Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
82
0167-7799/$ see front matter 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2008.10.010 Available online 8 January 2009
Review
Trends in Biotechnology
and the USA in March 2006, it was found that over 200
manufacturers currently market products identified as
nanoproducts. Approximately 60 of these products were
for health and fitness and 9% were for food and beverage
products [7]. Despite the lack of unifying nanotechnology
guidelines, manufacturers nevertheless have to deal with
existing general regulations for food products and the
introduction of a new nanoingredient can be difficult and
time consuming. For this reason, most expected nanoapplications in the food market will probably occur in food
packaging and only few in actual food products.
Already, several applications of nanotechnology are
available (Figure 1). Up to now, most of the research on
nanotechnology focused on the electronics, medicine and
automation sector. The knowledge gained from these sectors could be adapted for the use of food and agriculture
products, such as for applications in food safety (e.g. detecting pesticides and microorganisms), in environmental pro-
Vol.27 No.2
83
Review
Figure 3. Illustration of different types of composite that can arise from the interaction between layered silicates and polymers. (a) Phase-separated composite
(microcomposite). (b) Intercalated composite (nanocomposite). (c) Exfoliated composite (nanocomposite). Reproduced with permission from [27].
Another approach to improve the properties of biodegradable films is the use of hybrid organicinorganic systems and, in particular, those containing layered silicates.
Hybrid composites, such as layered silicates embedded in a
polymeric matrix, improve stability and their biodegradability can be fine tuned by varying the amount of solvents
used, which might further expand the possible uses of
edible and biodegradable films [19].
Zein, a prolamin and the major component of corn
protein, has been an important material in science and
industry owing to its unique properties and molecular
structure. By dissolving zein, either in ethanol or in
acetone, biodegradable zein films with good tensile and
water-barrier properties can be obtained [2832].
Nanotechnology approaches are expected to yield new
applications for zein in specialty foods and in the biodegradable plastics industry. Zein can form a meshwork
consisting of tubular structures, which can be microbiologically resistant and inert, for example, after treatment
with formaldehyde [28,33,34]. However, zein nanobeads or
nanoparticles can be used as edible carriers for flavor
compounds or for encapsulation of nutraceuticals, as well
as to improve the strength of plastic and bioactive food
packages [28,3335]. Controlling the uniformity and
organization of zein films at the nanolevel are crucial in
terms of mechanical and tensile properties [31]. In an
attempt to control the surface morphology of zein films,
Shi et al. [35] tested different solvents and found that films
generated in acetic acids were smoother and structurally
more homogenous than films obtained from ethanol as a
solvent.
One possibility to increase the barrier properties of zein
polymers is treatment with stable silicate complexes (montmorillonite, hectorite and saponite) [29,30]. These platelet-like structured silicate complexes disperse in polymer
matrixes and are therefore able to improve their strength,
84
Review
Trends in Biotechnology
Vol.27 No.2
Figure 4. Representation of the self-assembly of partially hydrolysed a-lactalbumin into nanotubes in the presence of Ca2+. The transmission-electron micrograph on the
right shows negatively stained a-lactalbumin nanotubes. Micrograph reproduced with permission from [46].
wire-like structure and most frequently composed of carbon [42]. Carbon nanotubes can be incorporated into polymer structures (liquids, solutions, melts, gels, amorphous
and crystalline matrices) to increase their mechanical
properties in terms of tensile strength and elasticity
[43]. The information obtained from these studies can be
used to help to develop new applications of nanotubes for
the food sector [44].
Particularly relevant to the food sector is the possibility
to obtain nanotubes from milk protein a-lactalbumin by
partial hydrolysis (Figure 4). The resulting a-lactalbumin
nanotubes are able to increase viscosity owing to their high
aspect ratio (i.e. large surface area) and stiffness, which
requires less protein [45,46]. In addition, these high
protein-density nanotubes could also be used as thickener
alternatives [46]. Moreover, a-lactalbumin nanotubes have
cavities of 8 nm in diameter, which might enable the
binding of food components, such as vitamins or enzymes.
These cavaties could also be used to encapsulate and
protect nutraceuticals or to mask undesirable flavor or
aroma compounds [46]. Because these nanotubes consist
of milk protein, they are considered food-grade materials,
which should make their introduction into the market
place relatively easy and might facilitate widespread applications in nanoencapsulating of nutrients, supplements
and pharmaceuticals.
Natural biopolymers
Starch and its derivatives are other important natural
polymers that could be further improved through nanotechnology approaches. After extrusion, the starch is typically converted to a thermoplastic material with low
mechanical resistance and poor protection against oxygen
and moisture [4750]. Park et al. prepared hybrids of
thermoplastic starch (TPS) with nanoclay and investigated
the resulting properties. They found that the strong interaction between the TPS and the nanoclay improved tensile
strength and lowered water-vapor permeability compared
with native TPS matrix [51].
Biopolyesters are another important class of biodegradable polymers formed from biological monomers, including
polylactic acid (PLA), polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) and
polycaprolacton (PCL). Biopolyesters are biodegradable
and biocompatible and can be formed into films or molded
into objects [24]. However, biopolyester applications in the
food-packaging industry have some important limitations
that are caused by their relatively poor gas-barrier properties and brittleness. In an attempt to overcome these
limitations, nanoclays have been used as supportive filling
agents in a biopolyester matrix where they formed nanocomposite structures [52,53]. Cabedo et al. showed that the
addition of nanoclays, in this case kaolinite nanofillers, to
PLA films improved both thermal stability and mechanical
properties without decreasing barrier properties. These
positive results are expected to increase the potential
food-packaging applications of these polymers [53].
Advantages of nanomaterials in food-packaging
applications
Bioactive packaging materials need to be able to keep
bioactive compounds, such as prebiotics, probiotics, encapsulated vitamins or bioavailable flavonoids, in optimum
condition until they are released in a controllable manner
into the food product [50,54,55]. Bioactive-packaging
materials can help to control oxidation of food stuffs and
to prevent the formation of off-flavors and undesirable
textures of food. Bioactive compounds that are encapsulated into the packaging itself are a promising approach
because this would allow the release of the active compounds in a controllable manner. Several alreadyapproved food additives could be used for such nanoencapsulation, including carrageenan, chitosan, gelatin, polylactic acid, polyglycolic acid and alginate [50,56,57].
Nanosensors
In addition to food packaging, food preservation is also of
great importance for the food industry. Food spoilages can
be detected with so-called nanosensors, for example, an
array of thousands of nanoparticles designed to fluoresce in
different colors on contact with food pathogens. Available
nanosensor types and their potential applications in the
food sector are summarized in Figure 5. Taking into
account the crucial importance of time in food microbiology, the main aim of nanosensors is to reduce the time
for pathogen detection from days to hours or even minutes
[58]. Such nanosensors could be placed directly into the
packaging material, where they would serve as electronic
tongue or noses by detecting chemicals released during
food spoilage [59,60]. Other types of nanosensors are based
on microfluidics devices [61] and can also be used to detect
pathogens efficiently in real time and with high sensitivity.
A major advantage of microfluidic sensors is their miniature format and their ability to detect compounds of interest rapidly in only microliters of required sample
volumes, which has already led to widespread applications
in medical, biological and chemical analysis [62,63].
Silicon-based microfluidic systems have proven popular
in the so-called laboratory-on-a-chip technology [64].
85
Review
Figure 5. Types of nanosensors and examples of their application in the food sector.
Review
Trends in Biotechnology
Vol.27 No.2
The US Food and Drug Administration require manufacturers to demonstrate that the food ingredients and food
products are not harmful to health, yet this regulation does
not specifically cover nanoparticles, which could become
harmful only in nanosized applications.
Public perception
Public perception of nanotechnology is another important
factor that will affect the realization of nanotechnology
approaches in the food industry, as seen in the example of
genetically modified (GM) foods [29,74,75]. Similar to GM
foods, consumers cannot directly judge the benefits of a
food derived from nanotechnology and any benefits need to
be explained to the consumer. However, it is likely that
some products engineered with nanotechnology will be
accepted more easily by the public than others. A recent
survey performed by Siegrist et al. [76] evaluated the
public perception of different types of food materials,
Conclusion
Nanotechnology is becoming increasingly important for
the food sector. Promising results and applications are
already being developed in the areas of food packaging
and food safety. The incorporation of nanomaterials into
food packaging is expected to improve the barrier properties of packaging materials and should thereby help to
reduce the use of valuable raw materials and the generation of waste. Edible nanolaminates could find applications in fresh fruits and vegetables, bakery products
and confectionery, where they might protect the food from
moisture, lipids, gases, off-flavors and odors.
Natural biopolymers of nanosize scale, such as polysaccharides, can be used for the encapsulation of vitamins,
prebiotics and probiotics and for delivery systems of drugs
or nutraceuticals.
In the food sector, one of the most important problems
is the time-consuming and laborious process of food
quality-control analysis. Innovative devices and techniques are being developed that can facilitate the preparation of food samples and their precise and inexpensive
analysis. From this point of view, the development of
nanosensors to detect microorganisms and contaminants
is a particularly promising application of food nanotechnology.
However, there are social and ethical issues of using
nanotechnology in the food sector that must be considered.
Currently, the potential risks of nanomaterials to human
health and to the environment are unknown [73]. The 2006
report of the Institute of Food Science and Technologists
mentions that size matters and recommends the use of
nanoparticles in the food sector only after safety has been
proven following vigorous testing. Special attention should
also be given to consumer attitudes towards food nanotechnology. Taking lessons from the GM arguments across
European countries, it is crucial to discuss the benefits and
risks of this highly promising technology. Governments
should consider appropriate labeling and should also set
down regulations that will help to increase consumer
acceptability.
References
1 Sanguansri, P. and Augustin, M.A. (2006) Nanoscale materials
development- a food industry perspective. Trends Food Sci. Technol.
17, 547556
2 German, J.B. et al. (2006) Lipoproteins: when size really matters. Curr.
Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 11, 171183
3 Fendler, J.H. (2001) Colloid chemical approach to nanotechnology.
Korean J. Chem. Eng. 18, 113
4 Degant, O. and Schwechten, D. (2002) Wheat flour with increased
water binding capacity and process and equipment for its
manufacture. German Patent DE10107885A1
87
Review
5 Shibata, T. (2002) Method for producing green tea in microfine powder.
United States Patent US6416803B1
6 Dickinson, E. and Van Vliet, T., eds (2003) Food Colloids Biopolymers
and Materials, Royal Society of Chemistry
7 Chau, C.F. et al. (2007) The development of regulations for food
nanotechnology. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 18, 269280
8 Chen, L. et al. (2006) Food protein based materials as nutraceuticals
delivery systems. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 17, 272283
9 Watanabe, J. et al. (2005) Entrapment of some compounds into
biocompatible nano-sized particles and their releasing properties.
Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces 42, 141146
10 Yih, T.C. and Al-Fandi, M. (2006) Engineered nanoparticles as precise
drug delivery systems. J. Cell. Biochem. 97, 11841190
11 Nasongkla, N. et al. (2006) Multifunctional polymeric micelles as
cancer targeted. MRI ultrasensitive drug delivery systems. Nano
Lett. 6, 24272430
12 Esposito, E. et al. (2005) Cubosome dispersions as delivery systems for
percutaneuos administration of indomethacin. Pharm. Res. 22, 2163
2173
13 Ligler, F.S. et al. (2003) Array biosensor for detection of toxins. Anal.
Bioanal. Chem. 377, 469477
14 Fletcher, A. (2006) Nanotech food conference targets future
opportunities. Available from www.foodproductiondaily.com
15 Roco, M.C. (2003) Nanotechnology: convergence with modern biology
and medicine. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 14, 337346
16 van Amerongen, A. et al., eds (2005) Rapid Methods for Biological and
Chemical Contaminants in Food and Feed, Wagenigen Academic
Publishers
17 Ulijn, R.V. et al. (2007) Bioresponsive hydrogels. Mater. Today 10, 40
48
18 Alexandre, M. et al. (2001) Preparation and properties of layered
silicate nanocomposites based on ethylene vinyl acetate copolymers.
Macromol. Rapid Commun. 22, 643646
19 Li, X. et al. (2001) Preparation and characterization of poly
(butyleneterephthalate) organoclay nanocomposites. Macromol.
Rapid Commun. 22, 13061312
20 Jakubinek, M.B. et al. (2006) Elephant ivory: a low thermal
conductivity high strength nanocomposite. J. Mater. Res. 21, 287292
21 Khare, A. and Deshmukh, S. (2006) Studies toward producing eco
friendly plastics. J. Plastic Film Sheeting 22, 193211
22 Darder, M. et al. (2007) Bionanocomposites: a new concept of ecological,
bioinspired and functional hybrid materials. Adv. Mater. 19, 1309
1319
23 Suyatma, N.E. et al. (2004) Mechanical and barrier properties of
biodegradable films made from chitosan and poly (lactic acid)
blends. J. Polym. Environ. 12, 16
24 Tharanathan, R.N. (2003) Biodegradable films and composite coatings:
past, present and future. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 14, 7178
25 Sorrentino, A. et al. (2007) Potential perspectives of bionanocomposites for food packaging applications. Trends Food Sci.
Technol. 18, 8495
26 Bharadwaj, R.K. et al. (2002) Structure-property relationships in crosslinked polyester-clay nanocomposites. Polymer (Guildf.) 43, 36993705
27 Alexandre, M. and Dubois, P. (2000) Polymer-layered silicate
nanocomposites: preparation, properties and uses of a new class of
materials. Mater. Sci. Eng. 28, 163
28 Lawton, J.W. (2002) Zein: a history of processing and use. Cereal Chem.
79, 118
29 Lee, C-J. et al. (2005) Public attitudes toward emerging technologies.
Sci. Commun. 27, 240267
30 Shukla, R. and Cheryan, M. (2001) Zein: the industrial protein from
corn. Ind. Crops Prod. 13, 171192
31 Lai, H-M. et al. (1999) X-ray diffraction characterization of the
structure of zeinoleic acid films. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 71, 12671281
32 Yoshino, T. et al. (2002) Influence of preparation conditions on the
physical properties of Zein films. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 79, 345349
33 Torres-Giner, S. et al. (2007) Characterization of the morphology and
thermal properties of Zein Prolamine nanostructures obtained by
electrospinning. Food Hydrocolloid. 22, 601614
34 Guo, Y. et al. (2005) Nano-structure and properties of maize zein
studied by atomic force microscopy. J. Cereal Sci. 41, 277281
35 Shi, K. et al. Engineering zein films with controlled hydrophilicity
through UV/Ozone treatment. J. Agric. Food Chem.
88
Review
66 Ritter, S.K. (2005) An eye on food. Chem. Eng. News 83, 2834
67 Canel, C. et al. (2006) Micro and Nanotechnologies for food safety and
quality applications. MNE06 Micro-and Nano-Engineering, 5C-3INVMicrosystems and their fabrication 2 Proceedings, 17-20 September
2006 Barcelona, Spain
68 Hall, R.H. (2002) Biosensor technologies for detecting microbiological
food borne hazards. Microbes Infect. 4, 425432
69 Kumar, C.S.S.R. (2006) Nanomaterials for Biosensors. Wiley-VCH
Weinheim
70 Ramirez Frometa, N. (2006) Cantilever biosensors. Biotecnol. Apl. 23,
320323
71 Jain, K.K. (2008) The Handbook of Nanomedicine. Springer
Trends in Biotechnology
Vol.27 No.2
89