CHAPTER 15

PART I ANTENNA SYSTEMS

I. Antenna
-is a metallic conductor system capable of radiating and capturing electromagnetic energy
- a length of wire or metal tubing designed to radiate or receive electromagnetic wave through
free space.
- converts high frequency voltage or current into corresponding electromagnetic waves and vice
versa.
-interface between the transmission line and the free space.
-British term is aerial.
Isotropic Antenna from the words iso which means all and tropic which means directions, an antenna that
radiates in all directions uniformly. It is only used as reference, it does not exist just like free space, they are
just mathematical models.
II. Radiation mechanics
To create radiation, there must be a time varying current or an acceleration or deceleration of charge.
To create charge acceleration or deceleration the wire must be bent, curved, discontinuous, or terminated
single-wire.
III. Antenna Reciprocity
A basic antenna is a passive reciprocal device (cannot actually amplify a signal)
An antenna is a reciprocal device in that the transmit and receive characteristics and performance are
identical (i.e., gain, directivity, frequency of operation, bandwidth, radiation resistance, efficiency
and so on).
Antenna Reciprocity Theorem the capability of interchanging an antennas functional use. An antenna
designed for transmitting can be used for receiving.
Active antenna combination of a passive antenna and a low noise amplifier (L.N.A.). They are nonreciprocal.
IV. Characteristics of Antenna
1. Antenna Coordinate System and Radiation Patterns
1.a Antenna Coordinate system
-the directional characteristics of an electromagnetic wave radiated or received by an antenna are
generally described in terms of spherical coordinates ( d, and ).
1.b. Radiation Pattern
- is a polar diagram or graph representing field strengths or power densities at various angular
positions relative to an antenna.
a. Absolute Radiation Pattern the radiation pattern is plotted in terms of electric field
strength ( E), or power density (P).
b. Relative Radiation Pattern the radiation pattern is plotted in terms of field strength or
power density with respect to the value of the reference point.
Front-to-back ratio ratio of the front lobe power to the back lobe power.
Line of shoot (or point of shoot) the line bisecting the major lobe, or pointing from the center of the antenna in
the direction of maximum radiation.
1.c. Near and Far Fields
- the radiation field that is close to an antenna is not the same as the radiation field that is at a great
distance
A. Near Field
-refers to the field pattern that is close to the antenna. Also known as Induction Field. It is
the area within the distance( D2/) from the antenna, where is the wavelength and D is the
antenna diameter in the same units. It is sometimes being related to the Fresnel Zone.

Fresnel Zone After Augustin Jean Fresnel. One of the conical zones that exist between microwave
transmitting and receiving antennas due to cancellation of some portion of the wavefront by other portions that
travel different distances. The boundary of the first Fresnel Zone includes all paths half a wavelength longer
than the LOS path.
B. Far Field
- refers to the field pattern that is at a great distance. Also known as Radiation Field or
Fraunhofer Region.
Fraunhofer Region the region in which energy flow from an antenna proceeds essentially as though coming
from a point source located in the vicinity of the antenna. It is beyond the Fresnel region, and begins as a
distance equal to about twice the square of antenna length divided by wavelength. Also called far region and far
zone.
1.d Radiation Resistance
-as somewhat unreal in that it cannot be measured directly. It is AC antenna resistance and is equal to the
ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the square of the current at its feed point. It is the resistance that, if
is replaced the antenna, would dissipate exactly the same amount of power that the antenna radiates.
-sometimes called loop radiation resistance.
Rr

Prad
i2

where:
Rr = radiation resistance in ohms
Prad = power radiated by the antenna (watts)
i = antenna current at the feedpoint (ampere)
1.e. Antenna Efficiency
-is the ratio of the power radiated by an antenna to the sum of the power radiated and the power
dissipated or the ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the total input power.
Mathematically, antenna efficiency is,

= Prad x 100 %
Pin
where:
Prad
Pin
Pin
Pd

= antenna efficiency (percentage

= radiated power (watts)
= input power (watts)
= Prad + Pd
= power dissipated in antenna (watts)

2. Antenna Gain
Directive Gain- is the ration of the power density radiated in a particular direction to the power
density radiated to the same point by a reference antenna, assuming both antennas are radiating
the same amount of power.
Directivity- the maximum directive gain, Mathematically, directive gain is
D=P
P

ref

where:
D
P
P ref

= directive gain (unitless)

= power density at some point w/ a given antenna(W/m2)
= power density at the same point with a reference antenna (W/m2)

Power Gain
- is the same as directive gain except that the total power fed to the antenna is used ( i. e.,
antenna efficiency is taken into account). It is assumed that the given antenna and the reference antenna have
the same input power and that the reference antenna is lossless ( = 100 %). Mathematically, power gain (Ap) is
Ap = D
the power gain is given in decibel as:
Ap(dB) = 10 log (D)

a. Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)

is defined as an equivalent transmit power and is expressed mathematically as
EIRP = Prad Dt (watts)

EIRP = Pin At

where:
Prad = total radiated power (watts)
Dt = transmit antenna directive gain (unitless)
Pin = total antenna input power (watts)
At = transmit antenna power gain (unitless)
To determine the power density at a given point distance R from a transmit antenna, it can be expressed
mathematically as,
P

P = Prad Dt
4R2

PinAt
4R2

where:
P
Pin
Prad
At
Dt
R

= Power density (w/m2)

= transmit input power (watts)
= power radiated from transmit antenna (watts)
= transmit antenna power gain (unitless)
= transmit antenna directive gain (unitless)
= distance from transmit antenna (meters)

3. Polarization
-refers to the direction of the electric field and it is parallel to the antenna.
A. linearly polarized
a. vertically polarized if an antenna radiates a vertically polarized EMW.
b. horizontally polarized if an antenna radiates a horizontally polarized EMW.
B. elliptically polarized
- if the radiated electric field rotates in an elliptical pattern.
C. circular polarization
- if the electric field rotates in a circular pattern.
3. Capture Power Density power density in space.

C = (Pin)(At)(Ar)
4R2

4. Capture Area effective area

Where:
C= Captures power density (watts per meter square)
Pin = transmit antenna input power (watts)
At = transmit antenna power gain (unitless)
Ar = receive antenna power gain ( unitless)
R = distance between transmit and receive antennas (meters)

Ac = Ar2
4

where:
Ac = effective capture area ( meters squared)
= wavelength of receive signal ( meters)
Ar = receive antenna power gain ( unitless)

5. Capture Power the power available at the antennas output terminals. (in watts)
- it is directly proportional to the received power density and the effective capture
area of the receive antenna.
Pcap = P Ac

where:
Pcap = captured power (watts)
P = power density (watts per meter squared)
Ac = capture Area (square meters)

6. Antenna Beamwidth
- is simply the angular separation between the two half-power (-3 dB) points on the major
lobe of an antennas plane radiation pattern, usually taken in one of the principal
planes.
- sometimes called -3-dB beamwidth or half-power beamwidth.
-inversely proportional to beamwidth

7. Antenna Bandwidth is vaguely defined as the frequency range over which antenna operation is
satisfactory.
- is normally taken as the difference between the half power frequencies.
- often expressed as a percentage of the antennas optimum frequency of
operation.
Example:
Determine the percent bandwidth of an antenna with an optimum frequency of operation of 400 MHz
and a -3-dB frequencies of 380 and 420 MHz.
-

8. Antenna Input Impedance- an ac load presented by the feedpoint to the transmission line.
is simple the ration of the antennas input voltage to inout current, Mathematically, inout impedance is ,
where:
Zin = antenna input impedance (ohms)
Zin = Ei/Ii
Ei = antenna input voltage
Ii = antenna input current (ampere)
Feedpoint the point on the antenna where the transmission line is connected.

V. BASIC ANTENNA

Elementary Antenna Types

1. Elementary Doublet- The simplest type of antenna.
- simply referred to as a short dipole, elementary dipole, or Hertzian dipole.
Characteristics:
- /10 long
- constant E and I
-infinitely thin
2. Half wave dipole variously referred to as a dipole, a doublet, or a Hertz antenna. It is a multiple of
quarter-wavelengths long open circuited at the far end, it is a resonant antenna.
Characteristics:
- /2 in length
- horizontally polarized
-Zin = 73 ohms
-Gain = 1.64 = 2.18 dB
- Radiation Pattern is bidirectional.
3. Marconi Antenna A monopole (single pole) antenna one-quarter wavelength long, mounted
vertically with lower end either connected directly to ground or grounded through the antenna coupling
network.
Characteristics:
-impedance is 36.5 ohms.
- Utilized the earth surface to provide the half missing part of the dipole.
- grounded vertical antenna that measures /4
- radiation pattern is omnidirectional.
Counterpoise improves the conductivity of the ground. The counterpoise consists of a structure made
of wire placed below the antenna and erected above the ground. It should be insulated from earth ground and it
is a form of capacitive ground system.
VI. Antenna Loading
- to increase the electrical length of an antenna while the physical length remains.
Types of Antenna Loading:
a. Loading Coil-a coil (inductor) added in series with the dipole antenna to increase the antennas
electrical length.
b. Top Loading-a metallic array that resembles a spoked wheel is placed on top of the antenna which in
increasees the shunt capacitance, thereby increasing the electrical length.
VII. Advanced Multiple-Element Antennas
Antenna Array
-is formed when two or more antenna elements are combined to form a single antenna.
-In essence, there are two kinds of antenna elements:
a. driven elements are directly connected to transmission line and rceive power from or are
driven by the source.
b. parasitic elements( non-driven) are not connected to the transmission line, they receive
energy only through mutual induction with a driven element or another parasitic element.
b1. Reflector a parasitic element that is longer than the driven element from which it
reserves energy.
b2. Director a parasitic element that is shorter than its associated driven element.
Types of Antenna Array

1. Broadside Array-is made by simply placing several resonant dipoles of equal sizes(both length and diameter)
in parallel with each other and in a straight line (collinear) fed in phase with other.
2. End-Fire Array-is essentially the same element configuration criss-crossed between element threby having 90
degree phase shift.
3. Non-resonant Array: Rhombic Antenna-an antenna that is capable of operating satisfactorily over a relatively
wide bandwidth.
VII. Special Purpose Antennas
1. Folded Dipole-a single antenna made up of two element half wavelength long. One element is
fed directly, whereas the other is conductively coupled at the ends.
2. Yagi-uda antenna a linear array consisting of a dipole and two or more parasitic element.
Named after two Japanese who invented it and described its operation. it is simply called YAGI.
3. Turnstile antenna is formed by placing two dipoles at right angles to each other. Radiation
pattern is nearly omnidirectional pattern.
4. Log-Periodic Antenna type of an antenna whose arrays elements increase logarithmically
corresponding to a design ratio no less than 1 and the opposite of the array from an angle of .
5. Loop Antenna is simply a single-turn coil of wire that is significantly shorter than one
wavelength and carries RF current.
6. Phased Array Antennas is a group of antennas or a group of antenna arrays than when
connected together, function as a single antenna whose beamwidth and direction can be changed
electronically without having to physically move any of the individual antennas or antenna
elements within the array.
7. Slotted Antennas used for microwave and higher frequency applications.
8. Helical antennas- is a broadband VHF and UHF antenna that is ideally suited for applications for
which circularly polarized electromagnetic waves are required.
9. Long wire antenna a non resonant antenna which is constructed through long wire, multiple of
wavelengths long terminated by a resistor at the end.
10. Dish antenna which provide the highest gain and directivity.
IX. UHF AND MICROWAVE ANTENNAS
1. Parabolic Reflector Antenna- provides extremely high gain and directivity and is very popular for
microwave radio and satellite communications links. It consists of two parts:
a. Parabolic reflector
b. feed mechanism
Important parameters:
A. Parabolic antenna beamwidth is given by the formula:
= 70
D

where:
= beamwidth between half-power points (degree)
D = antenna mouth diameter (m)

B. Parabolic Beamwidth Between Nulls angle between two 0 dB points.

0 = 2

C. Parabolic antenna efficiency, () efficiency of the parabolic reflector. Typical efficiency of

a parabolic antenna is only about 55% or ( = 0.55). Spillover or Leakage energy near the
edge of t he dish which is not reflected but rather is diffracted around the edge of the dish.
D. Parabolic antenna Power Gain
Where:
Ap = power gain with respect to an isotropic antenna.
D = antenna mouth diameter (m)

Ap = ( D/ )2

For a typical efficiency of 55 % ( = 0.55),

Ap = 5.4D2 f2
c2

where:
c = velocity of propagation (3x108 m/s)

In decibel form:
Ap(dB) = 20 log f(MHz) + 20 log D(m) 42.2
Where:
Ap = power gain with respect to an isotropic antenna (decibels)
D = mouth diameter of parabolic reflectors (meters)
f = frequency (megahertz)
42.2 = constant (decibels)
2. Feed Mechanisms radiates the electromagnetic energy and is often called the primary antenna.
Types of Feed Mechanism:
A. Center Feed the primary antenna is placed at the focus.
B. Horn Feed the primary antenna is a small horn antenna than a simple dipole or
dipole array.
C. Cassegrain Feed is named after an eighteenth century astronomer and evolved
directly from astronomical optical telescopes.
- is commonly used for receiving extremely weak signals or when extremely long
transmission lines or waveguide runs are required and it is necessary to place lownoise amplifiers as close to the antenna as possible.
3. Conical Horn Antenna consists of a cone that is truncated in a piece of a circular waveguide. The
waveguide in turns connects the antenna to either the transmitter or receiver.

PART II WAVEGUIDE

WAVEGUIDES
is a hollow conductive tube, usually rectangular in cross section but sometimes circular or elliptical.
The dimensions of the cross sections are selected such that electromagnetic waves can propagate
within the interior of the guide. (Hence the name waveguide)
- A specially constructed hollow metallic pipes or system of conductors and insulators for carrying
electromagnetic waves.
- They are used for microwave frequencies for the same
Reasons for using waveguide rather than coaxial cable at microwave frequency:
easier to fabricate
no solid dielectric and I2R losses
Types of Waveguides
1. Rectangular Waveguide most common form of waveguide.
-in waveguides the velocity varies with frequency.

DOMINANT MODE OF OPERATION

The most natural mode of operation for a waveguide, this mode is the lowest possible frequency that can
be propagated
For a waveguides mode of operation, the two submodes are:
1. TEmn for the transverse electric mode.
2. TMmn for the transverse magnetic mode.
Where: m number of half-wavelength across waveguide width (the a dimension)
n number of half-wavelength along waveguide height (the b dimension)
TEmn means there are m number of half-wave variations of the transverse E- field along the a side and n
number of half-wave variations along the b side.
The magnetic field forms closed loops horizontally around the E-field

A. Two type of velocity:

a. Phase velocity is the velocity at which the wave changes phase.
- is the apparent velocity of a particular phase of the waves.
Phase velocity determined by measuring the wavelength of a particular frequency wave and then
substituting it into the following formula:

vph = f

Where:
vph = phase velocity ( m/s)
f = frequency (f)
= wavelength (m/cycle)

b. Group velocity is the velocity at which a wave propagates.

vgvph = c2

g = o vph
c

Where:
vg = group velocity (m/s)
vph = phase velocity ( m.s)

Where:
g = group velocity
o = free-space wavelength (m/cycle)
vph = phase velocity ( m.s)

B. Cut-off frequency minimum frequency of operation of waveguides, is an absolute limiting

frequency; frequencies above the cut-off frequency will not be propagated by the waveguide.

The mathematical relationship between the guide wavelength at a particular frequency and the cut-off
frequency is

With respect to the dimensions a and b, dimensions a determine the cut-off frequency of the waveguide
according to the following mathematical relationship:

C. Cut-off wavelength maximum wavelength that they can propagate, is defined as the smallest freespace wavelength that is just unable to propagate in the waveguide.

2. Circular waveguide - used in radar and microwave applications when it is necessary or advantageous to
propagate both vertically and horizontally polarized waves in the same waveguide.

The cut-off wavelength fro a circular waveguide is given as:

o = 2r/kr

where:
o = cut off wavelength (m/cycle)
r = internal radius of the waveguide(m)
kr = solution of Bessel function equation

3. Ridged waveguide more expensive to manufacture than rectangular waveguide; however it allows operation
at lower frequencies fro a given size.
4. Flexible waveguide consists of a spiral-wound of brass or copper. The outside is covered with a soft
dielectric coating (often rubber) to keep the waveguide air- and watertight. Used extensively in microwave test
equipment.