In 1990, I first traveled to Lower Congo (zone of Kimvula) to participate in the daily life of the

Nkanu and their neighbors. It was my goal to study the use of "art" objects within their ritual
framework. (1) Since there is little in the literature on this topic, it was necessary to investigate
through fieldwork. (2) When first I arrived, I felt great uncertainty about what I would find: How
far had the culture been modified by Western influences? I was encouraged by the inaccessibility
of the area, and indeed my first contacts with Nkanu informants confirmed that they were still
performing ancestral rites. However, it also became clear that some of these rites had already
been abandoned, while others were seldom practiced, and there were only a few specialists left
who could give me information about them. Furthermore, although the Nkanu and their
neighbors are very hospitable, it took me some time to win the confidence of their ritual experts.
I had to convince them that I was not planning to institute a similar practice to theirs in Belgium.
As a female researcher I had expected to meet with resistance or even hostility when I tried to
study exclusively male matters, such as the initiation into manhood known as nkanda.
Sometimes this was the case. But helped by my interpreter, Emile Mbandu Konda--who enjoyed
a respected status because of his age and education--I obtained information about this ritual and
the woodcarvings used in it. Those who were willing to reveal such information always took care
to protect themselves with ritual gestures against the misfortune (i.e., infertility) this revelation
could cause. Fortunately, they also believed that, although certain kinds of information could not
be revealed to uninitiated persons within their own group, it was not harmful to Westerners.
Nkanu and Mbeko Spirits
Nkanu and Mbeko ritual and ritual objects are impossible to understand without an
understanding of their spirit world. At the top of their pantheon stands Nzambi, the remote god
or Supreme Spirit. The Nkanu and Mbeko categorize spirit types as the bakulu, the bankita, the
bisimbi, and the matebo. The bakulu are deceased clan members awaiting reincarnation, who
experience a liminal existence in a realm known as the Mpemba world, (3) whence they may
make occasional appearances in a variety of forms in the land of the living. The other three
categories are types of natural forces. The bankita and the bisimbi are peaceful forces living in or
near rivers, in the savanna, or on places of landslide, whereas the malicious matebo dwell in the
woods. In addition to these forces of nature are spirits of the original ancestors, Mbaka (a
dwarfish people) and Nsamba (a white-skinned people). Still other impersonal forces can be
grouped under the name of minkisi (sg. nkisi). The Nkanu and Mbeko appear to make a
distinction between the minkisi they borrowed from their neighbors the Yaka (such as nkanda,
mbwolo, ngombo, nkosi) and those they inherited from their Kongo ancestors (such as mpungu,
nkita, niangi).
The Nkanu and Mbeko do not see sickness or death as having natural causes, but rather seek
their sources in witchcraft (kindoki) or in the presence of an nkisi that took possession of the
patient. A person can place his belongings under the protection of an nkisi. When another
individual touches or takes away such an object unlawfully, the nkisi will attack the thief or a
member of his family. (4) Consulting a diviner, or nganga ngombo, will disclose the identity of
the nkisi responsible for the disease. This specialist can make the nkisi "talk" so that it will reveal
the reason for its presence.
In Nkanu and Mbeko society there are specialists who are capable of "capturing" the force of an
nkisi, dominating it, and introducing it into an object: a sculpture, a utilitarian object, or an
amalgam of elements. This container then is identified with the nkisi itself (Fig. 1). Some say
that it was Nzambi--others that it was Mahungu or Ngu, a sort of androgynous primary being-who gave humans the use of minkisi to provide for protection or the fulfillment of wishes.
[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]
One such important nkisi, which inspires the carving of "art" objects, is the nkisi nkanda. The
word nkanda has various meanings. First of all, it can be translated as the force that is

responsible for health problems such as infertility and sterility. The Nkanu and Mbeko consider
these to be the worst problems an individual can encounter; barren individuals are not seen as
able-bodied members of the community. Nkanda also stands for a collective initiation ritual,
which the Nkanu and Mbeko claim to have borrowed from the Yaka. (5) An nkanda session is
seen as a preventive treatment to assure the procreativity of men and thus the continuity of the
society. It is an exclusively male matter and starts with the circumcision of the neophytes, young
males between six and eighteen years of age (Fig. 2). After the operation, the neophytes are
gathered within an enclosure in the forest. This seclusion area--wherein they must stay for
several months, in former times sometimes for one to three years--is also known as " nkanda" or
"kimpasi ki nkanda." (6) During the period of isolation they are instructed in techniques of
agriculture, fishing, hunting, weaving, and so on. Nkanda songs and dances are taught to them as
well as an esoteric vocabulary, dictated by the nkisi nkanda itself. Elder initiated men also
instruct them in moral precepts and beliefs.

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]
The nkanda is the preeminent framework for the use of several minkisi (here in the sense of
objects containing a supernatural force). Statues, initiation panels, masks, and cephalomorphic
poles protect the well-being of the neophytes and guarantee the good progress of the initiation.
The ritual objects (minkisi) made for the nkanda initiation have significant formal differences in
terms of the size of the statues, the kinds of wood the carvers use, and the presence or absence of
polychrome, from those meant for other healing practices and for divination. The nkanda objects
are rather tall, are carved from the wood of the kingela tree (Ricinodendron heudelotti vat.
Africanum), and are richly adorned with various colors, (7) whereas other ritual statues are
small, made out of species whose wood is tougher and denser, and are monochrome, or at the
most colored with red or white dashes or spots. Some of these formal differences arise from the
fact that the objects in these different categories have been made by different groups of artists;
sometimes, however, the explanation must be sought in the traditional formal prescriptions for
nkanda versus non-nkanda sculptures. (8)
Sacred and profane sculptors
In Nkanu and Mbeko society, there are some carvers of non-nkanda objects (such as
cephalomorphic slit drums and small ritual statues) who are themselves healers and diviners
(Fig. 3). They may make the ritual objects they need for their practice, but more often order them
from professional sculptors. There are also profession al carvers known as banganga baluvumbu
(Nkanu) or banganga binkudimba (Mbeko) who are healers specializing in the treatment of nkisi
nkanda afflictions. An nganga luvumbu sculpts the objects (masks, initiation panels, statues,
poles; Figs. 4 and 5) used in the nkanda, but he is primarily a healer (nganga buka) of fertility
problems, treating circumcised boys who are unable to have an erection. (9) The nganga
luvumbu is also a dreaded sorcerer who employs his power to harm people. (10) When there is
not an nkanda session going on, he usually accepts commissions to create all sorts of woodwork.
Thus, within Nkanu and Mbeko society, there are healers and diviners, and there are carvers, and
there are some individuals who, by personal choice, are both. However, an nganga luvumbu
must, by definition, be both a healer and a sculptor.
[FIGURES 3-5 OMITTED]
It is rather an exception to the rule that an individual chooses to become an nganga luvumbu;
usually he is "chosen" by an ancestor or an elder. The person becomes ill, loses blood, and the
diviner treating his problem reveals that a deceased member of the family, himself an nganga
luvumbu, wants a successor and thus seeks to assure the continuity of the function within the
family. In contrast, an individual can choose to become a simple sculptor of his own accord,
driven by the impulse to create objects out of wood. He then apprentices himself to a master
carver who can teach him this handicraft.

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]
The nkanda is the preeminent framework for the use of several minkisi (here in the sense of
objects containing a supernatural force). Statues, initiation panels, masks, and cephalomorphic
poles protect the well-being of the neophytes and guarantee the good progress of the initiation.
The ritual objects (minkisi) made for the nkanda initiation have significant formal differences in
terms of the size of the statues, the kinds of wood the carvers use, and the presence or absence of
polychrome, from those meant for other healing practices and for divination. The nkanda objects
are rather tall, are carved from the wood of the kingela tree (Ricinodendron heudelotti vat.
Africanum), and are richly adorned with various colors, (7) whereas other ritual statues are
small, made out of species whose wood is tougher and denser, and are monochrome, or at the
most colored with red or white dashes or spots. Some of these formal differences arise from the
fact that the objects in these different categories have been made by different groups of artists;
sometimes, however, the explanation must be sought in the traditional formal prescriptions for
nkanda versus non-nkanda sculptures. (8)
Sacred and profane sculptors
In Nkanu and Mbeko society, there are some carvers of non-nkanda objects (such as
cephalomorphic slit drums and small ritual statues) who are themselves healers and diviners
(Fig. 3). They may make the ritual objects they need for their practice, but more often order them
from professional sculptors. There are also profession al carvers known as banganga baluvumbu
(Nkanu) or banganga binkudimba (Mbeko) who are healers specializing in the treatment of nkisi
nkanda afflictions. An nganga luvumbu sculpts the objects (masks, initiation panels, statues,
poles; Figs. 4 and 5) used in the nkanda, but he is primarily a healer (nganga buka) of fertility
problems, treating circumcised boys who are unable to have an erection. (9) The nganga
luvumbu is also a dreaded sorcerer who employs his power to harm people. (10) When there is
not an nkanda session going on, he usually accepts commissions to create all sorts of woodwork.
Thus, within Nkanu and Mbeko society, there are healers and diviners, and there are carvers, and
there are some individuals who, by personal choice, are both. However, an nganga luvumbu
must, by definition, be both a healer and a sculptor.
[FIGURES 3-5 OMITTED]
It is rather an exception to the rule that an individual chooses to become an nganga luvumbu;
usually he is "chosen" by an ancestor or an elder. The person becomes ill, loses blood, and the
diviner treating his problem reveals that a deceased member of the family, himself an nganga
luvumbu, wants a successor and thus seeks to assure the continuity of the function within the
family. In contrast, an individual can choose to become a simple sculptor of his own accord,
driven by the impulse to create objects out of wood. He then apprentices himself to a master
carver who can teach him this handicraft.

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]
The nkanda is the preeminent framework for the use of several minkisi (here in the sense of
objects containing a supernatural force). Statues, initiation panels, masks, and cephalomorphic
poles protect the well-being of the neophytes and guarantee the good progress of the initiation.
The ritual objects (minkisi) made for the nkanda initiation have significant formal differences in
terms of the size of the statues, the kinds of wood the carvers use, and the presence or absence of
polychrome, from those meant for other healing practices and for divination. The nkanda objects
are rather tall, are carved from the wood of the kingela tree (Ricinodendron heudelotti vat.
Africanum), and are richly adorned with various colors, (7) whereas other ritual statues are
small, made out of species whose wood is tougher and denser, and are monochrome, or at the

most colored with red or white dashes or spots. Some of these formal differences arise from the
fact that the objects in these different categories have been made by different groups of artists;
sometimes, however, the explanation must be sought in the traditional formal prescriptions for
nkanda versus non-nkanda sculptures. (8)
Sacred and profane sculptors
In Nkanu and Mbeko society, there are some carvers of non-nkanda objects (such as
cephalomorphic slit drums and small ritual statues) who are themselves healers and diviners
(Fig. 3). They may make the ritual objects they need for their practice, but more often order them
from professional sculptors. There are also profession al carvers known as banganga baluvumbu
(Nkanu) or banganga binkudimba (Mbeko) who are healers specializing in the treatment of nkisi
nkanda afflictions. An nganga luvumbu sculpts the objects (masks, initiation panels, statues,
poles; Figs. 4 and 5) used in the nkanda, but he is primarily a healer (nganga buka) of fertility
problems, treating circumcised boys who are unable to have an erection. (9) The nganga
luvumbu is also a dreaded sorcerer who employs his power to harm people. (10) When there is
not an nkanda session going on, he usually accepts commissions to create all sorts of woodwork.
Thus, within Nkanu and Mbeko society, there are healers and diviners, and there are carvers, and
there are some individuals who, by personal choice, are both. However, an nganga luvumbu
must, by definition, be both a healer and a sculptor.
[FIGURES 3-5 OMITTED]
It is rather an exception to the rule that an individual chooses to become an nganga luvumbu;
usually he is "chosen" by an ancestor or an elder. The person becomes ill, loses blood, and the
diviner treating his problem reveals that a deceased member of the family, himself an nganga
luvumbu, wants a successor and thus seeks to assure the continuity of the function within the
family. In contrast, an individual can choose to become a simple sculptor of his own accord,
driven by the impulse to create objects out of wood. He then apprentices himself to a master
carver who can teach him this handicraft.

Nsiabula Malungidi is an nkanda specialist and does not accept any other commissions. I visited
him at Kisanguna II (Kimasofi), a small village near the Congolese border with Angola. He is a
member of the Simu Nzadi clan. At birth he received the name Malungidi. One day his paternal
uncle Kinavwidi looked him up to tell him he had to join the nkanda camp at Kimatungu, an
Nkanu village in northern Angola. There he got his nkanda name "Nsiabula." At the end of the
initiation, he took the sobriquet "Kagena mfumu ko," which means, "There is no chief." This
name was taken to chastise the organizers of the nkanda because there were insufficient funds to
arrange a copious feast at the close of the initiation session.
Nsiabula Malungidi did not acquire his calling as the result of being struck by any illness. It was
the wish of his father, ,ka Kilengu--himself an nkanda specialist--that his son became a
circumciser or nganga kitapa, so he sent him to his own father, nka Nzama of Bembele (nganga
kitapa and nganga luvumbu), in 1953 Nsiabula assisted nka Nzama in the nkanda of Bembele
and there circumcised his first neophyte.
As a youngster he loved to make statues in wood, so he showed interest in carving nkanda
objects (masks, poles, initiation panels, statues) as well. Nka Nzama imparted the skills of an
nganga luvumbu to him. When I asked whether he wished the same profession for his own sons,
he replied that they are twins; the tradition forbids bana ba nlongo (literally "children of the
interdiction": twins, albinos, and the physically handicapped) to practice as banganga.
Since there was no nkanda taking place during my visit, I could not see Nsiabula Malungidi at
work. Nevertheless, I was able to study some of the objects he made for a previous nkanda
session. At Kisoma I saw three masks that had been made by Nsiabula Malungidi with the
assistance of Marcel Kahuma of Kisoma. These masks had been used in the nkanda of Kingala
(northern Angola) in 1976.

In Figure 10 we see Nsiabula Malungidi (right) with three masks at his feet: Kisokolo, Nkoso,
and Makemba. Unlike the other mask types, the Nkoso mask (Fig. 12) is present at the beginning
of the nkanda initiation. It is thus the only mask type that is not carved but plaited. A lukongolo
liana formed into a circular shape reinforces the bottom of the cap. A collar made of raffia is tied
to the cap and the liana. In the operungs of the plaited material, feathers of wild birds (15) are
fastened with resin. The eyes and the mouth of the mask are made from the stems of small
gourds. Little holes are placed under the "eyes" so that the masked dancer can see during the
performance. I was told that in the western part of the Nkanu region, the Nkoso mask can be
fashioned in wood, in the form of a human face, crowned with the same feather tuft. I could not
find an example of this wooden variant in the field, nor in Western collections.
[FIGURES 10 & 12 OMITTED]
Nsiabula Malungidi is an nkanda specialist and does not accept any other commissions. I visited
him at Kisanguna II (Kimasofi), a small village near the Congolese border with Angola. He is a
member of the Simu Nzadi clan. At birth he received the name Malungidi. One day his paternal
uncle Kinavwidi looked him up to tell him he had to join the nkanda camp at Kimatungu, an
Nkanu village in northern Angola. There he got his nkanda name "Nsiabula." At the end of the
initiation, he took the sobriquet "Kagena mfumu ko," which means, "There is no chief." This
name was taken to chastise the organizers of the nkanda because there were insufficient funds to
arrange a copious feast at the close of the initiation session.
Nsiabula Malungidi did not acquire his calling as the result of being struck by any illness. It was
the wish of his father, ,ka Kilengu--himself an nkanda specialist--that his son became a
circumciser or nganga kitapa, so he sent him to his own father, nka Nzama of Bembele (nganga
kitapa and nganga luvumbu), in 1953 Nsiabula assisted nka Nzama in the nkanda of Bembele
and there circumcised his first neophyte.
As a youngster he loved to make statues in wood, so he showed interest in carving nkanda
objects (masks, poles, initiation panels, statues) as well. Nka Nzama imparted the skills of an
nganga luvumbu to him. When I asked whether he wished the same profession for his own sons,
he replied that they are twins; the tradition forbids bana ba nlongo (literally "children of the
interdiction": twins, albinos, and the physically handicapped) to practice as banganga.
Since there was no nkanda taking place during my visit, I could not see Nsiabula Malungidi at
work. Nevertheless, I was able to study some of the objects he made for a previous nkanda
session. At Kisoma I saw three masks that had been made by Nsiabula Malungidi with the
assistance of Marcel Kahuma of Kisoma. These masks had been used in the nkanda of Kingala
(northern Angola) in 1976.
In Figure 10 we see Nsiabula Malungidi (right) with three masks at his feet: Kisokolo, Nkoso,
and Makemba. Unlike the other mask types, the Nkoso mask (Fig. 12) is present at the beginning
of the nkanda initiation. It is thus the only mask type that is not carved but plaited. A lukongolo
liana formed into a circular shape reinforces the bottom of the cap. A collar made of raffia is tied
to the cap and the liana. In the operungs of the plaited material, feathers of wild birds (15) are
fastened with resin. The eyes and the mouth of the mask are made from the stems of small
gourds. Little holes are placed under the "eyes" so that the masked dancer can see during the
performance. I was told that in the western part of the Nkanu region, the Nkoso mask can be
fashioned in wood, in the form of a human face, crowned with the same feather tuft. I could not
find an example of this wooden variant in the field, nor in Western collections.
[FIGURES 10 & 12 OMITTED]

Nsiabula Malungidi is an nkanda specialist and does not accept any other commissions. I visited
him at Kisanguna II (Kimasofi), a small village near the Congolese border with Angola. He is a

member of the Simu Nzadi clan. At birth he received the name Malungidi. One day his paternal
uncle Kinavwidi looked him up to tell him he had to join the nkanda camp at Kimatungu, an
Nkanu village in northern Angola. There he got his nkanda name "Nsiabula." At the end of the
initiation, he took the sobriquet "Kagena mfumu ko," which means, "There is no chief." This
name was taken to chastise the organizers of the nkanda because there were insufficient funds to
arrange a copious feast at the close of the initiation session.
Nsiabula Malungidi did not acquire his calling as the result of being struck by any illness. It was
the wish of his father, ,ka Kilengu--himself an nkanda specialist--that his son became a
circumciser or nganga kitapa, so he sent him to his own father, nka Nzama of Bembele (nganga
kitapa and nganga luvumbu), in 1953 Nsiabula assisted nka Nzama in the nkanda of Bembele
and there circumcised his first neophyte.
As a youngster he loved to make statues in wood, so he showed interest in carving nkanda
objects (masks, poles, initiation panels, statues) as well. Nka Nzama imparted the skills of an
nganga luvumbu to him. When I asked whether he wished the same profession for his own sons,
he replied that they are twins; the tradition forbids bana ba nlongo (literally "children of the
interdiction": twins, albinos, and the physically handicapped) to practice as banganga.
Since there was no nkanda taking place during my visit, I could not see Nsiabula Malungidi at
work. Nevertheless, I was able to study some of the objects he made for a previous nkanda
session. At Kisoma I saw three masks that had been made by Nsiabula Malungidi with the
assistance of Marcel Kahuma of Kisoma. These masks had been used in the nkanda of Kingala
(northern Angola) in 1976.
In Figure 10 we see Nsiabula Malungidi (right) with three masks at his feet: Kisokolo, Nkoso,
and Makemba. Unlike the other mask types, the Nkoso mask (Fig. 12) is present at the beginning
of the nkanda initiation. It is thus the only mask type that is not carved but plaited. A lukongolo
liana formed into a circular shape reinforces the bottom of the cap. A collar made of raffia is tied
to the cap and the liana. In the operungs of the plaited material, feathers of wild birds (15) are
fastened with resin. The eyes and the mouth of the mask are made from the stems of small
gourds. Little holes are placed under the "eyes" so that the masked dancer can see during the
performance. I was told that in the western part of the Nkanu region, the Nkoso mask can be
fashioned in wood, in the form of a human face, crowned with the same feather tuft. I could not
find an example of this wooden variant in the field, nor in Western collections.
[FIGURES 10 & 12 OMITTED]

Nsiabula Malungidi is an nkanda specialist and does not accept any other commissions. I visited
him at Kisanguna II (Kimasofi), a small village near the Congolese border with Angola. He is a
member of the Simu Nzadi clan. At birth he received the name Malungidi. One day his paternal
uncle Kinavwidi looked him up to tell him he had to join the nkanda camp at Kimatungu, an
Nkanu village in northern Angola. There he got his nkanda name "Nsiabula." At the end of the
initiation, he took the sobriquet "Kagena mfumu ko," which means, "There is no chief." This
name was taken to chastise the organizers of the nkanda because there were insufficient funds to
arrange a copious feast at the close of the initiation session.
Nsiabula Malungidi did not acquire his calling as the result of being struck by any illness. It was
the wish of his father, ,ka Kilengu--himself an nkanda specialist--that his son became a
circumciser or nganga kitapa, so he sent him to his own father, nka Nzama of Bembele (nganga
kitapa and nganga luvumbu), in 1953 Nsiabula assisted nka Nzama in the nkanda of Bembele
and there circumcised his first neophyte.
As a youngster he loved to make statues in wood, so he showed interest in carving nkanda
objects (masks, poles, initiation panels, statues) as well. Nka Nzama imparted the skills of an
nganga luvumbu to him. When I asked whether he wished the same profession for his own sons,

he replied that they are twins; the tradition forbids bana ba nlongo (literally "children of the
interdiction": twins, albinos, and the physically handicapped) to practice as banganga.
Since there was no nkanda taking place during my visit, I could not see Nsiabula Malungidi at
work. Nevertheless, I was able to study some of the objects he made for a previous nkanda
session. At Kisoma I saw three masks that had been made by Nsiabula Malungidi with the
assistance of Marcel Kahuma of Kisoma. These masks had been used in the nkanda of Kingala
(northern Angola) in 1976.
In Figure 10 we see Nsiabula Malungidi (right) with three masks at his feet: Kisokolo, Nkoso,
and Makemba. Unlike the other mask types, the Nkoso mask (Fig. 12) is present at the beginning
of the nkanda initiation. It is thus the only mask type that is not carved but plaited. A lukongolo
liana formed into a circular shape reinforces the bottom of the cap. A collar made of raffia is tied
to the cap and the liana. In the operungs of the plaited material, feathers of wild birds (15) are
fastened with resin. The eyes and the mouth of the mask are made from the stems of small
gourds. Little holes are placed under the "eyes" so that the masked dancer can see during the
performance. I was told that in the western part of the Nkanu region, the Nkoso mask can be
fashioned in wood, in the form of a human face, crowned with the same feather tuft. I could not
find an example of this wooden variant in the field, nor in Western collections.
[FIGURES 10 & 12 OMITTED]
Nsiabula Malungidi is an nkanda specialist and does not accept any other commissions. I visited
him at Kisanguna II (Kimasofi), a small village near the Congolese border with Angola. He is a
member of the Simu Nzadi clan. At birth he received the name Malungidi. One day his paternal
uncle Kinavwidi looked him up to tell him he had to join the nkanda camp at Kimatungu, an
Nkanu village in northern Angola. There he got his nkanda name "Nsiabula." At the end of the
initiation, he took the sobriquet "Kagena mfumu ko," which means, "There is no chief." This
name was taken to chastise the organizers of the nkanda because there were insufficient funds to
arrange a copious feast at the close of the initiation session.
Nsiabula Malungidi did not acquire his calling as the result of being struck by any illness. It was
the wish of his father, ,ka Kilengu--himself an nkanda specialist--that his son became a
circumciser or nganga kitapa, so he sent him to his own father, nka Nzama of Bembele (nganga
kitapa and nganga luvumbu), in 1953 Nsiabula assisted nka Nzama in the nkanda of Bembele
and there circumcised his first neophyte.
As a youngster he loved to make statues in wood, so he showed interest in carving nkanda
objects (masks, poles, initiation panels, statues) as well. Nka Nzama imparted the skills of an
nganga luvumbu to him. When I asked whether he wished the same profession for his own sons,
he replied that they are twins; the tradition forbids bana ba nlongo (literally "children of the
interdiction": twins, albinos, and the physically handicapped) to practice as banganga.
Since there was no nkanda taking place during my visit, I could not see Nsiabula Malungidi at
work. Nevertheless, I was able to study some of the objects he made for a previous nkanda
session. At Kisoma I saw three masks that had been made by Nsiabula Malungidi with the
assistance of Marcel Kahuma of Kisoma. These masks had been used in the nkanda of Kingala
(northern Angola) in 1976.
In Figure 10 we see Nsiabula Malungidi (right) with three masks at his feet: Kisokolo, Nkoso,
and Makemba. Unlike the other mask types, the Nkoso mask (Fig. 12) is present at the beginning
of the nkanda initiation. It is thus the only mask type that is not carved but plaited. A lukongolo
liana formed into a circular shape reinforces the bottom of the cap. A collar made of raffia is tied
to the cap and the liana. In the operungs of the plaited material, feathers of wild birds (15) are
fastened with resin. The eyes and the mouth of the mask are made from the stems of small
gourds. Little holes are placed under the "eyes" so that the masked dancer can see during the
performance. I was told that in the western part of the Nkanu region, the Nkoso mask can be

fashioned in wood, in the form of a human face, crowned with the same feather tuft. I could not
find an example of this wooden variant in the field, nor in Western collections.
[FIGURES 10 & 12 OMITTED]
Nsiabula Malungidi is an nkanda specialist and does not accept any other commissions. I visited
him at Kisanguna II (Kimasofi), a small village near the Congolese border with Angola. He is a
member of the Simu Nzadi clan. At birth he received the name Malungidi. One day his paternal
uncle Kinavwidi looked him up to tell him he had to join the nkanda camp at Kimatungu, an
Nkanu village in northern Angola. There he got his nkanda name "Nsiabula." At the end of the
initiation, he took the sobriquet "Kagena mfumu ko," which means, "There is no chief." This
name was taken to chastise the organizers of the nkanda because there were insufficient funds to
arrange a copious feast at the close of the initiation session.
Nsiabula Malungidi did not acquire his calling as the result of being struck by any illness. It was
the wish of his father, ,ka Kilengu--himself an nkanda specialist--that his son became a
circumciser or nganga kitapa, so he sent him to his own father, nka Nzama of Bembele (nganga
kitapa and nganga luvumbu), in 1953 Nsiabula assisted nka Nzama in the nkanda of Bembele
and there circumcised his first neophyte.
As a youngster he loved to make statues in wood, so he showed interest in carving nkanda
objects (masks, poles, initiation panels, statues) as well. Nka Nzama imparted the skills of an
nganga luvumbu to him. When I asked whether he wished the same profession for his own sons,
he replied that they are twins; the tradition forbids bana ba nlongo (literally "children of the
interdiction": twins, albinos, and the physically handicapped) to practice as banganga.
Since there was no nkanda taking place during my visit, I could not see Nsiabula Malungidi at
work. Nevertheless, I was able to study some of the objects he made for a previous nkanda
session. At Kisoma I saw three masks that had been made by Nsiabula Malungidi with the
assistance of Marcel Kahuma of Kisoma. These masks had been used in the nkanda of Kingala
(northern Angola) in 1976.
In Figure 10 we see Nsiabula Malungidi (right) with three masks at his feet: Kisokolo, Nkoso,
and Makemba. Unlike the other mask types, the Nkoso mask (Fig. 12) is present at the beginning
of the nkanda initiation. It is thus the only mask type that is not carved but plaited. A lukongolo
liana formed into a circular shape reinforces the bottom of the cap. A collar made of raffia is tied
to the cap and the liana. In the operungs of the plaited material, feathers of wild birds (15) are
fastened with resin. The eyes and the mouth of the mask are made from the stems of small
gourds. Little holes are placed under the "eyes" so that the masked dancer can see during the
performance. I was told that in the western part of the Nkanu region, the Nkoso mask can be
fashioned in wood, in the form of a human face, crowned with the same feather tuft. I could not
find an example of this wooden variant in the field, nor in Western collections.
[FIGURES 10 & 12 OMITTED]
Nsiabula Malungidi is an nkanda specialist and does not accept any other commissions. I visited
him at Kisanguna II (Kimasofi), a small village near the Congolese border with Angola. He is a
member of the Simu Nzadi clan. At birth he received the name Malungidi. One day his paternal
uncle Kinavwidi looked him up to tell him he had to join the nkanda camp at Kimatungu, an
Nkanu village in northern Angola. There he got his nkanda name "Nsiabula." At the end of the
initiation, he took the sobriquet "Kagena mfumu ko," which means, "There is no chief." This
name was taken to chastise the organizers of the nkanda because there were insufficient funds to
arrange a copious feast at the close of the initiation session.
Nsiabula Malungidi did not acquire his calling as the result of being struck by any illness. It was
the wish of his father, ,ka Kilengu--himself an nkanda specialist--that his son became a
circumciser or nganga kitapa, so he sent him to his own father, nka Nzama of Bembele (nganga

kitapa and nganga luvumbu), in 1953 Nsiabula assisted nka Nzama in the nkanda of Bembele
and there circumcised his first neophyte.
As a youngster he loved to make statues in wood, so he showed interest in carving nkanda
objects (masks, poles, initiation panels, statues) as well. Nka Nzama imparted the skills of an
nganga luvumbu to him. When I asked whether he wished the same profession for his own sons,
he replied that they are twins; the tradition forbids bana ba nlongo (literally "children of the
interdiction": twins, albinos, and the physically handicapped) to practice as banganga.
Since there was no nkanda taking place during my visit, I could not see Nsiabula Malungidi at
work. Nevertheless, I was able to study some of the objects he made for a previous nkanda
session. At Kisoma I saw three masks that had been made by Nsiabula Malungidi with the
assistance of Marcel Kahuma of Kisoma. These masks had been used in the nkanda of Kingala
(northern Angola) in 1976.
In Figure 10 we see Nsiabula Malungidi (right) with three masks at his feet: Kisokolo, Nkoso,
and Makemba. Unlike the other mask types, the Nkoso mask (Fig. 12) is present at the beginning
of the nkanda initiation. It is thus the only mask type that is not carved but plaited. A lukongolo
liana formed into a circular shape reinforces the bottom of the cap. A collar made of raffia is tied
to the cap and the liana. In the operungs of the plaited material, feathers of wild birds (15) are
fastened with resin. The eyes and the mouth of the mask are made from the stems of small
gourds. Little holes are placed under the "eyes" so that the masked dancer can see during the
performance. I was told that in the western part of the Nkanu region, the Nkoso mask can be
fashioned in wood, in the form of a human face, crowned with the same feather tuft. I could not
find an example of this wooden variant in the field, nor in Western collections.
[FIGURES 10 & 12 OMITTED]

(7.) Nkanu objects used within the nkanda are usually abundantly painted, a striking aspect that
also characterizes the art of their eastern neighbors, the Yaka. This has contributed to the
confusion in attributing the artistic productions of both peoples.
(8.) There seems to be a specific term--mbawa or mbau--for the first category, while nkisi or
kiteke are general terms for the other sculptural works.
(9.) Luvumbu is, for that matter, a derivation of the verb kuvumbula, "to erect." His mission is
illustrated in the statement, "Nganga luvumbu ukuvumbula, ukuga lunkonso, ukuga lungola";
"The nganga luvumbu raised you, he has given you the force to procreate, he has given you the
power." And further, "Kitapa katapa, luvumbu kavumbula," or, "the circumciser cuts, the one
who raises, raises."
(10.) Domingiele Mvwaka of Kingemba-Kinga told me that his paternal uncle worked as an
nganga luvumbu at the nkanda at Kimaganga. When the organizers forgot to invite him for the
closing ceremony he was so incensed that he threatened to render infertile the leaders among the
initiates. One of the boys did indeed the childless. When an nganga wants to make a person
barren, he takes a needle, breaks it, and at the same time utters the name of his victim. Repairing
clothes with the needle of a nganga luvumbu can also lead to similar problems.
(11.) The colonial authorities appointed medaled chiefs at the head of different villages. The
administrative and political entity they installed in that way is known as a groupement.
(12.) Luyani and Nsebani were two famous banganga baluvumbu of the Nkanu, living in the
early twentieth century. In the contribution I wrote for the colloquium "Ni anonyme, ni
impersonnel," organized by Arts d'Afrique Noire, I discuss the life and the career of Nsebani of
Kipindi in detail. I assume that this nganga has been responsible for many of carvings that are
now in Western collections.
(13.) A mulari is a person of the Lari people, a subdivision of the well-known Teke people.
(14.) A futu is a bag containing all the paraphernalia a healer or a diviner needs for his practice.

(15.) The feathers of the following wild birds are used for this purpose: mbudi nkoko (turaco),
mbulu komba (?), ngumbi-ngumbi (black stork), mbanzia (sparrowhawk), nduwa (redtail parrot),
mbemba (fishing eagle), nkelele (guinea fowl) and nkanga (quail).
(16.) This stylistic form seems to be typical for the masks found in the southeast of the
Congolese Nkanu region (and probably also in their habitat in the north of Angola).
(17.) Several Central African peoples produce similar masks, with two projections on top of it.
According to M. L. Bastin (1994:28, fig. 9; 34, Fig. 13) this aspect refers to the headdresses of
chiefs of the ancient kingdoms Angola and Matamba. Today Yaka and Luwa chiefs have similar
headwear. The relation between the chief and the buffalo has been demonstrated by Bourgeois
(1991:19-32). As to the Kisokolo mask, Nsiabula Malungidi stated that, "In fact these projections
are not horns, they 'replace' the arms of the dancer extended above his head to express his joy, as
the real limbs go concealed under the long raffia collar of the mask."
(18.) I collected the name "Mbau" for this mask. I learned however that mbau or mbawa is not a
name of a particular type of mask. It simply means "mask" or "ritual object."
(19.) Kitapa (or ki(n)taba) is a derivation of the verb kutapa, "to cut". A synonym is nsiabula, a
word from the Yaka or Luwa dialect, also used by the eastern Nkanu.
(20.) Kisidika is a derivation of the verb kusidika, which means "to protect".
References cited
Bastin, M. L. 1994. Sculpture Angolaise: Memorial de cultures. Lisbon: Museu Nacional de
Etnologia.
Bourgeois, A. M. 1991. "Mbawa-pakasa, l'image du buffie chez les Yaka et leurs voisins." Arts
d'Afrique Noire 77:19-32.
Mudiji-Malamba, G. 1989. Le language des masques Africains: Etude des formes et fonctions
symboliques des Mbuya des Phende. Kinshasa: Facultes Catholiques de Kinshasa.
Van Damme, A. M. 1998. Beelden, maskers, en initiatiepanelen bij de Nkanu en hun buren, de
Mbeko en de Lula. Socio-culturele context en stilistische analyse (Zone Kimvula, Congo).
University of Ghent, unpublished Ph.D. dissertation.
--1999. "Portrait d'un sculpteur Nkanu du de'but du siecle." In Ni anonyme, ni impersonnel,
edited by Raoul Lehuard, 55-64. Arnouville: Arts d'Afrique Noire.
COPYRIGHT 2004 The Regents of the University of California
COPYRIGHT 2005 Gale Group
Bibliography for "Nkanu and Mbeko art and ritual"
Annemieke Van Damme-Linseele "Nkanu and Mbeko art and ritual". African Arts. Autumn
2004. FindArticles.com. 13 Feb. 2008.
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0438/is_3_37/ai_n13779286