQODQJXDJH$FKLHYLQJDFRGLHGXQLHGOLWHUDU\ODQJXDJH
KDVEHHQDQGZLOODOZD\VEHDVLJQLFDQWSUREOHPIRUWKH.DVKXEVEHFDXVHUVWWKHUHDUHPDQ\GLDOHFWV
LQ .DVKXELDQ WKDW GLIIHU IURP RQH DQRWKHU VLJQLFDQWO\ DQG VHFRQG WKHUH DUH SHRSOH ZKR DUH DSSUHKHQVLYHDERXWORFDOIHDWXUHVWKDWFRXOGEHVLGHOLQHGDQGXOWLPDWHO\ORVW%XWDV6LDWNRZVND48 points out,
Kashubian today is close to becoming a literary language with polyvalent functions.49

47 See footnote 14. It is worth noticing, however, that the members of the .DV]HEVN{-HGQRWs[Kashubian Unity]
GHPDQGWKHRIFLDOVWDWXVDVDPLQRULW\IRUWKH.DVKXEVWRSURWHFWDQGGHYHORSWKHLUOLQJXLVWLFDQGFXOWXUDOKHULWDJH
Although there has been a long discussion on this issue, this idea lacks broader support among the Kashubs. It is
EHFDXVHRIWKLVDFFRUGLQJWR2EUDFKW3URQG]\VNLThe Kashubs Today :DUVDZGLGQRWDFFRUGWKH.DVKXEV
the status of an ethnic group.
48 (ZD 6LDWNRZVND6]NLFH ] G]LHMyZ OLWHUDFNLFK M]\NyZ VRZLDVNLFK[2Q WKH +LVWRU\ RI WKH 6ODYLF /LWHUDU\
Languages@:DUVDZ7RZDU]\VWZR1DXNRZH:DUV]DZVNLH
49 For instance, the translation of Adam Mickiewiczs epic poem Pan TadeuszLQWR.DVKXELDQE\6WDQLVDZ-DQNH

49

Eurasia Border Review < Article >

Warsaw and the Silesians: Neither Recognizing the Language nor the Ethnic Group
A new space of freedom opened after the end of communism in Poland and in the neighboring
states. It has facilitated the emergence of voices, ideas, and groups whose existence and relevance may
FRQWUDGLFWWKHVWDWHVRIFLDOLGHRORJ\RIHWKQROLQJXLVWLFQDWLRQDOLVP+RZHYHUGHPRFUDWL]LQJFKDQJHV
removed from the state administrations hands totalitarian or authoritarian instruments that before 1989
had been customarily employed to suppress dissent and opposition.
8SSHU6LOHVLDZDVWKHLQGXVWULDOOLIHOLQHRIERWKLQWHUZDUDQGFRPPXQLVW3RODQG7KHUHJLRQV
shape altered with full conformity to the states requirements, but with little if any concern for the needs
DQGZLVKHVRI8SSHU6LOHVLDVLQKDELWDQWV7KHUDSLGGHLQGXVWULDOL]DWLRQRIWKHUHJLRQGXULQJWKHV
FDXVLQJYDVWXQHPSOR\PHQWZDVFXVKLRQHGRQO\LQLWVZHVWHUQKDOIZRMHZyG]WZRRSROVNLHRU2SROH
3URYLQFHE\WKHULVHRIWKHUHFRJQL]HG*HUPDQPLQRULW\%HJLQQLQJLQWKDWLVDIWHUUDWLFDWLRQLQ
RIWKH*HUPDQ3ROLVK%RUGHU7UHDW\DQGRIWKH3ROLVK*HUPDQ7UHDW\RQ*RRG1HLJKERUOLQHVVDQG
)ULHQGO\&RRSHUDWLRQ*HUPDQ\EHJDQWRJUDQW3RODQGV*HUPDQPLQRULW\*HUPDQFLWL]HQVKLSDQGSDVVSRUWV7KLVFLWL]HQVKLSPDGHWKHPLQWR(XURSHDQ8QLRQFLWL]HQVWRROHWWLQJWKHVHQHZ*HUPDQSDVVSRUW
KROGHUVXQGHUWDNHOHJDOVHDVRQDORUSHUPDQHQWHPSOR\PHQWLQ*HUPDQ\RUHOVHZKHUHLQWKH(XURSHDQ
8QLRQ
7KLVRSWLRQZDVODUJHO\XQDYDLODEOHWRWKHLQKDELWDQWVLQHDVWHUQ8SSHU6LOHVLDZRMHZyG]WZR
NDWRZLFNLH RU .DWRZLFH 3URYLQFH ZKLFK ZDV FRQIXVLQJO\ UHQDPHG ZRMHZyG]WZR OVNLH RU 6LOHVLDQ
3URYLQFH LQ  7KH\ IHOW WKH\ KDG EHHQ LJQRUHG E\ WKH 3ROLVK VWDWH DQG WKH PDLQVWUHDP SROLWLFDO
SDUWLHV,QVRPHRIWKHGLVJUXQWOHGHVWDEOLVKHGWKH5XFK$XWRQRPLLOVND5$6LOHVLDQ$XWRQRP\0RYHPHQWWKHVREULTXHW6LOHVLDQXVHGIRUYDULRXVKLVWRULFDODQGSROLWLFDOUHDVRQVEXWDFWXDOO\
VWDQGLQJIRUWKHKLVWRULFDOUHJLRQRI8SSHU6LOHVLDRQO\,Q5$DFWLYLVWVGHFLGHGWRDGGDQHWKQRlinguistic component to their previously largely ethnicity-free regional-cum-autonomy program. To this
HQGWKH\IRXQGHGWKH=ZL]HN/XGQRFL1DURGRZRFLOVNLHM=/18QLRQRIWKH3RSXODWLRQRIWKH
6LOHVLDQ1DWLRQDOLW\7KHKRSHZDVWKDWDVDUHFRJQL]HGQDWLRQDOPLQRULW\WKH6LOHVLDQVZRXOGYRWHIRU
their representatives who would then enter the Polish Parliament without the need for meeting the 5 per
cent threshold, thanks to the exemption for national minority organizations.
%XWWKHVWDWHUHDFWHGZLWKUHSHDWHGUHIXVDOVWRUHJLVWHUWKH=/17KHHQVXLQJOHJDOEDWWOHWRRN
:DUVDZDQGWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQWRWKH(XURSHDQ&RXUWRI+XPDQ5LJKWVLQ6WUDVERXUJLQDQGLWFRQWLQXHVWRWKLVGD\$IWHU5$OHGE\-HU]\*RU]HOLNIHOOEDFNRQLWVRULJLQDOUHJLRQDOFXPDXWRQ-

VLJQLFDQWO\FRQWULEXWHGWRLPSURYLQJWKHSUHVWLJHRI.DVKXELDQDVDOLWHUDU\ODQJXDJH6HH$GDP0LFNLHZLF]
3yQ7DGHV]WRMHzVWDWQ\QDMDFKQNQD/sWZLH6]ODFKHFN{KLVWRUL{]URNLZGZDQ{VFHNQpJDFK
ZLpUV]m[Lord Thaddeus, or the Last Foray in Lithuania: A 1811 and 1812 Story on the Nobles in the Twelve Books
of Verse@ :HMKHURZR 0X]HXP 3LPLHQQLFWZD L 0X]\NL .DV]XEVNR3RPRUVNLHM DQG *GDVN:\GDZQLFWZR
0DV]RSHULD/LWHUDFND
 7RPDV] .DPXVHOOD 'XDO &LWL]HQVKLS LQ 2SROH 6LOHVLD LQ WKH &RQWH[W RI (XURSHDQ ,QWHJUDWLRQ Facta
8QLYHUVLWDWLV3KLORVRSK\6RFLRORJ\DQG3V\FKRORJ\1L8QLYHUVLW\RI1L

50

Kamusella and Nomachi

RP\SURJUDPDIWHUWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQVYLFWRU\LQWKHORFDODQGUHJLRQDOHOHFWLRQV5$DOORZHGLWV
UHSUHVHQWDWLYHVWRHQWHUWKHUHJLRQDOJRYHUQPHQWRI6LOHVLDQ3URYLQFH2WKHUZLVH5$UHSUHVHQWDWLYHV
KDYHEHHQUHSUHVHQWHGLQWKHSURYLQFHVQXPHURXVFRPPXQLW\gminaDQGFRXQW\powiatVHOIJRYHUQPHQWVVLQFHWKHODWHV
7KH=/1ZKHQLWWXUQHGRXWWKDWUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKH6LOHVLDQVDVDQDWLRQDORUHWKQLFPLQRULW\
would be impossible in Poland in any foreseeable future, shifted its attention to the protection and deYHORSPHQWRIWKH6LOHVLDQODQJXDJH0HDQZKLOHWKHUHVXOWVRIWKHUVWSRVWFRPPXQLVWQDWLRQDOFHQVXV
YLQGLFDWHGWKH=/1VSULQFLSOHGVWDQFHDVWKHKLJKO\PDQLSXODWHGUHVXOWVVKRZHGWKDWZLWKD
SRSXODWLRQ RI  WKH 6LOHVLDQV LQ QXPHULFDO WHUPV DUH FRQWHPSRUDU\ 3RODQGV ODUJHVW PLQRULW\
albeit unrecognized.
,QWKH=/1VOHDGHU$QGU]HM5RF]QLRNIRXQGHGWKHOQVNR1DF\MQRF\QR1DURGRZD2F\QDOVND6LOHVLDQDQG3ROLVKUHVSHFWLYHO\IRU6LOHVLDQ1DWLRQDO3XEOLVKLQJ+RXVH,WSXEOLVKHGWKHUVWHYHUKLVWRU\RIWKH6LOHVLDQQDWLRQDQGWKHQDWLRQVKRPHODQGRI8SSHU6LOHVLDZULWWHQIURP
a Silesian national perspective.51 The activities of the publishing house and the organization are closely
UHODWHGDVERWKDUHKHDGHGE\WKHVDPHSHUVRQ,Q5RF]QLRNUHSUHVHQWLQJWKH6LOHVLDQODQJXDJH
SDUWLFLSDWHGLQWKHIRXQGLQJRIWKH3ROLVKEUDQFKRIWKH(XURSHDQ%XUHDXIRU/HVVHU8VHG/DQJXDJHV
(%/8/7KDQNVWRKLVHQGHDYRUVIRXU\HDUVODWHULQ6LOHVLDQZDVJUDQWHGWKH,62FRGH
szl, which amounts to international recognition of it as a language.
+HQFHLQ6LOHVLDQUHDFKHGDSRVLWLRQVLPLODUWRWKDWZKLFK.DVKXELDQKDGHQMR\HGEHIRUHQDPHO\UHFRJQLWLRQDVDODQJXDJHDEURDGEXWFRQWLQXHGWUHDWPHQWDVDGLDOHFWRIWKH3ROLVK
language in Poland itself. As a sign of the growing importance of cyberspace, a grassroots initiative led
WRWKHODXQFKRID6LOHVLDQODQJXDJH:LNLSHGLDOQVNR:LNLSHG\MR. At present, it is the largest
6LOHVLDQODQJXDJHERRNFRUSXVRIWH[WVDYDLODEOH,QWKHVDPH\HDU5RF]QLRNDQGDOLQJXLVWRIWKH
3ROLVKODQJXDJH-RODQWD7DPERURIWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI6LOHVLDLQ.DWRZLFHRUJDQL]HGXQGHUWKHDXVSLFHVRI
the Polish Senate and the Self-Government of Silesian Province, a conference on the standardization of
WKH6LOHVLDQODQJXDJH,QWKLVFRQIHUHQFHVOHJDF\ERUHIUXLWLQWKHIRUPRIDVWDQGDUGL]HGVSHOOLQJ
system for the Silesian language.
0RVWRIWKH6LOHVLDQODQJXDJHERRNVDERXWIW\SXEOLVKHGEHWZHHQDQGHLWKHULQ
YDULRXVSUHVWDQGDUGRUVWDQGDUGRUWKRJUDSKLHVZHUHEURXJKWRXWE\WKHOQVNR1DF\MQRF\QR$QRWKHUERRVWWRWKH6LOHVLDQPRYHPHQWZDVJLYHQE\WKHUHVXOWVRIWKHQDWLRQDOFHQVXV7KLVWLPHIUHH
RIPDQLSXODWLRQWKHFHQVXVUHFRUGHG6LOHVLDQVDQG6LOHVLDQVSHDNHUV52 In light of the

51'DULXV]-HUF]\VNL+LVWRULD1DURGXOVNLHJR3UDZG]LZHG]LHMH=LHPOVNLFKRGUHGQLRZLHF]DGRSURJX
WU]HFLHJRW\VLFOHFLD [History of the Silesian Nation: The True History of the Silesian Lands from the Middle Ages
to the Turn of the Third Millennium@=DEU]H12
52)RUDOOSUDFWLFDOUHDVRQVWKHPDMRULW\RI6LOHVLDQVDUHELOLQJXDOLQ6LOHVLDQDQG3ROLVK+RZHYHURYHU
6LOHVLDQVFRPPDQGRI3ROLVKLVVRVKDN\WKH\FRQVLGHUWKHPVHOYHVWREHPRQROLQJXDOLQ6LOHVLDQ,QWKHFHQVXV
DSDUWIURPWKHLU6LOHVLDQQDWLRQDOLW\SHUVRQVGHFODUHG3ROLVKQDWLRQDOLW\DQG*HUPDQQDWLRQDOLW\
7KHQXPEHURISHRSOHGHFODULQJ6LOHVLDQQDWLRQDOLW\DVWKHLURQO\QDWLRQDOLW\DPRXQWHGWR(YHQWDNLQJ

51

Eurasia Border Review < Article >

data, the Silesians are indisputably Polands largest minority and, likewise, the speakers of the Silesian
language constitute Polands second-largest speech community after the speakers of Polish.
,WLVGLIFXOWIRUWKHVWDWHDGPLQLVWUDWLRQWRGHQ\WKHZLOORIVRPDQ\RILWVFLWL]HQVWREH6LOHsians and to speak their own Silesian language without the state appearing ridiculous on the international
DUHQD$VLJQRIFKDQJHLQWKHSRVLWLRQRIWKHVWDWHDGPLQLVWUDWLRQLVWKHVXFFHVVIXOUHJLVWUDWLRQRI
WKH6WRZDU]\V]HQLH2VyE1DURGRZRFLOVNLHM6216RFLHW\RIWKH3HRSOHRIWKH6LOHVLDQ1DWLRQDOLW\DFKLHYHGE\DJURXSOHGE\3LRWU'XJRV]ZKRLVWKH5$OHDGHULQ2SROH3URYLQFH53 The new
RUJDQL]DWLRQVXFFHHGHGLQKDYLQJWKHFROORFDWLRQ6LOHVLDQQDWLRQDOLW\LQFOXGHGLQLWVRIFLDOQDPH7KLV
JRDOFRQWLQXHVWRHOXGHWKH=/1EXW621LQLWVVWDWXWHHPSKDVL]HGWKDWWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQZRXOGQRW
SDUWLFLSDWHLQDQ\QDWLRQDOHOHFWLRQV%HFDXVHRIWKLVGHFODUDWLRQ621FORVHGIRULWVHOIWKHRSSRUWXQLW\
to participate in Parliament, but on the other hand, it elicited from the state administration a tacit agreePHQWWRWKHH[LVWHQFHRID6LOHVLDQQDWLRQDOLW\7KLVPD\EHVHHQDVWKHUVWORQJRYHUGXHSRVLWLYHVWHS
toward the recognition of the Silesians as an ethnic minority in light of the Polish Constitution and of the
$FWRQ1DWLRQDODQG(WKQLF0LQRULWLHVDQGRQWKH5HJLRQDO/DQJXDJH
%HFDXVHWKHVWDWHDGPLQLVWUDWLRQDSSHDUVWRKDYHEHHQOHVVUHOXFWDQWWRUHOHQWLQWKHPDWWHURI
UHFRJQL]LQJ6LOHVLDQDVDODQJXDJHDJURXSRI03VIURP6LOHVLDQ3URYLQFHKDYHUHSHDWHGO\VLQFH
requested the Polish Parliament to recognize the Silesian language, preferably by including it, next to
.DVKXELDQDVDVHFRQGUHJLRQDOODQJXDJHLQWKH$FWRQ1DWLRQDODQG(WKQLF0LQRULWLHVDQGRQWKH5HJLRQDO/DQJXDJH,QWHUHVWLQJO\LQWKH0LQLVWU\RI$GPLQLVWUDWLRQDQG'LJLWL]DWLRQLQFOXGHG6LOHsian as one of the traditional languages of modern-day Poland, in which parallel forms of the countrys
geographical names are to be recorded.54
For the time being, the waiting game continues. The gradual reorientation of the organizational
DQG LGHRORJLFDO DLPV RI 5$ 621 DQG WKH =/1 LQ WKH FRQWH[W RI WKH GRPHVWLF DQG LQWHUQDWLRQDO
shame mobilization55DSSOLHVLQFUHDVLQJSUHVVXUHRQWKH3ROLVKVWDWHDGPLQLVWUDWLRQWRDGRSWDPRUHH[WKLVQXPEHUDVWKHWUXHGHPRJUDSKLFVL]HRIWKH6LOHVLDQVWKH\GRUHPDLQ3RODQGVODUJHVWPLQRULW\QRZDGD\V
/XGQRZHGXJGHNODUDFMLQDURGRZRFLRZHMRUD]SRVLDGDQLDRE\ZDWHOVWZDSROVNLHJRZU>7KH3RSXODWLRQ
$FFRUGLQJWRWKHLU'HFODUHG1DWLRQDOLW\DQGLQ5HVSHFWRIWKH)DFWRI7KHP%HLQJ+ROGHUVRI3ROLVK&LWL]HQVKLSLQ
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52

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ible attitude toward the Silesians demands. This may result in a compromise solution within a decade or
VR,QDOOSUREDELOLW\LWZLOOEHD.DVKXELDQVROXWLRQWKDWLV:DUVDZDJUHHLQJWRUHFRJQL]H6LOHVLDQDVD
regional language only. The recognition of the Silesians as an ethnic group is unlikely to follow any time
VRRQ8QOLNHWKH6LOHVLDQVWKHYDVWPDMRULW\RI.DVKXEVGHFODUHGWKHPVHOYHVWREHHWKQLF3ROHVLQWKH
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.DVKXELDQQDWLRQDOLW\LQWKHFHQVXV56 So in the long run, Warsaw may need to recognize both the
Kashubs and the Silesians as ethnic minorities, or face a deepening sociopolitical crisis and a delegitimaWLRQRILWVVWDWHDXWKRULW\HVSHFLDOO\LQ8SSHU6LOHVLDEXWDOVRLQ.DVKXELD
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drop substantially from census to census, as happened in the Czech Republic, where their number plumPHWHGIRXUIROGIURPLQWRLQ$VVKRZQDERYHWKHRSSRVLWHZDVWUXHDVEHWZHHQ
DQGWKHQXPEHURI6LOHVLDQVUHFRUGHGLQWKH3ROLVKFHQVXVHVJUHZDOPRVWYHIROG3HUKDSVWKLV
unexpected development and the inclusion of the Czech Republic and Poland in the Schengen Area of
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The disappearance of the border as a physical hindrance to free travel allows for the renewing
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language is based on Polish-style spelling, it may not be accepted among Silesians in the Czech Republic.
And if the resurfacing of the Silesians there proves to be permanent, they may loathe the efforts of the
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emergence of a Polish nation with its own three languages, the national Polish and the regional languages
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the aforementioned dangers may become an unappealing reality. However, de-politicization and a certain
de-ethnicization of language is not unthinkable, and it would allow Poland to become a more democratic
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Eurasia Border Review < Article >

DQGDWWUDFWLYHSROLW\LQDXQLWHG(XURSHFDSDEOHRIHVSRXVLQJDOOLWVLQKDELWDQWVGHVSLWHDQ\OLQJXLVWLF
ethnic, or national differences. as the Polish Constitution proposes.
Conclusion: A Reluctant Retreat from the Dogma of the Normative Isomorphism of State Frontiers
and Ethnolinguistic Borders?
'HVSLWH WKH SRVW UKHWRULF RI GHPRFUDWL]DWLRQ DQG UHVSHFW IRU PLQRULW\ ULJKWV WKH QDWLRQVWDWHVRI&HQWUDO(XURSHFOLQJWRWKHH[FOXVLYHO\HWKQROLQJXLVWLFPRGHORIQDWLRQDOLW\7KHVROHH[FHSWLRQWRWKLVUXOHLVSRVW6RYLHW%HODUXVZKHUHVSHDNLQJWKHQDWLRQDOODQJXDJHGHIDFWRLVQRWWKHPDLQ
PDUNHURI%HODUXVLDQQDWLRQDOLW\VLPLODUWRWKHFDVHRIRIFLDO,ULVKLQWRGD\V,UHODQG58 The turn toward
HWKQROLQJXLVWLFSDUWLFXODULVPVKDVEHHQYLVLEOHLQ&HQWUDO(XURSHVLQFHWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHWZHQW\UVW
FHQWXU\DVHYLGHQFHGE\WKHSRSXODUVORJDQRI(XURSHRIIDWKHUODQGVDQGWKHULVHRIYDULRXVHWKQROLQguistic nationalist parties and organizations across the region. The normative force of the ethnolinguistic
PRGHORIVWDWHKRRGOHJLWLPDWLRQKDVEHHQDPSO\SURYHGE\WKHVORZEUHDNXSVRI<XJRVODYLDDQGLWV6HUbo-Croatian language.
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ZKLFKQRZDGD\VLVWKHQRUPLQ&HQWUDO(XURSHOLHVLQWKHODFNRIDFOHDUDOWHUQDWLYHDVZHOODVLQWKH
huge political, ideological, economic, and demographic investment that was extended to replace, during
the twentieth century, the multiethnic and polyglot polities with monolingual ethnolinguistic ones in this
UHJLRQ,QUHJDUGWRWKHIRUPHUGLIFXOW\DIWHUWKHHQGRIFRPPXQLVPPDQ\&HQWUDO(XURSHDQVWDWHVDVSLUHGWRDGRSWFLYLFQDWLRQDOLVPLQWKHFRXUVHRIGHPRFUDWL]DWLRQDQGV\VWHPLFFKDQJH%XWWKHUHLVQR
FOHDUGHQLWLRQRIFLYLFQDWLRQDOLVP2QWKHRQHKDQGWKHUKHWRULFRI)UHQFKQDWLRQDOLVPDQGVWDWHKRRG
RQZKLFKPDQ\RI&HQWUDO(XURSHVQDWLRQVWDWHVDUHPRGHOHGLVFLYLFEXWLWVSUDFWLFHLVVWURQJO\HWKQRlinguistic, or Frenchifying. On the other hand, a certain de-politicization of language and its disconnecWLRQIURPVWDWHKRRGDVSUDFWLFHGLQ%HODUXVLVXQSDODWDEOHLQWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQEHFDXVHLWVPHPEHUV
VWHUHRW\SLFDOO\SHUFHLYHWKLVFRXQWU\WREH(XURSHVODVWGLFWDWRUVKLS
7KHPXOWLVHFWRUDOLQYHVWPHQWLQHWKQROLQJXLVWLFDOO\FRQVWUXHGQDWLRQDOVWDWHKRRGIRUDOPRVW
\HDUVFRQVWLWXWHVDVHULRXVKXUGOHLQFKDQJLQJIURPWKLVPRGHOWRVRPHWKLQJHOVH7KHUVWSDUWRIWKLV
KXJHLQYHVWPHQWWKDWRISDWULRWLFDJLWDWLRQRUQDWLRQDOUHYLYDOSULRUWRWKH*UHDW:DUVDZWKHULVHRI
SROLWLFDOPDVVPRYHPHQWVDVZHOODVVRPHWHQWDWLYHO\HWKQROLQJXLVWLFQDWLRQVWDWHVZKLFKTXHVWLRQHG
WKHSUHYDLOLQJSROLWLFDORUGHULQ&HQWUDO(XURSH$QRWKHUSHULRGZDVXVKHUHGLQE\:RUOG:DU,WKDWGHstroyed the old political structures and old social certainties. The model of ethnolinguistic statehood was
the sole legitimate and available one with which to replace the non-national DQFLHQVUpJLPHV. This novel
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the Second World War. Some of these changes were reverted, and with the exception of some border
58/RHN+DOPDQ,QJH6LHEHQDQG0DUJDYDQ=XQGHUWAtlas of European Values: Trends and Traditions at the Turn
of the Century/HLGHQ%ULOODQG7LOEXUJ7LOEXUJ8QLYHUVLW\

54

Kamusella and Nomachi

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nation-states was recreated after 1945.
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vast ethnic cleansing instituted and approved by the Western powers at the close of World War I saw the
forced emigration and expulsions across the borders of the ethnolinguistic nation-states during the interwar period, undertaken in order to increase the degree of ethnolinguistic homogeneity in these national
polities. The Allies put some paradoxical checks on the process in the form of the minority treaties regime
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RSLQLRQRIWKRVHFRQFHUQHGZKHQLQWKH\RFFXSLHGDQGGLYLGHGWKHUHJLRQHQWDLOLQJDJUHHGXSon mass expulsions and population exchanges. The horrors of the genocide of the Jews and the Roma in
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numbering in the millions.
The wartime horrors were condemned and it was promised that they would never be repeated,
but one of its effects, or the unprecedented ethnolinguistic homogeneity of the postwar nation-states in
&HQWUDO(XURSHZDVQRWDEDQGRQHG,QWKHUHJLRQVKLVWRU\WH[WERRNVWKHSUHSHULRGRIQDWLRQDO
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at large, the Soviet pledge to keep and deepen the freshly gained ethnolinguistic homogeneity of Central
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The national-communism of the communist years was over after the breakup of the system, the
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even when, as in the case of Poland, the post-communist Constitution openly disavows ethnolinguistic
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Philipp Ther&LHPQDVWURQDSDVWZDQDURGRZ\FK&]\VWNLHWQLF]QHZQRZRF]HVQHM(XURSLH[The Dark Side of

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59

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facto Poland is a nation-state for all Polish-speakers, construed as the Polish nation.62
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de facto ethnolinguistic nationalism by analyzing the cases of the Kashubs and the Silesians in todays
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:HVWRQ&HQWUDO(XURSHVSRVWFRPPXQLVWSRVW6RYLHWDQGSRVW<XJRVODYVWDWHVVHHNLQJPHPEHUVKLS
LQWKH&RXQFLORI(XURSH1$72DQGWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQ7KLVUHJLPHQRWRIWKH&HQWUDO(XURSHDQQDWLRQVWDWHVPDNLQJGRHVQRWREOLJHWKHROGPHPEHUVRIWKHDIRUHPHQWLRQHGRUJDQL]DWLRQVLQ:HVWHUQ
(XURSHWRREVHUYHWKHVDPHVWDQGDUGRIPLQRULW\ULJKWVSURWHFWLRQ7KH:HVWHUQ(XURSHDQQDWLRQVWDWHV
are largely free to decide on their own whether to give their minorities wide-ranging rights or to deny the
very existence of these minorities and their languages.
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PLQRULW\ULJKWVUHJLPHDQGWKHVKHHUDUELWUDULQHVVRIREVHUYDQFHRIWKHVHULJKWVLQ:HVWHUQ(XURSH$OO
this takes place in the context of the continuing potency of the principle of ethnolinguistic homogeneity
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minorities, veer in the direction of the French example. Poland is no exception. The tyranny of ethnolinguistic homogeneity as the sole normative basis of statehood construction and legitimation continues in
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Post-communist Poland does recognize the existence of minorities in its territory and in the
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nationality and language of everyday communication. The results were accepted with the exception of
declarations of Kashubian nationality and language, and of Silesian nationality and language. This stance
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As an explanation of this non-acceptance of the census returns in regard to the Kashubs, the
Silesians, and their respective languages, along with the unexpected subsequent recognition of Kashubian
DVDODQJXDJHZHSURSRVHWKHSULQFLSOHRISHUFHQWRUWKHSULQFLSOHRIVWDWLVWLFDOHUURU'XULQJFRPPXQLVPIROORZLQJWKHH[SXOVLRQVRI*HUPDQV3RODQGZDVRIFLDOO\SUHVHQWHGDVDQDWLRQVWDWHZLWKRXW
minorities or with a negligible number of them. Thus, it was presented as an ethnolinguistically homogeQRXVjednorodnySROLW\7KLVYLHZKDVFRQWLQXHGWREHRIFLDOO\HVSRXVHGVLQFHWRR
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ethnic non-Poles constituted around 1.2 per cent of Polands population. This result was within the range
of statistical error, which in this case is best represented by the number of people whose nationality was
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62

Ibid., 381415.

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VDIHUE\WKHVHSHRSOHWRGHFODUH*HUPDQWREHWKHLUKRPHODQJXDJHEXWWREHRI3ROLVKQDWLRQDOLW\
<HWRQWKHRWKHUKDQGLWLVZHOONQRZQWKDWLQ3RODQGWKHUHLVQRWDVLQJOHORFDOLW\HYHQWKHVPDOOHVW
of hamlets where German would be the language of everyday use. It is preserved by those educated in
*HUPDQ\EHIRUHDQGLQDKDQGIXORIIDPLOLHV7KXVZHHVWLPDWHWKDWWKHUHDUHQRPRUHWKDQ
native speakers of this language in todays Poland, amply proved by the fact that in Poland there is not a
single German-medium minority school.64
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below the 1 per cent threshold. This indicates that there may be demographic space left for recognizing
WKH .DVKXELDQ ODQJXDJH DV DGGLQJ  .DVKXELDQVSHDNHUV WR WKH QXPEHU RI QRQ3ROLVKVSHDNHUV
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tenth of the Kashubian-speakers declared Kashubian nationality, meaning that the Kashubs, even when
speaking their own language, meant to remain in the Polish nations fold. On the other hand, recognizing
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regional language.
The game of numbers, intended to push down the share of non-Poles and non-Polish-speakers,
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years earlier, declared Kashubian nationality, too. It goes without saying that Warsaw did not recognize
these declarations of Silesian and Kashubian nationality, thus reducing the total number of declarations
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The number of non-Polish national declarations increased considerably because in this census
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perhaps limited by half the number of people whose nationality was not established, in comparison with
WKHFHQVXVQDPHO\WRORZHULQJWKHWKUHVKROGRIVWDWLVWLFDOHUURUIRUWKLVFDWHJRU\RIGDWDWR
DGDVKPRUHWKDQSHUFHQW+HQFHSHRSOHSHUFHQWGHFODUHGMRLQW3ROLVKQDWLRQDOLW\ZLWK
DQRQ3ROLVKRQH7KHQXPEHURIGHFODUDWLRQVRIH[FOXVLYHO\QRQ3ROLVKQDWLRQDOLW\DPRXQWHGWR
SHUFHQW)URPWKLVQXPEHULQWKHUHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVRIWKHUHVXOWVH[FOXVLYHGHFODUDWLRQVRI6LOHVLDQ
QDWLRQDOLW\DQGRI.DVKXELDQQDWLRQDOLW\ZHUHGHGXFWHG\LHOGLQJRQO\GHFODUDWLRQVSHUFHQWRIH[FOXVLYHO\QRQ3ROLVKQDWLRQDOLW\66
It was a golden arrow that allowed for reducing the number of people declaring recognized
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SHUFHQW0D\EHZHDVVXPHUDWKHUWRRPXFKEDGZLOORQWKHSDUWRIWKH3ROLVKDXWKRULWLHVEXWDSDUW
from permitting respondents to declare multiple nationalities, Warsaw did not concede to allowing them
to declare that they had no nationality at all. Ideologically speaking, in an ethnolinguistic nation-state,
it would be like accepting an a-national heresy. However, it is well known that nationality, or the fact of
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WKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\LQ(XURSHLQFHQVXVHVLWZDVXQWKLQNDEOHWKDWDSHUVRQZRXOGGHFODUHWREHRIQR
UHOLJLRQ1RZDGD\VUHOLJLRQEHLQJHYHU\RQHVSULYDWHPDWWHULQOLEHUDOGHPRFUDFLHVQRRIFLDOZRXOG
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SHUFHQW@GHFODUHGWKHPVHOYHVWREHRIQRUHOLJLRQDQGWKHUHOLJLRQRI>SHUFHQW@ZDVQRW
established at all.671DWLRQVDUHQROHVVDSK\VLFDOFWLRQWKDQJRGVREYLRXVO\ERWKSKHQRPHQDDUHSDUW
DQGSDUFHORIWKHVRFLDOUHDOLW\JHQHUDWHGE\KXPDQPLQGVLQFRQMXQFWLRQZLWKRQHDQRWKHU,QOLJKWRI
the Polish Constitution, equating the Polish nation with all the citizens of Poland, having no nationality is
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home. The number had almost doubled in comparison with the previous census, mostly on account of

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and Accommodation@:DUVDZ*yZQ\8U]G6WDW\VW\F]Q\$FFHVVHG$XJXVWKWWSZZZVWDW
JRYSOJXVBB3/.B+70/KWP
66 Ibid., 91.
67 Ibid., 99.

58

Kamusella and Nomachi

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mostly of an ideological or ethnocultural character. This lowers the overall number of native speakers of
QRQ3ROLVKODQJXDJHVWRSHUFHQWRUEHORZSHUFHQWDJDLQ68
Obviously, we have no knowledge of internal discussions on the census data on nationality and
language behind closed doors at the meetings of the Polish government, or in the relevant ministries,
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declarations of non-Polish nationality and language below the 1 per cent threshold. This is a rather kneejerk and as such, largely unconscious reaction aimed at preserving and deepening the ethnolinguistic
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via mass media since the founding of the Polish nation-state in 1918.
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line with the still-vibrant ideological tenets of ethnolinguistic nationalism for recognizing either the
Silesian language or Silesian as an ethnic or national minority. This would send the numbers of ethnic
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UHFRJQLWLRQRI.DVKXELDQDVDUHJLRQDOODQJXDJHWKHUHPD\EHVRPHFKDQFHRIDVLPLODUUHFRJnition for the Silesian language, if Warsaw takes a more relaxed stance on the census returns in regard
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languages other than Polish at home, the vast majority of them do so in conjunction with Polish. Only
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exclusively Silesian.69

68
69

Ibid., 96.
Ibid., 96.

59