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Dipterocarp
Forest
Ecosystems
Towards Sustainable
Management
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Dipterocarp
Forest
Ecosystems
Towards Sustainable
Management
Editors
Andreas Schulte
German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTE), Berlin
Dieter Schone
German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTE), Berlin
V f e World Scientific

Singapore New Jersey London Hong Kong

Sinaapore
Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
P O Box 128, Farrer Road, Singapore 912805
USA office: Suite IB, 1060 Main Street, River Edge, NJ 07661

UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
The photos used on the cover are from:

TETONI, CASSIO and ASSOCIATES PTE LTD
PHOTOBANK
SINGAPORE 0106
DIPTEROCARP FOREST ECOSYSTEMS: TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT

Copyright 1996 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
All rights reserved. Thisbook, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to
be invented, without written permission from the Publisher.
For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance Center,
Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not required from
the publisher.
ISBN 981-02-2729-9
Printed in Singapore.

PREFACE
The Dipterocarp forests of Southeast Asia constitute a dominant and particularly
valuable component of the world's tropical rain forests. As such, they are
intertwined with a Pandora's box of problems that have plagued the world for
decades: Over- and underdevelopment, political instability, poverty, hunger,
population growth, the debt crisis, reckless exploitation of natural resources,
degradation of the local and global environment, and, of late, climatic changes.
The fate of the world's remaining Dipterocarp forests will certainly depend to a
large measure on resolution of these persistent global problems.
The world community, aware of the forces threatening these forests, has also
recognized their crucial role in the fate of nations and of our planet. Strict
protection of the remaining Dipterocarp forests in the virgin state is highly
desirable, but, unfortunately, not a feasible option: survival and maintenance of
their vital functions will depend on benign, sustainable and economically viable
management practices, including the option of leaving some of these forests
completely untouched.
Nations and international bodies have responded to this challenge with funds,
a myriad of institutions, initiatives, projects, conferences, and publications. It is
neither a lack of efforts, nor a scarcity of internationally available funds that
hampers refining, dissipating and applying sustainable management practices.
Extraneous influences aside, one obstacle to progress in Dipterocarp forestry is
the fragmentation of the involved groups by location, language, education and
professional discipline. They include line foresters and project staff in very
remote, isolated corners of the world, administrators, forest politicians, graduate
students, scientists from a wide variety of disciplines, members of nongovernmental organizations, a multitude of international bodies and last but
not least people who live in, near and from the forest. Unfortunately, and
detrimental to the common goal, these groups rarely share realms, readings or
reasoning.
Foresters at all levels of operations as well as national administrators,
invariably very involved with the challenges of day-to-day forest management,
may long remain oblivious to state-of-the art knowledge. Traditionally, though,
they encounter problems first-hand, find solutions as best they can, and,
significantly, are most aware of practical constraints. Moreover, it will ultimately
be their responsibility to implement management on the ground. Very rarely do
they publish.
Staff foresters in numerous national and international Dipterocarp forest
projects usually have access to scientific backstopping and professional
V

vi
Preface
networks, although not to many journals and books. Invariably, reporting

consumes a large amount of time. Frequently, however, extremely valuable
experiences and insights gained on-site in the Dipterocarp forests end up in
internal organization files, project pamphlets, conference proceedings, or
semiobscure publications of the "gray literature" which rarely reach the scientific
circuit, and, hence, never enter policies for these forests.
Local researchers in developing nations, although often highly engaged,
qualified, and actually aware of regional and national problems, sometimes fare
no better. Communication may be restricted due to lack of contacts and the everpresent language barrier, research is often hampered by local financial and
institutional constraints and by very limited access to the professional world
literature. Many of their institutions cannot afford reputable journals and new
books. With the possibility of instant computer access to many of the world's
major library catalogues and scientific abstracts, an undergraduate forestry
student, writing a term paper in the USA, for instance, may start work with a
more up-to-date knowledge of a particular topic than a professor or decision
maker in a remote corner of the Dipterocarp region.
In a time of jet travel, fax machines, and the internet, international scientists
and the staff of international bodies communicate very effectively within their
circle. Countless close personal relationships exist. Work is usually published in
first-rate, peer-reviewed journals; before publication, years may pass. While
colleagues are aware of the gist of an article long before it actually appears,
conclusion may reach target groups and decision makers in the field only after
a prolonged dormancy period, if at all. Members of this community rarely
interact with "dirt foresters" described above.
Finally, we as foresters are at times amazed at how under represented our
profession appears in the entire international Dipterocarp forest community, at
how often even rudimentary forestry knowledge is overlooked. Interdisciplinary
work is of course essential, but often, as in the discussion of the role planted and
natural tropical forests play in climate change mitigation, proposals and
resolutions would benefit from feedback and input from experienced forestry
professionals.
It was our objective to narrow this perceived communication gap among
foresters and all members of the international community concerned with tropical
forests in general, and Dipterocarp forests in particular. These groups also
constitute the contemplated readership of this book, which was born out of
immediate experience in and admiration for the Dipterocarp forests in East
Kalimantan, Indonesia. Originally conceived barely two years ago as a
compendium of Dipterocarp forest ecology, management and use, practical
difficulties quickly whittled away the book's overly ambitious initial concept.
Spurred on by our shared experience across cultures in forest science, practical
forest management and academic teaching, we did not, however, give up the goal
of linking customarily isolated and widely scattered domains, and of bridging
their conventional perimeters, in spite of great difficulties.

Preface
vii
Leech socks may complement some of the books author's usual attire, while
other rarely get out of a lab coat. Some are at home in Universities, others have
almost turned into Dipterocarp forest dwellers. Many professional disciplines are
represented, among them, to our satisfaction, a large group of seasoned forestry
professionals with considerable experience in practical Dipterocarp forestry.
Contributors hail from thirteen countries, with major representations from
Southeast Asia, the USA, Scandinavia and Germany. Only a minority are native
English speakers. As many participants at international scientific conferences will
testify, to communicate well on a professional topic in a foreign tongue is
difficult. Competency to write for professional publications in a foreign language
is even more exceptional. Finally, even if the intended meaning is understandable
and technical terms fit, style may not.
The book would, therefore, quite simply never have reached the printer, had
it not been for the work by Myrna HASLE, who labored through some very
rough first drafts, second drafts, corrected, edited, even rewrote sections and who
refused to reject any submitted contribution merely on grounds of inadequate
language skills. She agonized about the possibility of doing an author's personal
style injustice and adamantly would have preferred at least one more editing
cycle. Unfortunately time ran out. Therefore, for all the remaining flaws, editors
and authors take full responsibility, while thanking her for a task extremely well
done.
Some articles originated as unpublished research reports, others in the form of
conference or workshop representations, which, in our view, deserved to reach a
larger audience. We realize the efforts necessary to prepare book manuscripts
from these beginnings. We like to thank all authors for their cooperation, and
numerous reviewers for their assistance.
The book was compiled as one activity of the
Indonesian - German Forestry Project,
Mulawarman University in Samarinda, Indonesia
and would not have been possible without the assistance and cooperation of the
University and Faculty of Forestry, particularly its Rector, Prof. Dr. Yunus
RASYID and the Dean of the Faculty of Forestry, Dr. Daddy RUHIYAT.
Financial support from the
German - Indonesian Governmental Cooperation
Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
is gratefully acknowledged.
Finally, we would like to extend our thanks to our Indonesian forestry
colleagues and to many partners in other national and international forestry
projects, with whom our encounters were encouraging, a pleasure, and a
privilege.
The Editors

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INTRODUCTION
Dipterocarp forest ecosystems in Southeast Asia, very inaccessible, uneven-aged,
multilayered, extremely diverse forests, growing year round at very warm
temperatures on sites with large amounts of precipitation and often very low soil
nutrient stores may, at first encounter, intimidate even experienced foresters from
other world regions. Yet, these marvelous forests share facets of ecology,
management and use with forests all over the world; basic forestry principles still
apply. Some experiences may be transposed, albeit very judiciously.
Examples in this collection include theoretical aspects of ecosystems
sustainability, a decision model for management of forests with multiple,
possibly conflicting objectives, remote sensing methods for land-use planning,
growth and yield simulation and a combined stand and forest level model to
assure both sustainability and feasibility in management planning. Reduced
impact logging, a very desirable practice all over the world, is applied here in a
new context, joint implementation for carbon offsets. Climate change mitigation
in the forestry sector may be a very significant new development and a chance
for conservation of forests and biodiversity, and for forest management all over
the world, but particularly for the Dipterocarp region.
Judicious adaptation of general forestry principles to Dipterocarp forests
involves regard for specific constraints, for some imposed by ecology and site.
Chapter 1 contains fewer treatises on Dipterocarp forest ecology than initially
planned. But important facets such as soil, the incredible diversity of species
other than Dipterocarps, hydrology, fire, and an ant-plant association as an
example of the myriad of intricate interrelationships among organisms in this
forest type, are represented. Forest managers will never know in detail and be
able to consider all such mutual influences, but they should be conscious of their
existence. Even in regions with a very long forestry tradition and comparatively
few tree species, silvics for these species are still being researched. Lack of
knowledge and uncertainty will, therefore, likely remain a particularly important
feature of Dipterocarp silviculture.
There is virtually no chance to eliminate conversion of Dipterocarp forest
ecosystems during the next decades. But perhaps we can at least mitigate and
channel deforestation and assure that future land uses will be productive and
sustainable. Moreover, in the remaining forests, we may advance conservation
and management by refining forest inventories, management planning,
silviculture, community-, social- and agroforestry, and harvest practices, and we
may take advantage of new options offered by global climate change mitigation.
Chapters 2 and 3 treat these aspects, while Chapter 4 centers on rehabilitation of
IX

Introduction
those millions of hectares of Dipterocarp forests, which have already been

degraded by unsustainable harvests, agricultural use or wildfires.
For us, conservation of Dipterocarp forest ecosystems, axiomatically includes
management and benign, economic use. The more highly valued all products and
functions of these forests become nationally and internationally, the better their
chance of survival. Therefore, Chapter 5 addresses the potential of the
Dipterocarp forest asset in international trade, and properties and uses for many
of its timber species. Curbing logging waste and conversion residues few species
now considered commercial needs attention. Moreover, there is a high probability
that many general and at least some specific use may exist for almost all tree
species of the Dipterocarp forest, and possibly for many species of the entire
flora and fauna. A very small sample of such "secondary" products and uses,
rattan and Tengkawang butter are included here as examples. A myriad of others
exist or still wait for discovery.
There are numerous concepts of the body of forest management knowledge
which still await application in Dipterocarp forestry. For example, polycyclic
cutting regimes are but a special case of uneven-aged forest management, for
which a wealth of new thoughts has accumulated in the global trend towards
more natural "new forestry". Site mapping and specific management is barely
emergent in Dipterocarp forestry and conservation, but constitutes a very
important ecological foundation. Managerial forest economics will become more
important in Dipterocarp forestry as management intensity increases and options
multiply. Concepts and experiences exist worldwide about management
boundary conditions, such as forestry law and policy, private and community
forest ownership, forest administration and forest service organization. To simply
copy such models without regard for the Dipterocarp forest's uniqueness is not
an option, to disregard them entirely a waste.
Last but not least, management and conservation of the Dipterocarp forest
must allow for uncertainty and large gaps in knowledge, which are likely to
persist. Therefore, in an analogy to forest's classic Control Method of the past,
considerate management should gauge responses and preserve options for the
forest's future.
The Editors

CONTENTS
PREFACE
INTRODUCTION
ix
CHAPTER 1: FACETS OF DIPTEROCARP FOREST ECOLOGY
SCHULTE, A.
Dipterocarp Forest Ecosystem Theory Based on Matter Balance and
Biodiversity
OHTA, S. and E. SYARIF

Soils under Lowland Dipterocarp Forests Characteristics and
Classification
29
MALMER, A.
Nutrient Losses from Dipterocarp Forests A Case Study of Forest
Plantation Establishment in Sabah, Malaysia
52
KESSLER, RJ.A.
Not only Dipterocarps ...: An Overview of Tree Species Diversity in
Dipterocarp Forest Ecosystems of Borneo
74
FIALA, B.
Ants Benefits Pioneer Trees: The Genus Macaranga as an Example of
Ant-Plant Associations in Dipterocarp Forests
102
MARGRAF, J. and P.P. MILAN

Ecology of Dipterocarp Forests and its Relevance for Island
Rehabilitation in Leyte, Philippines
124
GOLDAMMER, J.G., B. SEIBERT and W. SCHINDELE

Fire in Dipterocarp Forests
155
XI

xii
Contents
CHAPTER 2: TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT

FOREST REGULATION
187
WHYTE, G.
Multi-Criteria Planning and Management of Forest Sustainability
189
KUNTZ, S. and F. SIEGERT

Dipterocarp Forest Mapping and Monitoring by Satellite Data
A Case Study from East Kalimantan
206
ONG, P.C. and M. KLEINE

DIPSIM: Dipterocarp Forest Growth Simulation Model A Tool for
Forest-Level Management Planning
228
CHAPTER 3: TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT

SILVICULTURE, COMMUNITY AND AGROFORESTRY
247
WEIDELT, H.J.
Sustainable Management of Dipterocarp Forests Opportunities and
Constraints
249
ONG, P. C , P.M. LAGAN, R. GLAUNER, M. KLEINE and

K. UEBELHOR
Examples of Sustainability Criteria for Dipterocarp Forest Management
274
MARSH, C.W., J. TAY, M.A. PINARDI, F.E. PLITZ, and

T.E. SULLIVAN
Reduced Impact Logging: A Pilot Project in Sabah, Malaysia
293
MOURA-COSTA, P.
Tropical Forestry Practices for Carbon Sequestration
308
SORENSEN, K.M.
Traditional Management of Dipterocarp Forests: Examples of
Community Forestry by Indigenous Communities
335
SARDJONO, A.
The Lembo System: A Model for Agroforestry in Dipterocarp Forest
Ecosystems of East Kalimantan, Indonesia
354
GOUYON, A.
Ecological and Socio-Economic Conditions of Rubber Agroforestry in
the Dipterocarp Ecosystems of Indonesia
369

Contents
xiii
CHAPTER 4: REHABILITATION AND REFORESTATION OF

DIPTEROCARP FOREST ECOSYSTEMS
389
ADJERS, G. and A. OTSAMO

Seedling Production Methods of Dipterocarps
391
APPANAH, S. and G. WEINLAND

Experience with Planting Dipterocarps in Peninsular Malaysia
411
NUSSBAUM, R. and A.L. HOE

Rehabilitation of Degraded Sites in Logged-Over Forest Using
Dipterocarps
446
OTSAMO, R., A. OTSAMO and G. ADJERS

Reforestation Experiences with Dipterocarp Species on Grassland
464
CHAPTER 5: UTILIZATION POTENTIAL OF DIPTEROCARP

FOREST ECOSYSTEMS MAJOR AND MINOR FOREST
PRODUCTS
479
CHOONG, E.T. and S.S. ACHMADI

Utilization Potential of the Dipterocarp Resource in International Trade
481
RICHTER, H.G. and H. GOTTWALD

Wood Structure and Properties Diversity in Commercial Dipterocarp
Timbers of Southeast Asia
526
BOSMAN, M.T.M. and P. BAAS

Wood Structure and Properties of Naturally and Plantation Grown
Light Red Meranti
578
SULISTYO BUDI, A.
Properties and Utilization of Sapotaceous Timber from Dipterocarp
Forests
591
MULADI, S.
Quantification and Use of Dipterocarp Wood Residue in East Kalimantan 603
SEIBERT, B.
Food from Dipterocarps; Utilization of the Tengkawang Species Group
for Nut and Fat Production
616

xiv
Contents
WEIDELT, H. H.
Rattan Distribution, Morphology, Use and Ecologically Well Adapted
Cultivation
INDEX
649

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Singapore New Jersey London Hong Kong

Dipterocarp Forest Ecosystems: Towards Sustainable Management Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

The photos used on the cover are from: