O Muqaddimah 1-100

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O Muqaddimah
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OMuqaddimah
AbdArRahmanbinMuhammedibnKhaldun
Traduzidopor
FranzRosenthal
ndice
https://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_f
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ndice
Materialintrodutrio
MaterialintrodutriodoLivroUm,Kitabal'Ibar
Observaespreliminares
CaptuloI
Acivilizaohumanaemgeral
CaptuloII
Civilizaobeduna,naesetribosselvagensesuascondies
davida,incluindovriosaspectosbsicoseexplicativas
CaptuloIII
Emdinastias,aautoridadereal,ocalifado,fileirasdogoverno,e
tudooqueacontececomessascoisas.Ocaptulocontmbsicae
proposiessuplementares
CaptuloIV
Pasesecidades,etodasasoutrasformasdecivilizaosedentria.
Ascondiesqueocorreml.Primriaesecundria
consideraes,nestecontexto,
CaptuloV
Sobreosvriosaspectosdeganharavida,taiscomolucroedo
artesanato.Ascondiesqueocorremnestecontexto.Umnmerode
problemasestoconectadoscomesteassunto
CaptuloVI
Osvriostiposdecincias.Osmtodosdeinstruo.O
emcondiesqueobtmestasligaes.Ocaptuloincluiuma
discussopreambulareapndices
ConsideraesFinais
Bibliografiaselecionada,WalterJ.Fischel
Pgina3
ndice
Materialintrodutrio
TRADUTOR 'SINTRODUO
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CaptuloI
CaptuloII
CaptuloIII
Emdinastias,aautoridadereal,ocalifado,ogovernoclassifica,
etudooquesepassacomessascoisas.Ocaptulocontmbsica
eproposiessuplementares
CaptuloIV
CaptuloV
CaptuloVI
ConsideraesFinais
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Materialintrodutrio
INVOCATION
APRESENTAO
INTRODUO
CaptuloI
CaptuloII
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CaptuloIII
Emdinastias,aautoridadereal,ocalifado,ogovernoclassifica,
etudooquesepassacomessascoisas.Ocaptulocontmbsica
eproposiessuplementares
CaptuloIV
CaptuloV
CaptuloVI
ConsideraesFinais
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LivroUmdoKitabal'Ibar
Anaturezadacivilizao.Beduno
evidasedentria,arealizaodesuperioridade,
ocupaesremuneradas,maneirasdeganharavida,cincias,
artesanato,etodasasoutrascoisasqueafetam
(Civilizao).Ascausas
erespectivasrazes.
TI 1 Deveserconhecidoqueahistria,naverdade,ainformaosobre
organizaosocialhumana,queemsiidnticoacivilizaomundial.Tratase
comessascondiesqueafetamanaturezadacivilizaocomo,porexemplo,selvageria
esociabilidade,sentimentosdegrupo,easdiferentesmaneiraspelasquaisumgrupodehumanos
seresalcanasuperioridadesobreaoutraElelidacomautoridaderealea
dinastiasqueresultam(destamaneira)ecomasdiversasfileirasqueexistemdentro
eles.(maisacordos)comosdiferentestiposdeocupaesremuneradaseformasde
ganharavida,comascinciaseofciosqueossereshumanosprosseguirnombitoda
suasatividadeseesforos,ecomtodasasoutrasinstituiesqueseoriginamem
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civilizaopormeiodesuaprprianatureza.
Inverdadeafligeinformaeshistricasnaturalmente.Hvriasrazes
quetornamesteinevitvel.Umdelesopartidarismoparaopinieseescolas.Se
aalmaimparcialemreceberinformaes,elededicaaessainformaoaquota
deinvestigaocrticadasinformaesmerece,esuaverdadeouinverdade,assim,
tornaseclaro.Noentanto,seaalmaestinfectadocompartisanshipparaumadeterminada
opinioouseita,eleaceitasemhesitarummomentoainformaoque
concordandocomomesmo.Preconceitoepartidarismoobscuraafaculdadecrticaeseopem
investigaocrtica.Oresultadoquementirassoaceitesetransmitidos.
Outromotivoquefazinverdadeinevitveleminformaohistrica
dependnciadetransmissores.Investigaosobreesteassuntopertence(ateolgica
2
disciplinade)crticapersonalidade.
Outrarazoodesconhecimentodafinalidadedeumevento.Muitosum
transmissornosabeoverdadeirosignificadodesuasobservaesoudascoisas
eleaprendeusobreoralmente.Eletransmiteainformao,atribuindolheo
significadoqueassumeouimaginaqueeletem.Oresultadofalsidade.
Outrarazosuposioinfundadaquantoverdadedeumacoisa.Isto
freqente.Elaresultaprincipalmentedadependnciadetransmissores.
2a
Outrarazoodesconhecimentodecomoascondiesemconformidadecomarealidade.
Condiessoafetadosporambiguidadesedistoresartificiais.Oinformante
relataascondiesqueeleviulos,masporcausadedistoresartificiaisele
senotemumverdadeiroretratodeles.
Outrarazoofatodequeaspessoascomoumaabordagemregragrandeedealta
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Classificaopessoascomelogioseelogios.Elesembelezamcondiesepropagao
afama(degrandeshomens).Ainformaotornadapblicaemtaiscasos,noverdadeira.
Asalmashumanaslongodelouvor,easpessoasprestammuitaatenoaestemundoeo
posieseriquezaqueeleoferece.Comoregra,elesnosentemdesejodevirtudeenotm
especialinteressenaspessoasvirtuosas.
Outromotivoquefazinverdadeinevitveleestemaispoderoso
quetodasasrazesanteriormentemencionadasaignornciadanaturezadosdiversos
condiesdecorrentesdacivilizao.Cadaevento(oufenmeno),mesmo(quevem
emestaremconexocomalgum)ouessncia(comooresultadodeumaao),deve
inevitavelmentepossuemumanaturezapeculiarsuaessncia,bemcomo,demodoacidental
condiesquepodemunirseaele.Seoestudanteconheceanaturezadoseventos
eascircunstnciasenecessidadesdomundodaexistncia,eleirajudloa
distinguiraverdadedamentiraeminvestigarainformaohistricacrtica.
Istomaiseficaznainvestigaocrticadoquequalqueroutroaspectoquepodeser
trouxeemconexocomela.
Osalunosmuitasvezesacontecerdeaceitaretransmitirinformaesabsurdoque,porsuavez,
Acreditasequeemsuaautoridade.AlMas'udi,3 porexemplo,relataumahistriasobre
Alexander.MonstrosmarinhosimpedidoAlexanderdesdeaconstruodeAlexandria.Eletomouum
recipientedemadeiraemqueumacaixadevidrofoiinserido,emergulhadoemqueaparteinferior
omar.L,eledesenhouosmonstrosdiablicosqueeleviu.Ele,ento,tevedemetal
efgiesdessesanimaisfeitoseconfigurlosemfrenteaolugarondeedifcio
estavaacontecendo.Quandoosmonstrossaiueviuasefgies,fugiram.
Alexanderfoi,assim,capazdecompletaraconstruodeAlexandria.
umalongahistria,feitadeelementosquesoabsurdasabsurdo
vriasrazes.Assim,(Alexanderdito)tertomadoumacaixadevidroeenfrentaramo
maresuasondasempessoa.Agora,osgovernantesnoaceitariatalrisco. 4 Qualquergovernanteque
tentariatalcoisairiafuncionarsuaprpriarunaeprovocaraecloso
derevoltacontrasimesmo,e(ele)sersubstitudopelopovocomalgum
outracoisa.Issoseriaoseufim.Aspessoasno(ainda)esperarummomentoparaele
retornardorisco(perigoso),eleesttomando.
Almdisso,gniosnosoconhecidosporteremformasebonecosespecficos.
Elessocapazesdeassumirvriasformas.Ahistriademuitascabeasqueelestm
pretendeindicarfeiraeatrocidade.Elenosedestinaaserinterpretadasliteralmente.
Tudoissolanasuspeitassobreahistria.Noentanto,oelementoquefaza
histriaabsurdaporrazesbaseadasnosfatosdaexistnciamaisconvincentedoquetodos
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outros(argumentos).Eramumparairparabaixoprofundamentenagua,mesmoemumacaixa,um
teriamuitopoucoarparaarespiraonatural.Porcausadisso,oespritodapessoa 5 faria
rapidamentetornarsequente.Talhomemnoteriaoarfrionecessrioparamanterum
humordopulmoedoespritovitalbemequilibrada.Elemorrerianolocal.
Estaarazoporqueaspessoasperecemembanhosquentesquandooarfrionegadoaeles.Ele
tambmarazoporqueaspessoasquevoparabaixoempoosprofundosemasmorrasperecer
quandooarficaquentelatravsdeputrefao,enohventosentrarnesseslugares
paraagitaroarparacima.Aquelesqueirlperecerimediatamente.Estetambmo
razopelaqualospeixesmorremquandoelessaemdagua,paraqueoarnosuficientepara(umpeixe)
paraequilibraroseupulmo.(Opeixe)extremamentequente,eaguaparaequilibrlodehumor
frio.Oaremque(opeixe)vemagoraquente.Calor,assim,ganhapodersobreoseu
6e
espritoanimal,eelepereceaomesmotempo.Estatambmarazoparaamortesbita,
coisassemelhantes.
AlMas'udirelataoutrahistriaabsurda,adaEsttuadoStarlingem
Roma 7 Emumdiafixodoano,estorninhosserenememqueasazeitonasesttuatrazendo
apartirdoqualoshabitantesdeRomaobterseupetrleo.Quopoucoissotemavercomo
Pgina7
processonaturaldeobtenodeleo!
OutrahistriaabsurdarelatadaporalBakri.Tratasedaformacomoaso
8 Essacidadetinhaumacircunfernciademaisdoqueumdetrinta
chamado"CityGate"foiconstrudo.
jornadaediastinhadezmilportas.Agora,ascidadessoutilizadosparaaseguranae
proteco,comosermencionado. 9 Talcidade,noentanto,nopodesercontroladae
iriaoferecernenhumaseguranaouproteo.
Depois,htambmahistriadealMas'udida"CopperCity."
10 Istodito
serumacidadeconstrudainteiramentedecobrenodesertodeSijilmasahqueMusab.Nusayr11
cruzadossobreoataquecontraoMagreb.Osportesdo(aCidadedecobre)sodissea
serfechada.Quandoapessoaquesobeasmuralhasdacidade,afimdeinserilo,
atingeotopo,elebateamoesejogaparabaixoenuncaretorna.Tudo
estaumahistriaabsurda.Elepertenceconversafiadadecontadoresdehistrias.Odesertode
Sijilmasahfoiatravessadaporviajanteseguias.Elesnosedepararcomqualquer
informaessobreessacidade. 12 Todososdetalhesmencionadossobreelesoabsurdas,(se
comparadocom)oestadohabitualdecoisas.Elascontradizemosfatosnaturaisque
aplicamseconstruoeplanejamentodecidades.Metalexistenamelhordashipteses,emquantidades
suficienteparautensliosemobilirio.claramenteabsurdoeimprovvelquehaja
seriasuficienteparacobrirumacidadecomele.
13 muitascoisassemelhantes.Somenteoconhecimentodanaturezada
L
civilizaofazinvestigaocrticadelespossvel.omelhoremais
maneiraconfivelparainvestigarainformaohistricaecrticaparadistinguiraverdade
efalsidadenele.superiorainvestigaesquedependemdecrticaao
personalidadesdostransmissores.Taiscrticaspersonalidadenodeveserinvocada
atquetenhasidodeterminadoseumpedaoespecficodeinformaes,emsi
possvel,ouno.Seissoumabsurdo,nohnenhumusoengajarseempersonalidadecrtica.
Estudiososcrticosconsideramabsurdoinerenteaosignificadoliteraldehistrico
informao,ouumainterpretaonoaceitvelparaointelecto,comoalgoque
fazcomquetaisinformaessuspeito.Personalidadecrticalevadoemconsiderao
somenteemconexocomasolidez(oufaltadesolidez)domuulmanoreligioso
informao,porqueessainformaoreligiosanamaiorpartedizrespeitosacesinibitriasem
segundoosquaisoLegislador(Muhammad)intimadosmuulmanosparaagir
semprequesepodepresumirqueainformaoverdadeira.Amaneiradeconseguir
solidezpresuntivosaberqualaprobidade(àdalah)eexatidodo
transmissores.
Poroutrolado,paraestabeleceraverdadeesolidezdeinformaessobre
acontecimentosfactuais,umrequisitoaconsideraraconformidade(oufaltade
conformidadedasinformaesrelatadascomascondiesgerais).Portanto,
necessrioinvestigarsepossvelqueosfatosrelatados()poderiater
aconteceu.Issomaisimportantedoque,etemprioridadesobre,personalidadecrtica.
14 apenasapartirpodemserderivados
Paraanoocorretasobrealgoquedeveriaser
(Personalidadecrtica),enquantoanoocorretasobrealgoquefoipodeser
derivadada(crticapersonalidade)eexterna(evidncia)por(verificao)a
conformidade(dorelatriohistricocomascondiesgerais).
Se 15 istoassim,omtodonormativoparadistinguirocertodoerradoem
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informaeshistricassobreosmotivosdepossibilidadeouabsurdo(inerente),
investigaraorganizaosocialhumana,queidnticocomacivilizao.Devemos
distinguirascondiesqueseligamessnciadacivilizaocomo
requeridapelasuaprprianaturezaascoisasquesoacidentais(paraacivilizao)enopode
sercontadoeascoisasquenopodemunirseaele.Sefizermos
que,teremosummtodonormativoparadistinguirocertodoerradoe
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averdadedamentiraeminformaeshistricaspormeiodeumademonstraolgica
quenoadmitedvidas.Emseguida,semprequeouvimossobrecertascondiesqueocorrem
nacivilizao,saberemosoqueaceitareoquedeclararesprio.Nsdevemos
temumcritriodesomcomaajudadequeoshistoriadorespodemencontrarocaminhodaverdade
ecorreo,ondeosseusrelatriosestoemcausa.
Tal 16 oobjetivodesteprimeirolivrodonossotrabalho.(Oassunto)estem
formaumacinciaindependente.(Estacincia)temseuprprioobjetopeculiar,isto,
acivilizaohumanaedaorganizaosocial.Eletambmtemosseusprpriosproblemaspeculiares,
isto,explicandoascondiesqueseligamessnciadacivilizao,
umapsooutro.Assim,asituaoamesmacomestacinciacomocomqualquer
outracincia,quersetratedeumconvencional 17 ouumintelectual.
Eledeveserconhecidoqueadiscussodestetpicoalgonovo,
extraordinrio,emuitotil.Penetrandopesquisamostrouocaminhoparaele.Ele
nopertencearetrica,umadasdisciplinaslgicas(representadoemAristteles
Organon),cujoassuntopalavrasconvincentespormeiodaqualamassaest
18 Tambmnopoltica,
inclinadoaaceitarumaopinioparticularounoaceitlo.
porqueapolticaestemcausacomaadministraodacasaoudacidadedeacordo
osrequisitosticosefilosficos,comopropsitodedirigiramassa
paraumcomportamentoquevairesultarnapreservaoepermannciado(humano)
espcies.
Oassuntoaquidiferentedaqueladequeestasduasdisciplinas,
noentanto,somuitasvezessemelhantesaele.Decertamaneira,umacinciainteiramenteoriginal.Naverdade,eu
nosedepararcomumadiscussoaolongodestaslinhasporningum.Eunoseiseisso
porqueaspessoastmsidoconscinciadisso,masnohnenhumarazoparasuspeitardeles(de
tendotidoconhecimentodomesmo).Talvezelestmescritoexaustivamentesobreesteassunto,
19 Hmuitascincias.Houveram
eseutrabalhononoschegou.
numerosossbiosentreasnaesdahumanidade.Oconhecimentodequenochegou
atnsmaiordoqueoconhecimentoquetem.Ondeestoascinciasdo
20 Ondeestoos
Persasque'Umarordenoudizimadonomomentodaconquista!
cinciasdoscaldeus,ossrios,eosbabilnios,eoerudito
produtoseresultadosqueforamdeles!Ondeestoascinciasdoscoptas,asua
antecessores!Ascinciasdeapenasumanao,ogrego,chegaramatns,
porqueelesforamtraduzidosatravsdeesforosdaAlMamun.(Seusesforosneste
direo)forambemsucedidos,porqueeletinhamuitostradutoressuadisposioepassou
muitodinheiroaesterespeito.Dascinciasdosoutros,nadachegouaonosso
ateno.
Osacidentesenvolvidosemtodasasmanifestaesdanaturezaedointelectomerecem
estudo.Qualquertemaquecompreensvelerealrequersuaprpriacinciaespecial.Em
Nestecontexto,osestudiososparecemtersidointeressados
(principalmente)nosresultados(da
cinciasindividuais).Quantoaoassuntoemdiscussoestemcausa,oresultado,
comovimos,apenasinformaohistrica.Emboraosproblemasquelevantaso
importante,tantoessencialmenteeespecificamente,(preocupaoexclusivaparaele)levaauma
resultarapenas:ameraverificaodeinformaeshistricas.Estanomuito.
Portanto,osestudiosospoderiaterevitadooassunto.
Deussabemelhor."Evocfoidado,maspoucoconhecimento."
21
Nocamposobconsideraoaqui,encontramosproblemas(certas),
alistratadopelosestudiososentreosargumentosaplicveis
suaespecial
cincias,masque,noobjetoeabordagemsodomesmotipoqueosproblemas(ns
estodiscutindo).Emconexocomosargumentosparaaprofecia,porexemplo,
estudiososmencionamqueossereshumanoscooperarunscomosoutrosparaasuaexistncia
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e,portanto,precisamdehomensparaarbitrarentreeleseexercerumarestrio
influncia. 22 Ou,nacinciadosprincpiosdajurisprudncia,nocaptuloda
argumentosparaanecessidadedelnguas,fazsemenoaofatodequeaspessoas
significanecessidadedeexpressarsuasintenes,porque,pelasuanaturezamuito,cooperaoe
23 Ou,emligaocom
organizaosocialsofacilitadasporexpressesadequadas
aexplicaodequeasleistmasuarazonosfinselessoparaservir,o
juristasmencionarqueoadultrioconfundepedigreesedestriasespcies(humana)
queoassassinato,tambm,destriaespciehumanaqueainjustiaconvidaadestruiode
civilizaocomaconsequncianecessriaqueasespcies(humanos)ser
destruda. 24 Outrascoisassemelhantessodemonstradosemconexocomospropsitos
incorporadoemleis.Todos(asleis)sobaseadasnoesforoparapreservaracivilizao.
Portanto,(asleis)prestaratenoscoisasquepertencemcivilizao.Isto
bviadenossasrefernciasparaestesproblemasquesomencionadoscomo
representante(dasituaogeral).
Encontramostambmalgunsdosproblemasdoassuntoemdiscusso(tratado)
emdeclaraesdispersaspelossbiosdahumanidade.Noentanto,elesnoesgotouo
sujeito.Porexemplo,nstemosodiscursodoMobedhanantesBahramb.
25 Correse:"rei,opoder
BahramnahistriadacorujarelatadaporalMas'udi
daautoridaderealmaterializaapenasatravsda"leireligiosa,obedinciadireo
Deus,eaconformidadecomosseusmandamentoseproibies.Aleireligiosa
persistesomentepormeiodaautoridadereal.Autoridaderealpoderososrealizado
pormeiodehomens.Homenspersistiremapenascomaajudadapropriedade.Anicaformadepropriedade
26 Anicaformadecultivoatravsdajustia.Justiauma
atravsdocultivo.
equilbriocriadoentreoshomens.OSenhorconfigurloedesignadoumsupervisorparaele,
eque(superintendente)ogovernante."
HtambmumadeclaraodoAnosharwan 27 nomesmosentido:"Royal
autoridadeexisteatravsdoexrcito,oexrcitoatravsdodinheiro,dinheiropormeiodeimpostos,
impostosatravsdocultivo,cultivoatravsdajustia,ajustiaatravsda
melhoriadefuncionrios,amelhoriadefuncionriosatravsdafranquezade
wazirs,etodaacoisa,emprimeirolugaratravsdesupervisopessoaldogovernante
dacondiodeseussditosesuacapacidadedeeduclos,paraqueelepossagovernlos,
enoqueele."
NolivrosobrePolticaqueatribudaaAristtelesetemamplacirculao,
encontramosumbomnegciosobre(oassuntoqueestemdiscussoaqui).(A
tratamento),noentanto,noexaustiva,nemotemafornecidocomtodooargumento
mentosquemerece,eelemisturadocomoutrascoisas.Nolivro,(oautor)
aqueserefereatalgeral(idias) 28 comojinformousobreaautoridadedo
MobedhaneAnosharwan.Eleorganizousuadeclaraoemumcrculonotvelque
elediscutiulongamente.Correseoseguinte: 29 "Omundoumjardimdacercade
queadinastia.Adinastiaumaautoridade,atravsdoqualavidadadaao
comportamentoadequado.Comportamentoadequadoumapolticadirigidapelogovernante.Ogovernanteum
instituioapoiadapelossoldados.Ossoldadossoajudantesquesomantidospor
dinheiro.Odinheiroosustentoreuniupelossujeitos.Osassuntosso
30 eatravsdela,
servosqueestoprotegidospelajustia.Ajustiaalgofamiliar,
omundopersiste.Omundoumjardim...",e,emseguida,comeadenovoapartirda
comeando.Estessooitofrasesdesabedoriapoltica.Elesestoligadoscom
unsaosoutros,afimdecadaumqueconduzaoinciodoprximo.Elessomantidos
juntosemumcrculosemcomeonemfimdefinitivo.(Oautor)estavaorgulhosode
oqueeletinhabatidoemcimaefezgrandepartedosignificadodassentenas.
Quandoanossadiscussonaseosobreautoridadeedinastiasroyal
31 tem
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foramestudadosedevidaatenocrticaquelhedado,eleserencontradoparaconstituiruma
exaustiva,interpretaomuitoclara,totalmentefundamentadaeexposiodetalhadade
essasfrases.NstornousecientedestascoisascomaajudadeDeusesema
instruesdeAristtelesouoensinodaMobedhan.
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AsdeclaraesdeIbnalMuqaffa
32 easexcursesemassuntospolticos
emseustratadostambmabordarmuitosdosproblemasdonossotrabalho.Noentanto,(Ibnal
Muqaffa`)nofundamentouassuasdeclaraescomargumentoscomotemosfeito.Ele
apenasosmencionoudepassagemno(fluindo)estilodeprosaeeloqenteverborragia
doretrico.
33 tambmteveamesmaidianoKitabalSiraj
JuizAbuBakratTurtushi
Muluk.Eledividiuotrabalhoemcaptulosquevmpertodoscaptulose
problemasdonossotrabalho.Noentanto,elenoalcanouseuobjetivoouperceberasuainteno.
Elenoesgotouosproblemasenotrouxeprovasclaras.Eledeixadeladoum
captuloespecialparaumdeterminadoproblema,masdepoiseledizaumgrandenmerodehistrias
etradies,eelerelataobservaesdispersasporsbiospersastaiscomo
Buzurjmihr 34 eoMobedhan,eporsbiosindianos,bemcomomaterial
transmitidanaautoridadedeDaniel,Hermes,eoutrosgrandeshomens.Eleno
verificarsuasdeclaraesouesclareclascomaajudadeargumentosnaturais.Otrabalho
meramenteumacompilaodematerialtransmitidosemelhanteaosermesemsuainspiradora
finalidade.Decertaforma,atTurtushivisaaidiacerta,masnoatingilo.Eleno
perceberasuaintenoouesgotarseusproblemas.
Ns,poroutrolado,foraminspiradosporDeus.Elelevounosaumacinciacujo
35 Seeuterconseguidoapresentarosproblemasde
verdadequeimpiedosamenteestabelecido.
(Estacincia)deformaexaustivaeemmostrarcomoeledifereemseusvriosaspectose
caractersticasdetodososoutrosofcios,issodevidoorientaodivina.Se,poroutrolado
lado,tenhoomitidoalgummomento,ouseosproblemasde(estacincia)tem
confundidacomoutracoisa,atarefadecorrigirrestosmortaisparaocrticomaisexigente,
masomritomeudesdequeeuapagadaemarcouocaminho.
DeusguiacomSualuzquemquiser(paraorientar).
36
Em37 Nestelivro,agora,vamosexplicartaisvriosaspectosda
civilizaoqueafetamossereshumanosemsuaorganizaosocial,comoautoridadereal,
lucrativasdeocupao,cincias,eartesanato,(todos),luzdosvriosargumentosque
vaimostraraverdadeiranaturezadoconhecimentovariadadaeliteeocomum
pessoas,repelirreceios,etirardvidas.Nsdizemosqueohomemsedistinguede
osoutrosseresvivosporcertasqualidadesquelhepeculiar,asaber:(1)ascincias
eofciosqueresultamdequeacapacidadedepensarquedistingueohomemdo
outrosanimaiseexaltaocomoumserpensantesobretodasascriaturas. 38 (2)Anecessidade
paradominarinflunciaeautoridadeforte,desdequeohomem,sozinhodetodososanimais,
nopodeexistirsemeles.verdade,algoquefoidito(aesterespeito
sobreasabelhasegafanhotos.Noentanto,seelestmalgosemelhante,setratadelhes
atravsdainspirao, 39 noatravsdopensamentooureflexo.(3)osesforosdohomemparafazerum
estaresuapreocupaocomasvriasformasdeobtenoeaquisiodemeios
de(vida).Esteoresultadodanecessidadedohomemparaoalimentoparamantervivaesubsistir,oque
Deusincutiunele,guiandooadesejareprocurarmeiosdesubsistncia.Deusdisse:"Ele
deuacadacoisasuascaractersticasnaturais,e,emseguida,guiouo." 40 (4)Civilization.
Istosignificaqueossereshumanostmparahabitaremcomumeresolverjuntosemcidades
ealdeiasparaoconfortodecompanheirismoeparaasatisfaodoserhumano
precisa,comoresultadodadisposionaturaldossereshumanosparacooperaoem
afimdesercapazdeganharavida,comoexplicaremos.Acivilizaopodeser
deserto(beduno)civilizaocomoencontradoemregiesperifricasemontanhas,emaldeias
Page11
(Pertoadequado)pastagensemregiesassoladas,enasfranjasdodesertodeareia.Ou
podesercivilizaosedentriacomoencontradoemcidades,aldeias,vilasepequenas
comunidadesqueservemafinalidadedeproteoefortalecimentopormeiodeparedes.
Emtodasestasdiferentescondies,hcoisasqueafetamacivilizaoessencialmenteem
namedidaemqueaorganizaosocial.
41 adiscussonestetrabalhocainaturalmentemenoresdeseisanoscaptulo
Consequentemente,
designaes:
(1)sobreacivilizaohumanaemgeral,assuasdiversasformas,edaporodo
terraquecivilizado.
(2)Emcivilizaodeserto,incluindoumrelatriosobreastribosenaesselvagens.
(3)Emdinastias,ocalifadoeautoridadereal,incluindoumadiscussode
governoclassifica.
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(4)Emcivilizaosedentria,pasesecidades.
(5)Emofcios,formasdeganharavida,ocupaesremuneradas,eassuasvrias
aspectos.E
(6)Emcincias,suaaquisioeestudo.
Tenhodiscutidodesertocivilizaoemprimeirolugar,porqueantesdetudo
mais,comosetornarclaromaisadiante.(Adiscussode)autoridaderealfoicolocado
antesquedepasesecidades,pelamesmarazo.(Adiscussode)formasde
fazerumavidafoicolocadoantesquedascincias,porqueganharavida
42
necessrioenatural,aopassoqueoestudodacinciaumluxoouaconvenincia.
Qualquercoisanaturaltemprecednciasobreluxo.Puleioartesanatoemconjuntocom
ocupaesremuneradas,porqueelespertencemaesteltimo,emalgunsaspectos,tantoquanto
acivilizaoestemcausa,comoficarclaromaistarde.
Deusdosucessoeapoio.
Page12
ndice
Materialintrodutrio
CaptuloI
DISCUSSOPRIMEIRAprefatory
SEGUNDADISCUSSOprefcio:Aspartesdaterraondeacivilizao
foiencontrado.Algumasinformaessobreoceanos,riosezonas
DISCUSSOprefatoryTERCEIRO:Oclimatemperadoeaszonasdeintemperana.
Ainflunciadoarsobreacordossereshumanosesobremuitosoutros
aspectosdesuacondio
QUARTADISCUSSOprefatory:Ainflunciadoar(clima)sobre
carterhumano
DISCUSSOpreliminarQUINTA:Asdiferenasnoquedizrespeitotoabundancee
escassezdealimentosnasdiversasregieshabitadas('Umran)ecomoelesafetam
ocorpohumanoecarter
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SEXTADISCUSSOprefcio:Osvriostiposdesereshumanosque
temperceposobrenatural,queratravsdisposionaturalouatravsde
exerccio,precedidaporumadiscussodeinspiraoedesonhovises
CaptuloII
CaptuloIII
CaptuloIV
CaptuloV
CaptuloVI
ConsideraesFinais
Page13
ndice
Materialintrodutrio
CaptuloI
CaptuloII
1Ambososbedunoseaspessoassedentriassogruposnaturais
2Osrabessoumgruponaturaldomundo
3bedunossoantesdepessoassedentrias.Odesertoabaseeoreservatrio
dacivilizaoecidades
4bedunossomaispertodeserbomdoquepessoassedentrias
5bedunosestomaisdispostosacoragemdoquepessoassedentrias
6Aconfianadaspessoassedentriasemleisdestrisuafortalezae
poderderesistir
7Somentetribosunidasporsentimentodegrupopodevivernodeserto
nicorelacionamentosanguePorn8Grupoderesultadosentimentooualgo
correspondenteaele
9Purezadalinhagemencontradasomenteentreosrabesselvagensdodesertoe
outrostaispessoas
10Comolinhagenstornamseconfusos
11Lideranasobreaspessoasquecompartilhamumdeterminadosentimentodegruponopodeserinvestido
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naquelesnodamesmadescida
12Apenasosquepartilhamcomosentimentodogrupodeumgrupopodeteruma"casa"e
nobrezanosentidobsicoe,narealidade,enquantooutrostmloapenasemum
sentidometafricoefigurativo
13"House"enobrezaviraclienteseseguidoressatravsdasua
mestresenopormeiodesuaprpriadescendncia
14Prestigeduranomximoquatrogeraesdeumalinhagem
15naesselvagenssomaiscapazesdealcanarasuperioridadedoqueoutros
16Ametaparaaqualsentimentodegrupolevaautoridadereal
17Obstculosnocaminhoemdireoaautoridaderealsodeluxoedesubmerso
datriboemumavidadeprosperidade
18Mansidoedocilidadeparapessoasdeforaquepodemviraserencontradoemumatriboso
obstculosnocaminhoemdireoaautoridadereal
19Umsinaldaqualificaodeumindivduoparaaautoridaderealoseuansioso
desejodeadquirirqualidadeslouvveis,eviceversa
20Enquantoumanaoselvagem,suaautoridaderealseestendemais
21Enquantoumanaomantmoseusentimentodegrupo,aautoridaderealquedesaparece
Page14
emumramoir,necessariamente,passarparaoutroramodamesma
nao
22Ovencidosemprequeremimitarovencedoremsuamarcadistintiva(s),
seuvestido,suaocupao,etodasassuasoutrascondiesecostumes
23Umanaoquefoiderrotadoevirsobogovernodeoutranao
vairapidamenteperecer
24rabespodeganharcontrolesomentesobreoterritriodegordura
25Lugaresquesucumbemaosrabessorapidamentearruinado
26rabespodeobterautoridaderealnica,fazendousodealgunsreligiosos
colorao,taiscomoprofecia,ousantidade,oualgumgrandeeventoreligioso
geral
27Osrabessodetodasasnaesomaisdistantedalideranareal
28tribosdodesertoegrupossodominadaspelapopulaourbana
CaptuloIII
CaptuloIV
Countriesandcities,andallotherformsofsedentarycivilization.
Theconditionsoccurringthere.Primaryandsecondary
considerationsinthisconnection
ChapterV
Onthevariousaspectsofmakingaliving,suchasprofitandthe
crafts.Theconditionsthatoccurinthisconnection.Anumberof
problemsareconnectedwiththissubject
ChapterVI
Thevariouskindsofsciences.Themethodsofinstruction.O
conditionsthatobtainintheseconnections.Thechapterincludesa
prefatorydiscussionandappendices
ConsideraesFinais
SelectedBibliography,WalterJ.Fischel
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Pgina15
ndice
Introductorymaterial
IntroductorymaterialofBookOne,Kitabal'Ibar
PreliminaryRemarks
CaptuloI
Humancivilizationingeneral
CaptuloII
Bedouincivilization,savagenationsandtribesandtheirconditions
oflife,includingseveralbasicandexplanatorystatements
CaptuloIII
Ondynasties,royalauthority,thecaliphate,governmentranks,and
allthatgoeswiththesethings.Thechaptercontainsbasicand
supplementarypropositions
1Royalauthorityandlargedynasticpowerareattainedonlythroughagroup
andgroupfeeling
2Whenadynastyisfirmlyestablished,itcandispensewithgroupfeeling
3Membersofaroyalfamilymaybeabletofoundadynastythatcandispense
withgroupfeeling
4Dynastiesofwidepowerandlargeroyalauthorityhavetheiroriginin
religionbasedeitheronprophecyorontruthfulpropaganda
5Religiouspropagandagivesadynastyatitsbeginninganotherpowerin
additiontothatofthegroupfeelingitpossessedastheresultofthenumber
ofitssupporters
6Religiouspropagandacannotmaterializewithoutgroupfeeling
7Eachdynastyhasacertainamountofprovincesandlands,andnomore
8Thegreatnessofadynasty,theextentofitsterritory,andthelengthofits
durationdependuponthenumericalstrengthofitssupporters
9Adynastyrarelyestablishesitselffirmlyinlandswithmanydifferenttribes
andgroups
10Byitsverynature,theroyalauthorityclaimsallgloryforitselfandgoesin
forluxuryandpreferstranquilityandquiet
11Whenthenaturaltendenciesoftheroyalauthoritytoclaimallgloryforitself
andtoobtainluxuryandtranquilityhavebeenfirmlyestablished,the
dynastyapproachessenility
12Dynastieshaveanaturallifespanlikeindividuals
13Thetransitionofdynastiesfromdesertlifetosedentaryculture
14Luxurywillatfirstgiveadditionalstrengthtoadynasty
15Thestagesofdynasties.Howthedesertattitudediffersamongthepeoplein
thedifferentstages
16Themonumentsofagivendynastyareproportionatetoitsoriginalpower
17Therulerseeksthehelpofclientsandfollowersagainstthemenofhisown
peopleandgroupfeeling
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Page16
18Thesituationofclientsandfollowersindynasties
19Seclusionof,andcontrolover,theruler(byothers)mayoccurindynasties
20Thosewhogainpowerovertherulerdonotsharewithhiminthespecial
titlethatgoeswithroyalauthority
21Thetruecharacteranddifferentkindsofroyalauthority
22Exaggeratedharshnessisharmfultoroyalauthorityandinmostcasescauses
itsdestruction
23Themeaningofcaliphateandimamate
24ThedifferencesofMuslimopinionconcerningthelawsandconditions
governingthecaliphate
25Shi'ahtenetsconcerningthequestionoftheimamate
26Thetransformationofthecaliphateintoroyalauthority
27Themeaningoftheoathofallegiance
28Thesuccession
29Thefunctionsofthereligiousinstitutionofthecaliphate
30Thetitleof"CommanderoftheFaithful,"whichischaracteristicofthe
caliph
31Remarksonthewords"Pope"and"Patriarch"intheChristianreligionand
ontheword"Kohen"usedbytheJews
32Theranksofroyalandgovernmentalauthorityandthetitlesthatgowith
thoseranks.Thewazirate.Theofficeofdoorkeeper(hijabah).Theministry
(diwan)offinancialoperationsandtaxation.Theministry(diwan)ofofficial
correspondenceandwriting.Thepolice.Theadmiralty.
33Thedifferentimportanceoftheranksof"thesword"and"thepen"inthe
variousdynasties
34Thecharacteristicemblemsofroyalandgovernmentauthority.The"outt"
(alah).Thethrone(sarir).Themint.Theseal.Thetiraz.Largetentsandtent
paredes.Theprayerenclosure(maggurah)andtheprayerduringtheFriday
sermon.
35Warsandthemethodsofwagingwarpracticedbythevariousnations
36Taxationandthereasonforlowandhightaxrevenues
37Inthelateryearsofdynasties,customsdutiesarelevied
38Commercialactivityonthepartoftherulerisharmfultohissubjectsand
ruinoustothetaxrevenue
39Therulerandhisentouragearewealthyonlyinthemiddleperiodofthe
dynasty
40Curtailmentoftheallowancesgivenbytherulerimpliescurtailmentofthe
taxrevenue
41Injusticebringsabouttheruinofcivilization
42Howithappensthataccesstotherulerbecomesrestrictedinthedynasty.
Suchrestrictionbecomesimportantwhenthedynastygrowssenile
43Thedivisionofonedynastyintotwo
44Oncesenilityhascomeuponadynasty,itcannotbemadetodisappear
45Howdisintegrationbefallsdynasties
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46Theauthorityofthedynastyatfirstexpandstoitslimitandthenisnarrowed
downinsuccessivestages,untilthedynastydissolvesanddisappears
47Howanewdynastyoriginates
48Anewdynastygainsdominationovertherulingdynastythrough
perseverance,andnotthroughsuddenaction
49Thereisanabundantcivilization(largepopulation)attheendofdynasties,
andpestilencesandfaminesfrequentlyoccurthen
50Humancivilizationrequirespoliticalleadershipforitsorganization
51TheFatimid.Theopinionsofthepeopleabouthim.Thetruthaboutthe
importam.SufiopinionsabouttheMahdi,
52Forecastingthefutureofdynastiesandnations,includingadiscussionof
predictions(malabim)andanexpositionofthesubjectcalled"divination"
(jafr)
CaptuloIV
ChapterV
ChapterVI
ConsideraesFinais
Page18
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PreliminaryRemarks
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CaptuloI
CaptuloII
CaptuloIII
CaptuloIV
1Dynastiesarepriortotownsandcities.Townsandcitiesaresecondary
productsofroyalauthority
2Royalauthoritycallsforurbansettlement
3Onlyastrongroyalauthorityisabletoconstructlargecitiesandhigh
monuments
4Verylargemonumentsarenotbuiltbyonedynastyalone
5Requirementsfortheplanningoftownsandtheconsequencesofneglecting
thoserequirements
6Themosquesandveneratedbuildingsoftheworld
7TherearefewcitiesandtownsinIfriqiyahandtheMaghrib
8ThebuildingsandconstructionsinIslamarecomparativelyfewconsidering
Islam'spowerandascomparedtothedynastiesprecedingIslam
9BuildingserectedbyArabs,withveryfewexceptions,quicklyfallintoruins
10Thebeginningsoftheruinofcities
11Withregardtotheamountofprosperityandbusinessactivityinthem,cities
andtownsdifferinaccordancewiththedifferentsizeoftheircivilization
(population)
12Pricesintowns
13Bedouinsareunabletosettleinacitywithalargecivilization(population)
14Differenceswithregardtoprosperityandpovertyarethesameincountries
asincities
15Theaccumulationofestatesandfarmsincities.Theirusesandyields
16Capitalistsamongtheinhabitantsofcitiesneedrankandprotection
17Sedentarycultureincitiescomesfromthedynasties.Itisfirmlyrooted
whenthedynastyiscontinuousandfirmlyrooted
Page19
18Sedentarycultureisthegoalofcivilization.Itmeanstheendofitslifespan
andbringsaboutitscorruption
19Citiesthataretheseatsofroyalauthorityfallintoruinswhentheruling
dynastyfallsintoruinsandcrumbles
20Certaincitieshavecraftsthatotherslack
21Theexistenceofgroupfeelingincitiesandthesuperiorityofsomeofthe
inhabitantsoverothers
22Thedialectsoftheurbanpopulation
ChapterV
ChapterVI
ConsideraesFinais
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Page20
ndice
PreliminaryRemarks
CaptuloI
CaptuloII
CaptuloIII
CaptuloIV
ChapterV
1Therealmeaningandexplanationofsustenanceandprofit.Profitisthevalue
realizedfromhumanlabor
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2Thevariousways,means,andmethodsofmakingaliving
3Beingaservantisnotanaturalwayofmakingaliving
4Tryingtomakemoneyfromburiedandothertreasuresisnotanaturalwayof
makingaliving
5Ranksareusefulinsecuringproperty
6Happinessandprofitareachievedmostlybypeoplewhoareobsequiousand
useflattery.Suchcharacterdispositionisoneofthereasonsforhappiness
7Personswhoareinchargeofofficesdealingwithreligiousmatters,suchas
judge,mufti,teacher,prayerleader,preacher,muezzin,andthelike,arenot
asaruleverywealthy
8AgricultureisawayofmakingalivingforweakpeopleandBedouinsin
searchofsubsistence
9Themeaning,methods,anddifferentkindsofcommerce
10Thetransportationofgoodsbymerchants
11Hoarding
12Continuedlowpricesareharmfultomerchantswhohavetotradeatlow
preos
13Thekindofpeoplewhoshouldpracticecommerce,andthosewhoshouldnot
14Thecharacterqualitiesofmerchantsareinferiortothoseofleading
personalitiesandremotefrommanliness
Page21
15Thecraftsrequireteachers
16Thecraftsareperfectedonlyifthereexistsalargeandperfectsedentary
civilization
17Thecraftsarefirmlyrootedinacityonlywhensedentarycultureisfirmly
rootedandoflongduration
18Craftscanimproveandincreaseonlywhenmanypeopledemandthem
19Thecraftsrecedefromcitiesthatareclosetoruin
20TheArabs,ofallpeople,areleastfamiliarwithcrafts
21Thepersonwhohasgainedthehabitofaparticularcraftisrarelyable
afterwardstomasteranother
22Abriefenumerationofthebasiccrafts
23Thecraftofagriculture
24Thecraftofarchitecture
25Thecraftofcarpentry
26Thecraftofweavingandtailoring
27Thecraftofmidwifery
28Thecraftofmedicine,Thecraftofmedicineisneededinsettledareasand
citiesbutnotinthedesert
29Calligraphy,theartofwriting,isoneofthehumancrafts
30Thecraftofbookproduction
31Thecraftofsingingandmusic
32Thecrafts,especiallywritingandcalculation,giveintelligencetotheperson
whopracticesthem
ChapterVI
ConsideraesFinais
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Page22
ndice
PreliminaryRemarks
CaptuloI
CaptuloII
CaptuloIII
CaptuloIV
ChapterV
ChapterVI
1Man'sabilitytothink
2Theworldofthethingsthatcomeintobeingastheresultofaction,
materializesthroughthinking
3Theexperimentalintellectandhowitcomesintobeing
4Thesciences(knowledge)ofhumanbeingsandthesciences(knowledge)of
angels
5Thesciences(knowledge)oftheprophets
6Manisessentiallyignorant,andbecomeslearnedthroughacquiring
conhecimento
7Scientificinstructionisacraft
8Thesciencesarenumerousonlywherecivilizationislargeandsedentary
culturehighlydeveloped
9Thevarioussciencesthatexistincontemporarycivilization
10TheQur'anicsciencesofQur'aninterpretationandQur'anreadingQur'an
interpretation
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11ThesciencesconcernedwithProphetictraditions
12Jurisprudenceanditssubdivision,inheritancelawsBThescienceof
inheritancelaws
Page23
13Thescienceoftheprinciplesofjurisprudenceanditssubdivisions,dialectics
andcontroversialquestions
14Thescienceofspeculativetheology
15AnexpositionofambiguityintheQuranandtheSunnahandoftheresulting
dogmaticschoolsamongboththeorthodoxandtheinnovators
16ThescienceofSufism
17Thescienceofdreaminterpretation
18Thevariouskindsofintellectualsciences
19Thesciencesconcernedwithnumbers.Thecraftofcalculation.Algebra.
Businessarithmetic.Inheritancelaws
20Thegeometricalsciences.Spherical,figures,conicsections,andmechanics.
Surveying.Optics.
21Astronomy.Astronomicaltables
22Thescienceoflogic
23Physics
24Thescienceofmedicine
25Thescienceofagriculture
26Thescienceofmetaphysics
27Thesciencesofsorceryandtalismans.Theevileye
28Thescienceofthesecretsofletters.TheZa'irajah.Onlearninghiddensecrets
fromletterconnections
29Thescienceofalchemy
30Arefutationofphilosophy.Thecorruptionofthestudentsofphilosophy
31Arefutationofastrology.Theweaknessofitsachievements.Theharmfulness
ofitsgoal
32Adenialoftheeffectivenessofalchemy.Theimpossibilityofitsexistence.
Theharmthatarisesfrompracticingit
33Thepurposesthatmustbekeptinmindinliterarycompositionandthatalone
aretobeconsideredvalid
34Thegreatnumberofscholarlyworksavailableisanobstacleonthepathto
attainingscholarship
35Thegreatnumberofbriefhandbooksavailableonscholarlysubjectsis
detrimentaltotheprocessofinstruction
36Therightattitudeinscientificinstructionandtowardthemethodofgiving
suchinstruction
37Studyoftheauxiliarysciencesshouldnotbeprolonged,andtheirproblems
shouldnotbetreatedindetail
38TheinstructionofchildrenandthedifferentmethodsemployedintheMuslim
cities
39Severitytostudentsdoesthemharm
40Ascholar'seducationisgreatlyimprovedbytravelinginquestofknowledge
andmeetingtheauthoritativeteachersofhistime
41Scholarsare,ofallpeople,thoseleastfamiliarwiththewaysofpolitics
42MostofthescholarsinIslamhavebeennonArabs(Persians)
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43ApersonwhosefirstlanguagewasnotArabicfindsitharderthanthenative
speakerofArabictoacquirethesciences
44ThesciencesconcernedwiththeArabiclanguage319Grammar,320.The
scienceoflexicography,325.Thescienceofsyntaxandstyleandliterary
criticism,332.Thescienceofliterature,
45Languageisatechnicalhabit
46ContemporaryArabicisanindependentlanguagedifferentfromthe
languagesoftheMudarandtheHimyar
47Thelanguageofthesedentaryandurbanpopulationisanindependent
languagedfferentfromthelanguageoftheMudar
48InstructionintheMudarlanguage
49ThehabitoftheMudarlanguageisdifferentfromArabicphilologyandcan
dispensewithitintheprocessofinstruction
50Theinterpretationandrealmeaningoftheword"taste"accordingtothe
technicalterminologyofliterarycritics.AnexplanationofwhyArabicized
nonArabsasaruledonothaveit
51Theurbanpopulationisingeneraldfcientinobtainingthelinguistichabit
thatresultsfrominstruction.Themoreremoteurbanpeoplearefromthe
Arabiclanguage,themoredifficultitisforthemtoobtainit
52Thedivisionofspeechintopoetryandprose
53Theabilitytowritebothgoodpoetryandgoodproseisonlyveryrarely
foundtogetherinoneperson
54Thecraftofpoetryandthewayoflearningit
55Poetryandproseworkwithwords,andnotwithideas
56Thelinguistichabitisobtainedbymuch.memorizing.Thegoodqualityof
thelinguistichabitistheresultofthegoodqualityofthememorizedmaterial
57Anexplanationofthemeaningofnaturalandcontrivedspeech.Como
contrivedspeechmaybeeithergoodordecient
58Peopleofrankareabovecultivatingpoetry
59ContemporaryArabpoetry,BedouinandurbanTheSpanishmuwashshabahs
andzajals
ConsideraesFinais
Page25
CONCLUDINGREMARKS
Wealmoststrayedfromourpurpose.Itisourintention(now)tostopwith
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thisFirstBookwhichisconcernedwiththenatureofcivilizationandtheaccidents
thatgowithit.Wehavedealtaswethink,adequatelywiththeproblems
connectedwiththat.Perhapssomelater(scholar),aidedbythedivinegiftsofa
soundmindandofsolidscholarship,willpenetldteintotheseproblemsingreater
detailthanwedidhere.Apersonwhocreatesanewdisciplinedoesnothavethe
taskofenumerating(all)the(individual)problemsconnectedwithit.Histaskisto
specifythesubjectofthedisciplineanditsvariousbranchesandthediscussions
connectedwithit.Hissuccessors,then,maygraduallyaddmoreproblems,untilthe
(discipline)iscompletely(presented).
"Godknows,andyoudonotknow."
1961
TheauthorofthebookGodforgivehim!says:Icompletedthe
1962emum
compositionanddraftofthisfirstpart,beforerevisionandcorrection,
periodoffivemonthsendinginthemiddleoftheyear779[November,1377].
Thereafter,Irevisedandcorrectedthebook,andIaddedtoitthehistoryofthe
(various)nations,asImentionedandproposedtodoatthebeginningofthework.
KnowledgecomesonlyfromGod,thestrong,thewise.
Page26
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AIMEDJEVDET,tr.SeePIRIZADEH.
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[editionaugmentee].Cairo,Baghdad,1961.
IBNKHALDUN,WALLADDIN'ABDARRAHMAN.Ta'rikhal'AllamaIbn
Khaldun.Ed.YQsufAsàdDighir.Beirut,19561960.7vols.
IBNKHALDUN,WALLADDIN'ABDARRAHMAN.MuqaddimatIbn
Khaldun.WithnotesandintroductionbyÀliÀbdalWihidWaftCairo,1957
1962.4vols.
IBNKHALDUN,WALLADDIN'ABDARRAHMAN.Muqaddimah.ForHindi
translation,seeRizvi.Persian,seePARVINEGONABAD.Portuguese,see
KHOURY.Turkish,seeUGAN.Forothertranslations,seeorig.bibl.IBN
KHALDuN(4).
IBNKHALDUN,WALLADDIN'ABDARRAHMAN.ForFrenchtranslationof
theeconomictexts,seeBoUSQUET.
IBNKHALDUN,WALLADDIN'ABDARRAHMAN.Sifa'ussd'illitahzibil
masd'il.(Apaisementaquicherchecommentclarjerlesproblemes.)Edition,
introductionetvocabulairetechniqueparlepereIgnaceAbdoKhalife,SJ
InstitutdeLettresorientatesdeBeyrouth,xi.Beirut,1959.
IBNKHALDUN,WALLADDIN'ABDARRAHMAN.SIfa'u'ssd'illitehzibi'l
mesd'il.Ed.Muhammedb.TawitatTanji.Istanbul,1958.AnkaraUniversitesi
IlahiyatFakultesiYaymlari,xxii.
IBRASHI,MUHAMMAD'ATIYAHALandTAWANISI,ABOALFUTON
MUHAMMADAL.SilsilatTarajim.Cairo,1957.Cf.u,80142.
Page49
IndexIranicus.SeeFehrestmaqalateFarsi.
IndexIslamicus,19061955.AcatalogueofarticlesonIslamicsubjectsin
periodicalsandothercollectivepublications.Ed.JDPearson,withassistance
ofJuliaF.Ashton.Cambridge,1958.Cf.pp.3401.
IndexIslamicus,.Supplement,19561960.Ed.JDPearson.Cambridge,1962.Cf.
pp.1067.
IRVING,TB"TheWorldofIbnKhaldun,"TheIslamicLiterature(Lahore),Ix
(1957),54751,47377.
IRVING,TB"PetertheCruelandIbnKhaldun,"op.cit.,xi(1959),517.
IRVING,TB."AFourteenthCenturyViewofLanguage"inTheWorldofIslam,
StudiesinHonourofPhilipK.Hitti.Eds.J.KritzeckandR.BaylyWinder.
London,NewYork,1959.Cf.pp.18592.
'ISSA,'ALiAHMAD.TheArabicSociety:ExperimentalSociologicalStudies.Cairo,
1961.Cf.pp.17991.
IVANOV,NA"'Kitabal'Ibar'IbnKhaldunakakistochnikpoistoriistran
SevernoyAfrikiveXIVveke"(IbnKhaldun's"Kitabal'Ibar"asaSourcefor
theHistoryoftheNorthAfricanLandsinthe14thCentury),ArabskiiSbornik
(Moscow),xix(1959),845.
ÌZZAT,'ABDAL'AZIZ.ThePhilosophyofHistoryandSociology.Cairo,1960.
Cf.pp.9461.
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JAFFAR,SMHistoryofHistory.PeshawarCity,1961.Cf.I,4447.
JEANLEONL ' AFRICAIN.Descriptiondel'Afrique.Tr.(fromItalian)anded.A.
Epaulardandothers.Publicationdel'InstitutdesHautesEtudesMarocaines,
LXI.Paris,1956.2vols.
KHALIFE,LEPEREIGNACEABDO,SJ"Unnouveautraitemystiqued'Ibn
Jjaldun"inAktendesvierundzwanzigsteninternationalenOrientalisten
Kongresses,Manchen,1957.Wiesbaden,1959.Cf.pp.33033.
KHALIFE,LEPEREIGNACEABDO,SJ.SeealsoIBNKHALDUN(5).
KHOURY,J.andA.BIERRENBACH,trs.b.Haldun.Osprolegomenosoufilosfla
social.IntroductionbyJ.AlmansurHaddad.SaoPaulo,19581960.(Portuguese
translationoftheMuqaddimah.)
KOPILEWITZ,IMMANUEL.AqdamotlaHistoria(Hebrewtranslationofthe
Muqaddimah.)Translated,withnotesandintroduction,BialikInstitute,
Jerusalem,1967.
KRITZECK,JAMES,ed.AnthologyofIslamicLiterature,fromtheriseofIslamto
moderntimes.NewYork,1964.Cf.pp.27484.
LACOSTE,YVES."Lagrandeoeuvred'IbnKhaldoun,"LaPensie(Paris),LXIX
(1956),1033.
LEVIDELLAVIDA,GIORGIO.ReviewofF.Rosenthal'stranslationofthe
Muqaddimah,OrienteModerno(Rome),XXXVIlI(1958),10057.
LEWIS,BERNARD."TheMuslimDiscoveryofEurope,"BulletinoftheSchoolof
OrientalandAfricanStudies(London),xx(1957),40916.
LEWIS,BERNARDandHOLT,PM,eds.HistoriansoftheMiddleEast.School
ofOrientalandAfricanStudies,HistoricalwritingonthepeoplesofAsia,IV.
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LIEBLING,AJ"TheRoundofHistory"(reviewarticle),TheNewYorker(New
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York),xxxv(1959),no.38,21341.
MACDONALD,J."AnArab'sAppreciationofIbnKhaldunandWesternCriticism
ofIslam,"TheIslamicLiterature(Lahore),xi(1959),18795.
MADELUNG,WILFREDVON."FatimidenandBahraingarmaten,"DerIslam
(Berlin),xxxiv(1959),3488.
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MAHDI,MUHSIN."IbnKhaldun"inApproachestotheOrientalClassics.Ed.
WilliamTheodoredeBary.NewYork,1959.Cf.pp.6883.
MAHDI,MUHSIN..IbnKhaldun'sPhilosophyofHistory.NewYork:Phoenixedn.,
1964.
MAHDI,MUHSIN.."DieKritikderislamischenpolitischenPhilosophiebeiIbn
Khaldun,"inWissenschaftlichePolitik:eineEinfuhrunginGrundfragenihrer
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MALLAH,MAHMODAL.Dagd'iqwahagd'iqfiMuqaddimatIbnKhaldun.
Baghdad,1955.
MALLAH,MAHMODAL..NazrahthdniyahfiMuqaddimatIbnKhaldun.
Baghdad,1956.
MANZOOR,'ALAM.SeeALAM,MANZOR.
MIGNANELLI,B.DE.SeeFISCHEL(2).
MULLER,HERBERTJOSEPH.TheLoomofHistory.NewYork,1958Londres,
1960.Cf.pp.290ff.(NewYorkedn.).
MUSA,MuNIRM.GeneralSociology.Damascus,1959.Cf.vol.I,2736.
NADVI,MEVLANAMUHAMMADHANIFSAHAB.AfkariIbnKhaldun.
Lahore,1954.UrdutranslationoftheMuqaddimah.
NASSAR,NASSIF."LeMaitred'IbnKhaldUn:alAbili"inStudiaIslamica,Paris,
xx(1965),103114.
NICHOLSON,REYNOLDSALLEYNE.Reprintof"IbnKhaldun:thedynamicsof
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history"inIntroductiontoIslamicCivilization.Coursesyllabusandselected
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PARVINEGONABAD,MUHAMMAD,tr.MogaddameyeEbneKhaldun,ta'lfe
Àbdo'rRahmdnEbneI(haldun.Teheran,19571959.Persiantranslationof
theMuqaddimah.
PEARSON,JDSeeIndexIslamicusandSupplement.
PERES,HENRI.Lesikcled'IbnKhaldoun(VIII/XIV).(Bibliothequedel'Institut
d'etudessuperieuresislamiqued'Alger.)Algiers,1960.
PERLMAN,MOSHE."IbnKhaldunonSufism,"BibliothecaOrientalis(Leiden),
xvii(1960),2223.
PRAKASH,BUDDHA.TheModernApproachtoHistory.Delhi,1963(University
Publications).
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InstitutodeEstudiosAfricanos(Madrid),vi(1952),no.24,79.
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1962.(Indonesiantexts.)
Page51
RICHTER,GUSTAV."MedievalArabicHistoriography"(tr.anded.M.Saber
Khan),IslamicCulture(Hyderabad),xxxiii(1959),14851xxxiv(1960),139
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RIOWAN,IBRAHIM.Muqaddimah.Selections.Ed.AhmadZagi.Cairo,1960.
RIZVI,ATHARAHBES.Ibn?KhaladunakaMukadama.Lucknow,1961.Hindi
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ROSENTHAL,ERWINISAKJAKOB.PoliticalThoughtinMedievalIslam:an
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ROSENTHAL,FRANZ,tr.IbnKhaldun,AnIntroductiontoHistory:The
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SALIBI,KAMALS."ListeschronologiquesdesgrandsCadisdel'Egyptesousles
Mamelouks,"RevuedesEtudesIslamiques(Paris),xxv(1957),81125.
SALIBI,RUSHDIA.RajulfitQdhirah(AManinCairo).Afictionalized
biographyofIbnKhalduninCairo.Kutubli'lJami'a,cxv.Cairo,1957.
SAMIHI,'ABDALKARIM."IbnKhaldunandHis'Ta`rif,'"RevuealAnwdr
(Tetuan),(1951),no.26,1213,1920.
SAUNDERS,JJ"TheProblemofIslamicDecadence,"Cahiersd'Histoire
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disciplinesandthemodernRenaissanceinMuslimlands.2vols.Vol.EU,
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SHIBER,SABAG."IbnKhaldunanearlytownplanner,"MiddleEastForum
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yougoslavessouslaDominationturque)(Sarajevo),v(19541955),23350.
Frenchsummary,p.250.
SIMON,HEINRICH.IbnKhaldunsWissenschaftvondermenschlichenKultur.
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"TheDevelopmentofArabicHistoriography,"Journalof
SOMOGY1,JOSEPHDE.
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SUBBAREDDY,DV"SociologyofMedicineintheMuqaddimahofIbn
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TANJA,MUIJAMMADIBNTAWITAT."Prolegomenesd'IbnKhaldoun"in
ProceedingsoftheTwentysecondInternationalCongressofOrientalists,
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TANJA,MUIJAMMADIBNTAWITAT.SeealsoIBNKHALDON(6).
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UniversitesiEbebiyatFakiiltesiYayinlarindanMo.DCCCLXXXVII.Istambul,
1961.
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WARDI,ÀLIAL.MantiqIbnKhaldunfidaw'haddratihiwasafsiyyatihi
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WHITE,HAYDENV.ReviewofF.Rosenthal'stranslationoftheMuqaddimah,
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WIET,GASTON..Cairo,CityofArtandCommerce.Tr.SeymourFeiler.O
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Page53
ndice
TRADUTOR 'SINTRODUCTION
IbnKhaldun'sLife
TheMuqaddimah
TheTextualHistoryoftheMuqaddimah(i)Manuscripts,(ii)Editions,(iii)GradualGrowthof
theText,(iv)PreviousTranslations,(v)PresentTranslation.
PreliminaryRemarks
CaptuloI
CaptuloII
CaptuloIII
Ondynasties,royalauthority,thecaliphate,governmentranks,
andallthatgoeswiththesethings.Thechaptercontainsbasic
andsupplementarypropositions
CaptuloIV
ChapterV
ChapterVI
ConsideraesFinais
Page54
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INVOCATION
INTHENAMEOFGODTHEMERCIFUL,THECOMPASSIONATE.PRAY,O
GOD,FOROURLORDMUHAMMADANDHISFAMILYANDTHEMEN
AROUNDHIM.
THESERVANTofGodwhoneedsthemercyofGodwhoissorichinHis
kindness,'AbdarRahmanb.Muhammadb.KhaldunalHadramiGodgivehim
success!says: 1 PraisedbeGod!Heispowerfulandmighty.InHishand,Heholds
2 Hisarethemostbeautifulnamesandattributes.Sua
royalauthorityandkingship.
knowledgeissuchthatnothing,beitrevealedinsecretwhisperingor(even)left
unsaid,remainsstrangetoHim.Hispowerissuchthatnothinginheavenandupon
earthistoomuchforHimorescapesHim.
Hecreatedusfromtheearthasliving,breathingcreatures.Hemadeusto
settle 3 onitasracesandnations.Fromit,Heprovidedsustenanceandprovisionsfor
ns.
Thewombsofourmothersandhousesareourabode.Sustenanceandfood
keepusalive.Timewearsusout.Ourlives'finalterms,thedatesofwhichhave
beenfixedforusinthebook(ofdestiny),claimus.ButHelastsandpersists.Ele
theLivingOnewhodoesnotdie.
4
PrayerandblessingsuponourLordandMaster,Muhammad,theArab
5 himforwhose
prophet,whomTorahandGospelhavementionedanddescribed
birththeworldthatiswas(already)inlaborbeforeSundayswerefollowingupon
SaturdaysinregularsequenceandbeforeSaturnandBehemothhadbecome
7
separated 6 himtowhosetruthfulnesspigeonandspiderborewitness.
(Prayerandblessings)alsouponhisfamilyandthemenaroundhimwhoby
beinghiscompanions 8 andfollowersgainedwideinfluenceandfameandwhoby
supportinghimfoundunitywhiletheirenemieswereweakenedthroughdispersion.
Pray,OGod,forhimandthem,foraslongasIslamshallcontinuetoenjoyitslucky
fortuneandthefrayedropeofunbeliefshallremaincut!Givemanifoldblessings(to
himandthem)!
Page55
APRESENTAO
HISTORYisadisciplinewidelycultivatedamongnationsandraces.Isto
eagerlysoughtafter.Themeninthestreet,theordinarypeople,aspiretoknowit.
Kingsandleadersvieforit.
Boththelearnedandtheignorantareabletounderstandit.Foronthe
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surfacehistoryisnomorethaninformationaboutpoliticalevents,dynasties,and
occurrencesoftheremotepast,elegantlypresentedandspicedwithproverbs.Ele
servestoentertainlarge,crowdedgatheringsandbringstousanunderstandingof
humanaffairs.(Itshows)howchangingconditionsaffected(humanaffairs),how
certaindynastiescametooccupyaneverwiderspaceintheworld,andhowthey
settledtheearthuntiltheyheardthecallandtheirtimewasup.
Theinnermeaningofhistory,ontheotherhand,involvesspeculationandan
attempttogetatthetruth,subtleexplanationofthecausesandoriginsofexisting
things,anddeepknowledgeofthehowandwhyofevents.(History,)therefore,is
9
firmlyrootedinphilosophy.Itdeservestobeaccountedabranchof(philosophy).
TheoutstandingMuslimhistoriansmadeexhaustivecollectionsofhistorical
eventsandwrotethemdowninbookform.But,then,personswhohadnorightto
occupythemselveswithhistoryintroducedintothosebooksuntruegossipwhich
theyhadthoughtuporfreelyinvented,aswellasfalse,discreditedreportswhich
theyhadmadeuporembellished.Manyoftheirsuccessorsfollowedintheirsteps
andpassedthatinformationontousastheyhadheardit.Theydidnotlookfor,or
payanyattentionto,thecausesofeventsandconditions,nordidtheyeliminateor
rejectnonsensicalstories.
Littleeffortisbeingmadetogetatthetruth.Thecriticaleye,asarule,isnot
afiada.Errorsandunfoundedassumptionsarecloselyalliedandfamiliarelementsin
historicalinformation.Blindtrustintraditionisaninheritedtraitinhumanbeings.
Occupationwiththe(scholarly)disciplinesonthepartofthosewhohavenorightis
generalizada.Butthepastureofstupidityisunwholesomeformankind.Noonecan
standupagainsttheauthorityoftruth,andtheeviloffalsehoodistobefoughtwith
enlighteningspeculation.Thereportermerelydictatesandpasseson(thematerial).Ele
takescriticalinsighttosortoutthehiddentruthittakesknowledgetolaytruthbare
andpolishitsothatcriticalinsightmaybeappliedtoit.
Manysystematichistoricalworkshavebeencomposed,andthehistoryof
nationsanddynastiesintheworldhasbeencompiledandwrittendown.Butthere
areveryfew(historians)whohavebecomesowellknownastoberecognizedas
authorities,andwhohavereplacedtheproductsoftheirpredecessorsbytheirown
funciona.Theycanalmostbecountedonthefingersofthehandstheyarehardlymore
numerousthanthevowelsingrammaticalconstructions(whicharejustthree).L
10 atTabari 11 IbnalKalbi 12 Muhammadb.'Umaral
are,forinstance,IbnIshaq
Wagidi 13 Sayfb.'UmaralAsadi 14 alMas'udi, 15 andotherfamous(historians)
whoaredistinguishedfromthegeneralrun(ofhistorians).
Itiswellknowntocompetentpersonsandreliableexpertsthattheworksof
16
alMasudiandalWaqidiaresuspectandobjectionableincertainrespects.
However,theirworkshavebeendistinguishedbyuniversalacceptanceofthe
informationtheycontainandbyadoptionoftheirmethodsandtheirpresentationof
material.Thediscerningcriticishisownjudgeastowhichpartoftheirmaterialhe
findsspurious,andwhichhegivescredenceto.Civilization,inits(different)
Page56
conditions,contains(different)elementstowhichhistoricalinformationmaybe
relatedandwithwhichreportsandhistoricalmaterialsmaybechecked.
Mostofthehistoriesbythese(authors)covereverythingbecauseofthe
17 e
universalgeographicalextensionofthetwoearliestIslamicdynasties
becauseoftheverywideselectionofsourcesofwhichtheydidordidnotmakeuse.
Someoftheseauthors,suchasalMas'idiandhistoriansofhistype,gavean
exhaustivehistoryofthepreIslamicdynastiesandnationsandofother(pre
Islamic)affairsingeneral.Somelaterhistorians,ontheotherhand,showeda
tendencytowardgreaterrestriction,hesitatingtobesogeneralandcomprehensive.
Theybroughttogetherthehappeningsoftheirownperiodandgaveexhaustive
historicalinformationabouttheirownpartoftheworld.Theyrestrictedthemselves
tothehistoryoftheirowndynastiesandcities.ThiswasdonebyIbnHayyan,the
18 andbyIbnarRaqiq,thehistorian
historianofSpainandtheSpanishUmayyads,
ofIfrigiyahandthedynastyinKairouan(alQayrawan).
19
Thelaterhistorianswerealltraditionboundanddullofnatureand
intelligence,or,(atanyrate)didnottrynottobedull.Theymerelycopied
(olderhistorians)andfollowedtheirexample.Theydisregardedthechangesin
conditionsandinthecustomsofnationsandracesthatthepassingoftimehad
20 o
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broughtabout.Thus,theypresentedhistoricalinformationaboutdynastiesand
storiesofeventsfromtheearlyperiodasmereformswithoutsubstance,blades
withoutscabbards,asknowledgethatmustbeconsideredignorance,becauseitis
notknownwhatofitisextraneousandwhatisgenuine.(Theirinformation)
concernshappeningstheoriginsofwhicharenotknown.Itconcernsspeciesthe
generaofwhicharenottakenintoconsideration,andwhose(specific)differences
arenotverified. 21 Withtheinformationtheysetdowntheymerelyrepeated
historicalmaterialwhichis,inanycase,widelyknown,andfollowedtheearlier
historianswhoworkedonit.Theyneglectedtheimportanceofchangeoverthe
generationsintheirtreatmentofthe(historicalmaterial),becausetheyhadnoone
whocouldinterpretitforthem.Theirworks,therefore,givenoexplanationforit.
Whentheythenturntothedescriptionofaparticulardynasty,theyreportthe
historicalinformationaboutit(mechanically)andtakecaretopreserveitasithad
beenpassedondowntothem,beitimaginaryortrue.Theydonotturntothe
beginningofthedynasty.Nordotheytellwhyitunfurleditsbannerandwasableto
giveprominencetoitsemblem,orwhatcausedittocometoastopwhenithad
reacheditsterm.Thestudent,thus,hasstilltosearchforthebeginningsof
conditionsandfor(theprinciplesof)organizationof(thevariousdynasties).Ele
must(himself)investigatewhythevariousdynastiesbroughtpressurestobearupon
eachotherandwhytheysucceededeachother.Hemustsearchforaconvincing
explanationoftheelementsthatmadeformutualseparationorcontactamongthe
dynasties.AllthiswillbedealtwithintheIntroductiontothiswork.
Otherhistorians,then,camewithtoobriefapresentation(ofhistory).Eles
wenttotheextremeofbeingsatisfiedwiththenamesofkings,withoutany
genealogicalorhistoricalinformation,andwithonlyanumericalindicationofthe
23 andby
lengthofreigns. 22 ThiswasdonebyIbnRashiqintheMizanal'amal,
thoselostsheepwhofollowedhismethod.Nocredencecanbegiventowhatthey
say.Theyarenotconsideredtrustworthy,noristheirmaterialconsideredworthyof
transmission,fortheycausedusefulmaterialtobelostanddamagedthemethods
andcustomsacknowledged(assoundandpractical)byhistorians.
WhenIhadreadtheworksofothersandprobedintotherecessesof
yesterdayandtoday,Ishookmyselfoutofthatdrowsycomplacencyandsleepiness.
24 IexhibitedmyownliteraryabilityaswellasI
Althoughnotmuchofawriter,
Page57
could,and,thus,composedabookonhistory.In(thisbook)Iliftedtheveilfrom
conditionsastheyariseinthevariousgenerations.Iarrangeditinanorderlywayin
chaptersdealingwithhistoricalfactsandreflections.InitIshowedhowandwhy
dynastiesandcivilizationoriginate.Ibasedtheworkonthehistoryofthetworaces
thatconstitutethepopulationoftheMaghribatthistimeandpeopleitsvarious
regionsandcities,andonthatoftheirrulinghouses,bothlongandshortlived,
includingtherulersandalliestheyhadinthepast.ThesetworacesaretheArabs
andtheBerbers.TheyarethetworacesknowntohaveresidedintheMaghribfor
suchalongtimethatonecanhardlyimaginetheyeverlivedelsewhere,forits
inhabitantsknownootherhumanraces.
Icorrectedthecontentsoftheworkcarefullyandpresentedittothe
judgmentofscholarsandtheelite.Ifollowedanunusualmethodofarrangement
anddivisionintochapters.Fromthevariouspossibilities,Ichosearemarkableand
originalmethod.Inthework,Icommentedoncivilization,onurbanization,andon
theessentialcharacteristicsofhumansocialorganization,inawaythatexplainsto
thereaderhowandwhythingsareastheyare,andshowshimhowthemenwho
constitutedadynastyfirstcameuponthehistoricalscene.Asaresult,hewillwash
hishandsofanyblindtrustintradition.Hewillbecomeawareoftheconditionsof
periodsandracesthatwerebeforehistimeandthatwillbeafterit.
Idividedtheworkintoanintroductionandthreebooks:
TheIntroductiondealswiththegreatmeritofhistoriography,(offers)an
appreciationofitsvariousmethods,andciteserrorsofthehistorians.
TheFirstBookdealswithcivilizationanditsessentialcharacteristics,
namely,royalauthority,government,gainfuloccupations,waysofmakinga
living,crafts,andsciences,aswellaswiththecausesandreasonsthereof.
TheSecondBookdealswiththehistory,races,anddynastiesofthe
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Arabs,fromthebeginningofcreationdowntothistime.Thiswillinclude
referencestosuchfamousnationsanddynastiescontemporaneouswith
los, 25 astheNabataeans, 26 theSyrians,thePersians,theIsraelites,the
Copts,theGreeks,theByzantines,andtheTurks.
TheThirdBookdealswiththehistoryoftheBerbersandoftheZanatah
whoarepartofthemwiththeiroriginsandracesand,inparticular,withthe
royalauthorityanddynastiesintheMaghrib.
Lateron,therewasmytriptotheEast,inordertofindoutaboutthe
manifoldilluminationitoffersandtofulfillthereligiousdutyandcustomof
circumambulatingtheKa'bahandvisitingMedina,aswellastostudythesystematic
worksandtomeson(Eastern)history.Asaresult,Iwasabletofillthegapsinmy
historicalinformationaboutthenonArab(Persian)rulersofthoselands,andabout
theTurkishdynastiesintheregionsoverwhichtheyruled.Iaddedthisinformation
towhatIhadwrittenhere(beforeinthisconnection).Iinserteditintothetreatment
ofthenationsofthevariousdistrictsandrulersofthevariouscitiesandregionsthat
werecontemporarywiththose(PersianandTurkish)races.InthisconnectionIwas
briefandconciseandpreferredtheeasygoaltothedifficultone.Iproceededfrom
27 todetailedhistoricalinformation.
generalgenealogical(tables)
Thus,(thiswork)containsanexhaustivehistoryoftheworld.Itforces
stubbornstraywisdomtoreturntothefold.Itgivescausesandreasonsfor
happeningsinthevariousdynasties.Itturnsouttobeavesselforphilosophy,a
receptacleforhistoricalknowledge.TheworkcontainsthehistoryoftheArabsand
Page58
theBerbers,boththesedentarygroupsandthenomads.Italsocontainsreferencesto
thegreatdynastiesthatwerecontemporarywiththem,and,moreover,clearly
indicatesmemorablelessonstobelearnedfromearlyconditionsandfrom
subsequenthistory.Therefore,Icalledthework"BookofLessonsandArchiveof
EarlyandSubsequentHistory,DealingwiththePoliticalEventsConcerningthe
Arabs,NonArabs,andBerbers,andtheSupremeRulersWhoWereContemporary
withThem." 28
Iomittednothingconcerningtheoriginofracesanddynasties,concerning
thesynchronismoftheearliestnations,concerningthereasonsforchangeand
variationinpastperiodsandwithinreligiousgroups,concerningdynastiesand
religiousgroups,townsandhamlets,strengthandhumiliation,largenumbersand
smallnumbers,sciencesandcrafts,gainsandlosses,changinggeneralconditions,
nomadicandsedentarylife,actualeventsandfutureevents,allthingsexpectedto
occurincivilization.Itreatedeverythingcomprehensivelyandexhaustivelyand
explainedtheargumentsforandcausesofit(sexistence).
Asaresult,thisbookhasbecomeunique,asitcontainsunusualknowledge
andfamiliarifhiddenwisdom.Still,afterallhasbeensaid,Iamconsciousof
imperfectionwhen(Ilookat)thescholarsof(pastandcontemporary)times.
confessmyinabilitytopenetratesodifficultasubject.Iwishthatmenofscholarly
competenceandwideknowledgewouldlookatthebookwithacritical,ratherthan
acomplacenteye,andsilentlycorrectandoverlookthemistakestheycomeupon.
Thecapitalofknowledgethatanindividualscholarhastoofferissmall.Admission
(ofone'sshortcomings)savesfromcensure.Kindnessfromcolleaguesishopedfor.
ItisGodwhomIasktomakeourdeedsacceptableinHissight.Hesufficesme.Ele
isagoodprotector. 30
29 EU
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Page59
INTRODUO
Theexcellenceofhistoriography.Anappreciationof
thevariousapproachestohistory.Aglimpseatthe
differentkindsoferrorstowhichhistoriansareliable.
31
Somethingaboutwhytheseerrorsoccur.
ITSHOULDBEKNOWNthathistoryisadisciplinethathasagreat
numberof(different)approaches.Itsusefulaspectsareverymany.Itsgoalis
distinguished.
(History)makesusacquaintedwiththeconditionsofpastnationsastheyare
reflectedintheir(national)character.Itmakesusacquaintedwiththebiographiesof
theprophetsandwiththedynastiesandpoliciesofrulers.Whoeversodesiresmay
thusachievetheusefulresultofbeingabletoimitatehistoricalexamplesinreligious
andworldlymatters.
The(writing 32 ofhistory)requiresnumeroussourcesandgreatlyvaried
knowledge.Italsorequiresagoodspeculativemindandthoroughness.(Possession
ofthesetwoqualities)leadsthehistoriantothetruthandkeepshimfromslipsand
erros.Ifhetrustshistoricalinformationinitsplaintransmittedformandhasno
clearknowledgeoftheprinciplesresultingfromcustom,thefundamentalfactsof
politics,thenatureofcivilization,ortheconditionsgoverninghumansocial
organization,andif,furthermore,hedoesnotevaluateremoteorancientmaterial
throughcomparisonwithnearorcontemporarymaterial,heoftencannotavoid
stumblingandslippinganddeviatingfromthehighroadoftruth.Historians,Qur'an
commentatorsandleadingtransmittershavecommittedfrequenterrorsinthestories
andeventstheyreported.Theyacceptedthemintheplaintransmittedform,without
regardforitsvalue.Theydidnotcheckthemwiththeprinciplesunderlyingsuch
historicalsituations,nordidtheycomparethemwithsimilarmaterial.Also,theydid
notprobe(moredeeply)withtheyardstickofphilosophy,withthehelpof
knowledgeofthenatureofthings,orwiththehelpofspeculationandhistorical
insight.Therefore,theystrayedfromthetruthandfoundthemselveslostinthe
desertofbaselessassumptionsanderrors.
Thisisespeciallythecasewithfigures,eitherofsumsofmoneyorof
soldiers,whenevertheyoccurinstories.Theyofferagoodopportunityforfalse
informationandconstituteavehiclefornonsensicalstatements.Theymustbe
controlledandcheckedwiththehelpofknownfundamentalfacts.
Forexample,alMas'udiandmanyotherhistoriansreportthatMoses
33 Hehadallthoseabletocarry
countedthearmyoftheIsraelitesinthedesert.
arms,especiallythosetwentyyearsandolder,passmuster.Thereturnedouttobe
600,000ormore.Inthisconnection,(alMas'udi)forgetstotakeintoconsideration
whetherEgyptandSyriacouldpossiblyhaveheldsuchanumberofsoldiers.Cada
realmmayhaveaslargeamilitiaasitcanholdandsupport,butnomore.Estefacto
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isattestedbywellknowncustomsandfamiliarconditions.Moreover,anarmyof
thissizecannotmarchorfightasaunit.Thewholeavailableterritorywouldbetoo
smallforit.Ifitwereinbattleformation,itwouldextendtwo,three,ormoretimes
beyondthefieldofvision.How,then,couldtwosuchpartiesfightwitheachother,
oronebattleformationgaintheupperhandwhenoneflankdoesnotknowwhatthe
Page60
otherflankisdoing!Thesituationatthepresentdaytestifiestothecorrectnessof
thisstatement.Thepastresemblesthefuturemorethanone(dropof)wateranother.
Furthermore,therealmofthePersianswasmuchgreaterthanthatofthe
Israelites.ThisfactisattestedbyNebuchadnezzar'svictoryoverthem.Heswallowed
uptheircountryandgainedcompletecontroloverit.HealsodestroyedJerusalem,
theirreligiousandpoliticalcapital.Andhewasmerelyoneoftheofficialsofthe
provinceofFars. 34 Itissaidthathewasthegovernorofthewesternborderregion.
35 Khurasan,Transoxania,andtheregionof
ThePersianprovincesofthetwo'Iraqs,
36 weremuchlargerthantherealmoftheIsraelites.
DerbendontheCaspianSea
Yet,thePersianarmydidnotattainsuchanumberorevenapproachit.Thegreatest
concentrationofPersiantroops,atalQadisiyah,amountedto120,000men,allof
37 whosaidthatwiththeir
whomhadtheirretainers.ThisisaccordingtoSayf
retainerstheyamountedtoover200,000persons.Accordingto'A'ishahandaz
Zuhri, 38 thetroopconcentrationwithwhichRustumadvancedagainstSa'datal
Qadisiyahamountedtoonly60,000men,allofwhomhadtheirretainers.
Then,iftheIsraeliteshadreallyamountedtosuchanumber,theextentof
theareaundertheirrulewouldhavebeenlarger,forthesizeofadministrativeunits
andprovincesunderaparticulardynastyisindirectproportiontothesizeofits
militiaandthegroupsthatsupportthe(dynasty),aswillbeexplainedinthesection
39 Now,itiswellknownthattheterritoryofthe
onprovincesinthefirstbook.
(Israelites)didnotcompriseanarealargerthantheJordanprovinceandPalestinein
40 Also,therewereonly
SyriaandtheregionofMedinaandKhaybarintheHijaz.
threegenerations 41 betweenMosesandIsrael,accordingtothebestinformed
scholars.MoseswasthesonofAmram,thesonofKohath(QahatorQahit
), theson
ofLevi(LewiorLawi ),42thesonofJacobwhoisIsraelAllah.ThisisMoses'
genealogyintheTorah. 43 ThelengthoftimebetweenIsraelandMoseswas
indicatedbyalMas'udiwhenhesaid:"IsraelenteredEgyptwithhischildren,the
tribes,andtheirchildren,whentheycametoJosephnumberingseventysouls.O
lengthoftheirstayinEgyptuntiltheyleftwithMosesforthedesertwastwo
hundredandtwentyyears.Duringthoseyears,thekingsoftheCopts,thePharaohs,
44 Itisimprobablethatthe
passedthemon(astheirsubjects)onetotheother."
descendantsofonemancouldbranchoutintosuchanumberwithinfour
45
geraes.
Ithasbeenassumedthatthisnumberofsoldiersappliedtothetimeof
Solomonandhissuccessors.Again,thisisimprobable.BetweenSolomonand
Israel,therewereonlyelevengenerations,thatis:Solomon,thesonofDavid,the
sonofJesse,thesonofObed('Ubidh,or'Ufidh),thesonofBoaz(Ba'az,orBu'iz),
thesonofSalmon,thesonofNahshon,thesonofAmminadab('Amminddhab,or
Hamminddhab),thesonofRam,thesonofHezron(Had/srun,orHasran),theson
ofPerez(Baras,orBayras
), thesonofJudah,thesonofJacob.Thedescendantsof
onemaninelevengenerationswouldnotbranchoutintosuchanumber,ashasbeen
assumed.Theymight,indeed,reachhundredsorthousands.Thisoftenhappens.Mas
46 isimprobable.Comparisonwith
anincreasebeyondthattohigherfigures
observablepresentdayandwellknownnearbyfactsprovestheassumptionand
47
reporttobeuntrue.AccordingtothedefinitestatementoftheIsraeliteStories,
48
Solomon'sarmyamountedto12,000men,andhishorses
numbered1,400horses,
whichwerestabledathispalace.Thisisthecorrectinformation.Noattentionshould
bepaidtononsensicalstatementsbythecommonrunofinformants.Inthedaysof
Solomon,theIsraelitestatesawitsgreatestflourishingandtheirrealmitswidest
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extenso.
Whenever 49 contemporariesspeakaboutthedynasticarmiesoftheirownor
recenttimes,andwhenevertheyengageindiscussionsaboutMuslimorChristian
soldiers,orwhentheygettofiguringthetaxrevenuesandthemoneyspentbythe
government,theoutlaysofextravagantspenders,andthegoodsthatrichand
prosperousmenhaveinstock,theyarequitegenerallyfoundtoexaggerate,togo
beyondtheboundsoftheordinary,andtosuccumbtothetemptationof
sensationalism.Whentheofficialsinchargearequestionedabouttheirarmies,when
thegoodsandassetsofwealthypeopleareassessed,andwhentheoutlaysof
extravagantspendersarelookedatinordinarylight,thefigureswillbefoundto
amounttoatenthofwhatthosepeoplehavesaid.Thereasonissimple.o
commondesireforsensationalism,theeasewithwhichonemayjustmentiona
higherfigure,andthedisregardofreviewersandcritics.Thisleadstofailureto
exerciseselfcriticismaboutone'serrorsandintentions,todemandfromoneself
moderationandfairnessinreporting,toreapplyoneselftostudyandresearch.Tal
historiansletthemselvesgoandmadeafeastofuntruestatements."Theyprocure
forthemselvesentertainingstoriesinordertolead(others)astrayfromthepathof
God." 50 Thisisabadenoughbusiness.
Ele51 maybesaidthattheincreaseofdescendantstosuchanumberwouldbe
preventedunderordinaryconditionswhich,however,donotapplytotheIsraelites.
(Theincreaseintheircase)wouldbeamiracleinaccordancewiththetradition
whichsaidthatoneofthethingsrevealedtotheirforefathers,theprophets
Abraham,Isaac,andJacob,wasthatGodwouldcausetheirdescendantstoincrease
untiltheyweremorenumerousthanthestarsofheavenandthepebblesoftheearth.
Godfulfilledthispromisetothemasanactofdivinegracebestoweduponthemand
asanextraordinarymiracleintheirfavor.Thus,ordinaryconditionscouldnothinder
(suchanevent),andnobodyshouldspeakagainstit.
Someonemightcomeoutagainstthistradition(withtheargument)thatit
occursonlyintheTorahwhich,asiswellknown,wasalteredbytheJews.(A
replytothisargumentwouldbethat)thestatementconcerningthealteration(ofthe
TorahbytheJews)isunacceptabletothoroughscholarsandcannotbeunderstood
initsplainmeaning,sincecustompreventspeoplewhohavea(revealed)religion
fromdealingwiththeirdivinescripturesinsuchamanner.Thiswasmentionedby
alBukhariintheSahih. 52 Thus,thegreatincreaseinnumbersinthecaseofthe
Israeliteswouldbeanextraordinarymiracle.Custom,inthepropermeaningofthe
word,wouldpreventanythingofthesortfromhappeningtootherpeoples.
Itistruethata(coordinatedbattle)movementin(suchalargegroup)would
hardlybepossible,butnonetookplace,andtherewasnoneedforone.Itisalsotrue
thateachrealmhasitsparticularnumberofmilitia(andnomore).ButtheIsraelites
atfirstwerenomilitiamenandhadnodynasty.Theirnumbersincreasedthatmuch,
sothattheycouldgainpoweroverthelandofCanaanwhichGodhadpromised
themandtheterritoryofwhichHehadpurifiedforthem.Allthesethingsare
miracles.Godguidestothetruth.
O 53 historyoftheTubba's,thekingsoftheYemenandoftheArabian
Peninsula,asitisgenerallytransmitted,isanotherexampleofsillystatementsby
historians.ItissaidthatfromtheirhomeintheYemen,(theTubba's)usedtoraid
IfriqiyahandtheBerbersoftheMaghrib.Afriqusb.Qaysb.Sayfi,oneoftheirgreat
54 issaidtohave
earlykingswholivedinthetimeofMosesorsomewhatearlier,
raidedIfriqiyah.HecausedagreatslaughteramongtheBerbers.Hegavethemthe
nameofBerberswhenheheardtheirjargonandaskedwhatthat"barbarah"was.
55
Page62
Thisgavethemthenamewhichhasremainedwiththemsincethattime.Quandoele
lefttheMaghrib,heissaid.tohaveconcentratedsomeHimyartribesthere.Eles
remainedthereandmixedwiththenativepopulation.Their(descendants)arethe
56 alMas 'udi,Ibnal
SinhajahandtheKutamah.ThisledatTabari,alJurjani,
Kalbi, 57 andalBayhaqi 58 tomakethestatementthattheSinhajahandtheKutamah
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belongtotheHimyar.TheBerbergenealogistsdonotadmitthis,andtheyareright.
AlMas'udialsomentionedthatoneoftheHimyarkingsafterAfriqus,DhulAdh'ar,
wholivedinthetimeofSolomon,raidedtheMaghribandforceditintosubmission.
SomethingsimilarismentionedbyalMas'udiconcerninghissonandsuccessor,
60 intheMaghribandtohave
Yasir. 59 HeissaidtohavereachedtheSandRiver
beenunabletofindpassagethroughitbecauseofthegreatmassofsand.Portanto,
hereturned.
Likewise,itissaidthatthelastTubba',
61 As'adAbuKarib,wholivedinthe
62 ruledoverMosulandAzerbaijan.Ele
timeofthePersianKayyanidkingYastasb,
issaidtohavemetandroutedtheTurksandtohavecausedagreatslaughteramong
eles.Thenheraidedthemagainasecondandathirdtime.Afterthat,heissaidto
havesentthreeofhissonsonraids,(one)againstthecountryofFirs,(one)against
thecountryoftheSoghdians,oneoftheTurkishnationsofTransoxania,and(one)
63 Thefirstbrothertookpossessionof
againstthecountryoftheRum(Byzantines)
thecountryuptoSamarkandandcrossedthedesertintoChina.There,hefoundhis
secondbrotherwhohadraidedtheSoghdiansandhadarrivedinChinabeforehim.
ThetwotogethercausedagreatslaughterinChinaandreturnedtogetherwiththeir
booty.TheyleftsomeHimyartribesinTibet.Theyhavebeentheredowntothis
tempo.ThethirdbrotherissaidtohavereachedConstantinople.Helaidsiegetoitand
forcedthecountryoftheRum(Byzantines)intosubmission.Then,hereturned.
Allthisinformationisremotefromthetruth.Itisrootedinbaselessand
erroneousassumptions.Itismorelikethefictionofstorytellers.Therealmofthe
Tubba'swasrestrictedtotheArabianpeninsula.TheirhomeandseatwasSan'a'in
theYemen.TheArabianpeninsulaissurroundedbytheoceanonthreesides:the
IndianOceanonthesouth,thePersianGulfjuttingoutoftheIndianOceantoal
Basrahontheeast,andtheRedSeajuttingoutoftheIndianOceantoSuezinEgypt
onthewest.Thiscanbeseenonthemap.ThereisnowayfromtheYementothe
MaghribexceptviaSuez.ThedistancebetweentheRedSeaandtheMediterranean
istwodays'journeyorless.Itisunlikelythatthedistancecouldbetraversedbya
greatrulerwithalargearmyunlesshecontrolledthatregion.This,asarule,is
impossvel.InthatregionthereweretheAmalekitesandCanaaninSyria,and,in
Egypt,theCopts.Lateron,theAmalekitestookpossessionofEgypt,andthe
Israelites(tookpossession)ofSyria.Thereis,however,noreportthattheTubba's
everfoughtagainstoneofthesenationsorthattheyhadpossessionofanypartof
thisregion.Furthermore,thedistancefromtheYementotheMaghribisgreat,and
anarmyrequiresmuchfoodandfodder.Soldierstravelinginregionsotherthan
theirownhavetorequisitiongrainandlivestockandtoplunderthecountriesthey
passthrough.Asarule,suchaproceduredoesnotyieldenoughfoodandfodder.Em
theotherhand,iftheyattemptedtotakealongenoughprovisionsfromtheirown
region,theywouldnothaveenoughanimalsfortransportation.So,theirwholeline
ofmarchnecessarilytakesthemthroughregionstheymusttakepossessionofand
forceintosubmissioninordertoobtainprovisionsfromthem.Again,itwouldbea
mostunlikelyandimpossibleassumptionthatsuchanarmycouldpassthroughall
thosenationswithoutdisturbingthem,obtainingitsprovisionsbypeaceful
negociao.Thisshowsthatallsuchinformation(aboutTubba'expeditionstothe
Maghrib)issillyorfictitious.
Page63
Mentionofthe(allegedly)impassableSandRiverhasneverbeenheardin
theMaghrib,althoughtheMaghribhasoftenbeencrossedanditsroadshavebeen
64 Becauseofthe
exploredbytravelersandraidersatalltimesandineverydirection.
unusualcharacterofthestory,thereismucheagernesstopassiton.
Withregardtothe(alleged)raidoftheTubba'sagainstthecountriesofthe
EastandthelandoftheTurks,itmustbeadmittedthatthelineofmarchinthiscase
iswiderthanthe(narrow)passageatSuez.Thedistance,however,isgreater,and
thePersianandByzantinenationsareinterposedonthewaytotheTurks.H
noreportthattheTubba'severtookpossessionofthecountriesofthePersiansand
Byzantines.TheymerelyfoughtthePersiansonthebordersofthe'Iraqandofthe
ArabcountriesbetweenalBahraynandalHirah,whichwereborderregions
commontobothnations. 65 ThesewarstookplacebetweentheTubba'DhulAdh'ar
66 Abu
andtheKayyanidkingKaygawus,andagainbetweentheTubba'alAsghar
KaribandtheKayyanidYastasb(Bishtasp).Therewereotherwarslateronwith
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rulersofthedynastiesthatsucceededtheKayyanids,and,inturn,withtheir
successors,theSassanians.Itwould,however,ordinarilyhavebeenimpossiblefor
theTubba'stotraversethelandofthePersiansontheirwaytoraidthecountriesof
theTurksandTibet,becauseofthenationsthatareinterposedonthewaytothe
Turks,becauseoftheneedforfoodandfodder,aswellasthegreatdistance,
mentionedbefore.Allinformationtothiseffectissillyandfictitious.Mesmoseo
waythisinformationistransmittedweresound,thepointsmentionedwouldcast
suspicionuponit.Allthemorethenmusttheinformationbesuspectsincethe
mannerinwhichithasbeentransmittedisnotsound.InconnectionwithYathrib
67 saysthatthelastTubba'traveled
(Medina)andtheAwsandKhazraj,IbnIshaq
eastwardtothe'IraqandPersia,butaraidbytheTubba'sagainstthecountriesofthe
TurksandTibetisinnowayconfirmedbytheestablishedfacts.Assertionstothis
effectshouldnotbetrustedallsuchinformationshouldbeinvestigatedandchecked
withsoundnorms. 68 Theresultwillbethatitwillmostbeautifullybedemolished.
Godistheguidetothatwhichiscorrect.
Mesmo69 moreunlikelyandmoredeeplyrootedinbaselessassumptionsisthe
commoninterpretationofthefollowingverseoftheSuratalFajr:"Didyounotsee
70
whatyourLorddidwith'AdIram,thatofthepillars?"
ThecommentatorsconsiderthewordIramthenameofacitywhichis
describedashavingpillars,thatis,columns.Theyreportthat'Adb.'Usb.Iramhad
twosons,ShadidandShaddid,whoruledafterhim.Shadidperished.Shaddad
becamethesoleruleroftherealm,andthekingstheresubmittedtohisauthority.
WhenShaddadheardadescriptionofParadise,hesaid:"Ishallbuildsomethinglike
it."AndhebuiltthecityofIraminthedesertofAdenoveraperiodofthree
hundredyears.Hehimselflivedninehundredyears.Itissaidtohavebeenalarge
city,withcastlesofgoldandsilverandcolumnsofemeraldandhyacinth,
containingallkindsoftreesandfreelyflowingrivers.Whentheconstructionof(the
city)wascompleted,Shaddadwenttherewiththepeopleofhisrealm.Butwhenbe
wasthedistanceofonlyonedayandnightawayfromit,Godsentaclamorfrom
71 az
heaven,andallofthemperished.ThisisreportedbyatTabari,athTha'alibi,
Zamakhshari, 72 andotherQur'ancommentators.Theytransmitthefollowingstory
73
ontheauthorityofoneofthemenaroundMuhammad,'Abdallahb.Qilabah.
Whenhewentoutinsearchofsomeofhiscamels,hehitupon(thecity)andtook
awayfromitasmuchashecouldcarry.HisstoryreachedMu'awiyah,whohadhim
74 andasked
broughttohim,andhetoldthestory.Mu'awiyahsentforKa'balahbar
himaboutit.Ka'bsaid,"ItisIram,thatofthepillars.Iramwillbeenteredinyour
Pgina64
timebyaMuslimwhoisofareddish,ruddycolor,andshort,withamoleathis
eyebrowandoneonhisneck,whogoesoutinsearchofsomeofhiscamels."He
thenturnedaroundand,seeingIbnQilabah,hesaid:"Indeed,heisthatman."
Noinformationaboutthiscityhassincebecomeavailableanywhereonearth.
ThedesertofAdenwherethecityissupposedtohavebeenbuiltliesinthemiddle
oftheYemen.Ithasbeeninhabitedcontinuously,andtravelersandguideshave
exploreditsroadsineverydirection.Yet,noinformationaboutthecityhasbeen
relatado.Noantiquarian,nonationhasmentionedit.If(thecommentators)saidthat
ithaddisappearedlikeotherantiquities,thestorywouldbemorelikely,butthey
expresslysaythatitstillexists.SomeidentifyitwithDamascus,becauseDamascus
wasinthepossessionofthepeopleof'Ad.Othersgosofarintheircrazytalkasto
maintainthatthecitylieshiddenfromsensualperceptionandcanbediscovered
onlybytrained(magicians)andsorcerers.Alltheseareassumptionsthatwould
betterbetermednonsense.
AllthesesuggestionsprofferedbyQur'ancommentatorsweretheresultof
grammaticalconsiderations,forArabicgrammarrequirestheexpression,"thatofthe
pillars,"tobeanattributeofIram.Theword"pillars"wasunderstoodtomean
colunas.Thus,Iramwasnarroweddowninitsmeaningtosomesortofbuilding.
(TheQur'ancommentators)wereinfluencedintheirinterpretationbythereadingof
IbnazZubayr 75 whoread(not'Adinwithnunationbut)agenitiveconstruction:'Ad
ofIram.Theythenadoptedthesestories,whicharebettercalledfictitiousfablesand
whicharequitesimilartothe(Qur'an)interpretationsofSayfawayhwhichare
76
relatedascomicanecdotes.
(Infact,)however,the"pillars"aretentpoles.If"columns"wereintendedby
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theword,itwouldnotbefarfetched,asthepowerof(thepeopleofAd)waswell
known,andtheycouldbedescribedaspeoplewithbuildingsandcolumnsinthe
generalway.Butitwouldbefarfetchedtosaythataspecialbuildinginoneor
anotherspecificcity(wasintended).Ifitisagenitiveconstruction,aswouldbethe
caseaccordingtothereadingofIbnazZubayr,itwouldbeagenitiveconstruction
usedtoexpresstribalrelationships,suchas,forinstance,theQurayshofKinanah,or
theIlyisofMudar,ortheRabi'ahofNizir.Thereisnoneedforsuchanimplausible
interpretationwhichusesforitsstartingpointsillystoriesofthesortmentioned,
whichcannotbeimputedtotheQur'anbecausetheyaresoimplausible.
Anotherfictitiousstoryof
thehistorians,which
theyallreport,concernsthe
reasonforarRashid'sdestructionoftheBarmecides.Itisthestoryofal'Abbasah,
arRashid'ssister,andJa'farb.Yahyab.Khalid,hisclient.ArRashidissaidtohave
worriedaboutwheretoplacethemwhenhewasdrinkingwinewiththem.Ele
wantedtoreceivethemtogetherinhiscompany.Therefore,hepermittedthemto
concludeamarriagethatwasnotconsummated.Al'Abbasahthentricked(Ja'far)in
77 forshehadfalleninlovewithhim.Jafarfinally
herdesiretobealonewithhim,
hadintercoursewithheritisassumed,whenhewasdrunkandshebecame
grvida.ThestorywasreportedtoarRashidwhoflewintoarage.
Thisstory 78 isirreconcilablewithal'Abbasah'sposition,herreligiousness,
herparentage,andherexaltedrank.Shewasadescendantof'Abdallahb.'Abbas
andseparatedfromhimbyonlyfourgenerations,andtheywerethemost
distinguishedandgreatestmeninIslamafterhim.Al'Abbasahwasthedaughterof
MuhammadalMahdi,thesonofAbuJa'far'AbdallahalManslir,thesonof
MuhammadasSajjad,thesonoftheFatheroftheCaliphs'Ali.'Aliwasthesonof
'Abdallah,theInterpreteroftheQur'an,thesonoftheProphet'suncle,al'Abbas.Al
'Abbasahwasthedaughterofacaliphandthesisterofacaliph.Shewasbornto
royalpower,intothepropheticalsuccession(thecaliphate),anddescendedfromthe
Pgina65
menaroundMuhammadarilhisuncles.Shewasconnectedbybirthwiththe
leadershipofIslam,thelightoftherevelation,andtheplacewheretheangels
descendedtobringtherevelation.Shewascloseintimetothedesertattitudeoftrue
Arabism,tothatsimplestateofIslamstillfarfromthehabitsofluxuryandlush
pasturesofsin.Whereshouldonelookforchastityandmodesty,ifshedidnot
possessthem?Wherecouldcleanlinessandpuritybefound,iftheynolonger
existedinherhouse?Howcouldshelinkherpedigreewith(thatof)Ja'farb.Yahya
andstainherArabnobilitywithaPersianclient?HisPersianancestorhadbeen
acquiredasaslave,ortakenasaclient,byoneofherancestors,anuncleofthe
ProphetandnobleQurashite,andall(Ja'far)didwasthathetogetherwithhisfather
wasdraggedalong(bythegrowingfameof)the'Abbisiddynastyandthusprepared
forandelevatedtoapositionofnobility.AndhowcoulditbethatarRashid,with
hishighmindednessandgreatpride,wouldpermithimselftobecomerelatedby
marriagetoPersianclients!Ifacriticalpersonlooksatthisstoryinallfairnessand
comparesal'Abbasahwiththedaughterofagreatrulerofhisowntime,hemust
finditdisgustingandunbelievablethatshecouldhavedonesuchathingwithoneof
theclientsofherdynastyandwhileherfamilywasinpower.Hewouldinsistthat
thestorybeconsidereduntrue.Andwhocouldcomparewithal'Abbasahandar
Rashidindignity!
ThereasonforthedestructionoftheBarmecideswastheirattempttogain
controloverthedynastyandtheirretentionofthetaxrevenues.Thiswentsofarthat
whenarRashidwantedevenalittlemoney,hecouldnotgetit.Theytookhis
affairsoutofhishandsandsharedwithhiminhisauthority.Hehadnosaywith
themintheaffairsofhisrealm.Theirinfluencegrew,andtheirfamespread.Eles
filledthepositionsandranksofthegovernmentwiththeirownchildrenand
creatureswhobecamehighofficials,andthusbarredallothersfromthepositionsof
wazir,secretary,armycommander,doorkeeper(hajb),andfromthemilitaryand
civilianadministration.ItissaidthatinthepalaceofarRashid,thereweretwenty
fivehighofficials,bothmilitaryandcivilian,allchildrenofYahyab.Khalid.There,
theycrowdedthepeopleofthedynastyandpushedthemoutbyforce.Theycould
dothatbecauseofthepositionoftheirfather,Yahya,mentortoHarunbothas
crownprinceandascaliph.(Harun)practicallygrewupinhislapandgotallhis
educationfromhim.(Harun)lethimhandlehisaffairsandusedtocallhim"father."
Asaresult,the(Barmecides),andnotthegovernment,wieldedalltheinfluence.
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Theirpresumptiongrew.Theirpositionbecamemoreandmoreinfluential.Eles
becamethecenterofattention.Allobeyedthem.Allhopeswereaddressedtothem.
Fromthefarthestborders,presentsandgiftsofrulersandamirsweresenttothem.
Thetaxmoneyfounditswayintotheirtreasury,toserveasanintroductiontothem
andtoprocuretheirfavor.Theygavegiftstoandbestowedfavorsuponthemenof
the('Alid)Shi'ah 79 anduponimportantrelatives(oftheProphet).Theygavethe
poorfromthenoblefamilies(relatedtotheProphet)somethingtoearn.Theyfreed
thecaptives.Thus,theyweregivenpraiseaswasnotgiventotheircaliph.Eles
showeredprivilegesandgiftsuponthosewhocametoaskfavorsfromthem.Eles
gainedcontrolovervillagesandestatesintheopencountryand(near)themain
citiesineveryprovince.
Eventually,theBarmecidesirritatedtheinnercircle.Theycausedresentment
amongtheeliteandarousedthedispleasureofhighofficials.Jealousyandenvyof
allsortsbegantoshowthemselves,andthescorpionsofintriguecreptintotheirsoft
bedsinthegovernment.TheQahtabahfamily,Ja'far'smaternaluncles,ledthe
intriguesagainstthem.Feelingsforbloodtiesandrelationshipcouldnotmoveor
swaythem(theQahtabahfamily)fromtheenvywhichwassoheavyontheirhearts.
Thisjoinedwiththeirmaster'sincipientjealousy,withhisdislikeofrestrictionsand
(ofbeingtreatedwith)highhandedness,andwithhislatentresentmentarousedby
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smallactsofpresumptuousnessonthepartoftheBarmecides.Whentheycontinued
toflourishastheydid,theywereledtogrossinsubordination,asisshown,for
instance,bytheiractioninthecaseofYahyab.'Abdallahb.Hasanb.'alHasanb.
'Allb.AbiTalib,thebrotherof"thePureSoul"(anNafsazZakiyah),Muhammad
80
alMahdi,whohadrevoltedagainstalMansur.
ThisYahyahadbeenbroughtbackbyalFadlb.Yahyafromthecountryof
theDaylamunderasafeconductofarRashidwritteninhisownhand.Conforme
atTabari, 81 (alFadl)hadpaidoutamilliondirhamsinthismatter.ArRashid
handedYahyaovertoJa'fartokeephimimprisonedinhishouseandunderhiseyes.
Heheldhimforawhilebut,promptedbypresumption,Ja'farfreedYahyabyhis
owndecision,outofrespectforthebloodoftheProphet'sfamilyashethought,and
inordertoshowhispresumptionagainstthegovernment.Whenthematterwas
reportedtoarRashid,heaskedJa'farabout(Yahya).Ja'farunderstoodandsaidthat
hehadlethimgo.ArRashidoutwardlyindicatedapprovalandkepthisgrudgeto
elemesmo.Thus,Ja'farhimselfpavedthewayforhisownandhisfamily'sundoing,
whichendedwiththecollapseoftheirexaltedposition,withtheheavensfallingin
uponthemandtheearth'ssinkingwiththemandtheirhouse.Theirdaysofglory
becameathingofthepast,anexampletolatergenerations.
Closeexaminationoftheirstory,scrutinizingthewaysofgovernmentand
theirownconduct,disclosesthatallthiswasnaturalandiseasilyexplained.
82 onarRashid'sconversationwithhisgreat
LookingatIbn'Abdrabbib'sreport
granduncleDawudb.'AliconcerningthedestructionoftheBarmecidesaswellas
alAsma'i'seveningcauserieswitharRashidandalFadlb.Yahya,asmentionedin
thechapteronpoetsinthe'Igd, 83 oneunderstandsthatitwasonlyjealousyand
struggleforcontrolonthepartofthecaliphandhissubordinatesthatkilledthem.
AnotherfactorwastheversesthatenemiesoftheBarmecidesamongtheinnercircle
surreptitiouslygavethesingerstorecite,intheintentionthatthecaliphshouldhear
themandhisstoredupanimosityagainstthembearoused.Thesearetheverses:
WouldthatHindcouldfulfillherpromisetous
Anddeliverusfromourpredicament,
Andforonceactonherown.
Theimpotentpersonishewhoneveractsonhisown.
84
WhenarRashidheardtheseverses,heexclaimed:"Indeed,Iamjustsuchan
impotentperson."Bythisandsimilarmethods,theenemiesoftheBarmecides
eventuallysucceededinarousingarRashid'slatentjealousyandinbringinghis
terriblevengeanceuponthem.Godisourrefugefrommen'sdesireforpowerand
frommisfortune.
ThestupidstoryofarRashid'swinebibbingandhisgettingdrunkinthe
companyofbooncompanionsisreallyabominable.Itdoesnotintheleastagree
witharRashid'sattitudetowardthefulfillmentoftherequirementsofreligionand
justiceincumbentuponcaliphs.Heconsortedwithreligiousscholarsandsaints.Ele
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85 IbnasSammak, 86 andal'Umari, 87 eele

haddiscussionswithalFudaylb.'Iyad,
88
correspondedwithSufyan.
Heweptwhenheheardtheirsermons.Then,thereis
89 Hewaspious,observed
hisprayerinMeccawhenhecircumambulatedtheKa'bah.
thetimesofprayer,andattendedthemorningprayeratitsearliesthour.Segundo
toatTabariandothers,heusedeverydaytoprayonehundredsupererogatory
rak'ahs. 90 Alternately,hewasusedtogoonraids(againstunbelievers)oneyearand
tomakethepilgrimagetoMeccatheother.Herebukedhisjester,IbnAbiMaryam,
whomadeanunseemlyremarktohimduringprayer.WhenIbnAbiMaryamheard
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arRashidrecite:"HowisitthatIshouldnotworshipHimwhocreatedme?"
said:"Indeed,Idonotknowwhy."ArRashidcouldnotsuppressalaugh,butthen
heturnedtohimangrilyandsaid:"OIbnAbiMaryam,(jokes)evenduringthe
prayer?Beware,bewareoftheQur'anandIslam.Apartfromthat,youmaydo
whateveryouwish." 92
91 ele
Furthermore,arRashidpossessedagooddealoflearningandsimplicity,
becausehisepochwasclosetothatofhisforebearswhohadthose(qualities).O
timebetweenhimandhisgrandfather,AbuJa'far(alMansur),wasnotalongone.
HewasayoungladwhenAbuJa'fardied.AbuJafarpossessedagooddealof
learningandreligionbeforehebecamecaliphand(keptthem)afterwards.Itwashe
whoadvisedMaliktowritetheMuwatta',saying:"OAbu'Abdallah,nooneremains
onearthmorelearnedthanIandyou.Now,Iamtoomuchoccupiedwiththe
caliphate.Therefore,youshouldwriteabookforthepeoplewhichwillbeusefulfor
eles.InityoushouldavoidthelaxityofIbn'AbbasandtheseverityofIbn
'Umar, 93 andpresent(watti')itclearlytothepeople."Malikcommented:"Onthat
occasion,alMansurindeedtaughtmetobeanauthor."
94
AlMansur'sson,alMahdi,arRashid'sfather,experiencedthe(austerityof
alMansur)whowouldnotmakeuseofthepublictreasurytoprovidenewclothes
forhisfamily.Oneday,alMahdicametohimwhenhewasinhisofficediscussing
withthetailorsthepatchingofhisfamily'sworngarments.AlMahdididnotlike
thatandsaid:"OCommanderoftheFaithful,thisyearIshallpayfortheclothesof
themembersofthefamilyfrommyownincome."AlMansur'sreplywas:"Dothat."
Hedidnotpreventhimfrompayinghimselfbutwouldnotpermitany(public)
Muslimmoneytobespentforit.ArRashidwasverycloseintimetothatcaliph
andtohisforebears. 95 Hewasrearedundertheinfluenceofsuchandsimilar
conductinhisownfamily,sothatitbecamehisownnature.Howcouldsuchaman
havebeenawinebibberandhavedrunkwineopenly?Itiswellknownthatnoble
preIslamicArabsavoidedwine.Thevinewasnotoneoftheplants(cultivated)by
eles.Mostofthemconsidereditreprehensibletodrinkwine.ArRashidandhis
forebearswereverysuccessfulinavoidinganythingreprehensibleintheirreligious
orworldlyaffairsandinmakingallpraiseworthyactionsandqualitiesofperfection,
aswellastheaspirationsoftheArabs,theirownnature.
OnemayfurthercomparethestoryofthephysicianJibrilb.Bukhtishu'
96 AfishhadbeenservedatarRashid'stable,
reportedbyatTabariandalMas'udi.
andJibrilhadnotpermittedhimtoeatit.(Jibril)hadthenorderedthetablesteward
tobringthefishto(Jibril's)house.ArRashidnoticeditandgotsuspicious.Eletinha
hisservantspyonJibril,andtheservantobservedhimpartakingofit.Afimde
justifyhimself,IbnBukhtishu'hadthreepiecesoffishplacedinthreeseparate
dishes.Hemixedthefirstpiecewithmeatthathadbeenpreparedwithdifferent
kindsofspices,vegetables,hotsauces,andsweets.Hepouredicedwateroverthe
secondpiece,andpurewineoverthethird.Thefirstandseconddishes,hesaid,
wereforthecaliphtoeat,nomatterwhethersomethingwasaddedbyhim(Ibn
Bukhtishu')tothefishornot.Thethirddish,hesaid,wasforhimselftoeat.Hegave
thethreedishestothetablesteward.WhenarRashidwokeupandhadIbn
Bukhtishu'calledintoreprimandhim,thelatterhadthethreedishesbrought.O
onewithwinehadbecomeasoupwithsmallpiecesoffish,butthetwootherdishes
hadspoiled,andsmelleddifferently.Thiswas(sufficient)justificationofIbn
Bukhtishu"saction(ineatingadishoffishthathehadpreventedthecaliphfrom
comer).ItisclearfromthisstorythatarRashid'savoidanceofwinewasafactwell
knowntohisinnercircleandtothosewhodinedwithhim.
ItisawellestablishedfactthatarRashidhadconsentedtokeepAbuNuwas
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imprisoneduntilherepentedandgaveuphisways,becausehehadheardofthe
97 ArRashidusedtodrinkadateliquor(nabidh),
latter'sexcessivewinebibbing.
accordingtotheÌraqilegalschoolwhoseresponsa(concerningthepermissibilityof
98 Buthecannotbesuspectedofhavingdrunkpure
thatdrink)arewellknown.
vinho.Sillyreportsto.thiseffectcannotbecredited.Hewasnotthemantodo
somethingthatisforbiddenandconsideredbytheMuslimsasoneofthegreatestof
thecapitalsins.Notoneofthesepeople(theearly'Abbasids)hadanythingtodo
witheffeminateprodigalityorluxuryinmattersofclothing,jewelry,orthekindof
foodtheytook.Theystillretainedthetoughdesertattitudeandthesimplestateof
Islam.Coulditbeassumedtheywoulddosomethingthatwouldleadfromthe
lawfultotheunlawfulandfromthelicittotheillicit?HistorianssuchasatTabari,
alMas'udi,andothersareagreedthatalltheearlyUmayyadandÀbbasidcaliphs
usedtorideoutwithonlylightsilverornamentationontheirbelts,swords,bridles,
andsaddles,andthatthefirstcaliphtooriginateridingoutingoldenapparelwasal
99 Thesameappliedto
Mu'tazzb.alMutawakkil,theeighthcaliphafterarRashid.
theirclothing.Couldone,then,assumeanydifferentlywithregardtowhatthey
drank?Thiswillbecomestillclearerwhenthenatureofdynasticbeginningsin
desertlifeandmodestcircumstancesisunderstood,asweshallexplainitamongthe
100
problemsdiscussedinthefirstbook,ifGodwills.
Aparallelorsimilarstoryisthatreportedbyall(thehistorians)aboutYahya
101 Heissaidtohavedrunkwine
b.Aktham,thejudgeandfriendofalMa'mun.
togetherwithalMa'munandtohavegottendrunkonenight.Helayburiedamong
thesweetbasiluntilhewokeup.Thefollowingversesarerecitedinhisname:
Omylord,commanderofallthepeople!
Hewhogavemetodrinkwasunjustinhisjudgment.
Ineglectedthecupbearer,andhecausedmetobe,
Asyouseeme,deprivedofintelligenceandreligion.
ThesameappliestoIbnAkthamandalMa'munthatappliestoarRashid.
Whattheydrankwasadateliquor(nabidh)whichintheiropinionwasnot
forbidden.Therecanbenoquestionofdrunkennessinconnectionwiththem.
Yahyi'sfamiliaritywithalMa'munwasfriendshipinIslam.Itisanestablishedfact
thatYahyasleptinalMa'mum'sroom.Ithasbeenreported,asanindicationofal
102 gotup,andfelt
Ma'mun'sexcellenceandaffability,thatonenightheawoke,
aroundforthechamberpot.HewasafraidtowakeYahyab.Aktham.Italsoisan
establishedfactthatthetwousedtopraytogetheratthemorningprayer.Howdoes
thataccordwithdrinkingwinetogether!Furthermore,Yahyab.Akthamwasa
103 andJudgeIsmi'il.
transmitteroftraditions.HewaspraisedbyIbnHanbal
104 At
Tirmidhi 105 publishedtraditionsonhisauthority.ThehadithexpertalMizzi

mentionedthatalBukharitransmittedtraditionsonYahya'sauthorityinworksother
thantheJami'(asSahih). 106 TovilifyYahyaistovilifyallofthesescholars.
Furthermore,licentiouspersonsaccuseYahyab.Akthamofhavinghadan
inclinationforyoungmen.ThisisanaffronttoGodandamaliciousliedirected
againstreligiousscholars.(Thesepersons)basethemselvesonstorytellers'silly
reports,whichperhapswereaninventionofYahya'senemies,forhewasmuch
enviedbecauseofhisperfectionandhisfriendshipwiththeruler.Hispositionin
scholarshipandreligionmakessuchathingimpossible.WhenIbnHanbalwastold
abouttheserumorsconcerningYahya,heexclaimed:"ForGod'ssake,forGod's
sake,whowouldsaysuchathing!"Hedisapprovedofitverystrongly.Whenthe
talkaboutYahyawasmentionedtoIsmi'il,heexclaimed:"Heavenforbidthatthe
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probity('adalah)
107 ofsuchamanshouldceasetoexistbecauseofthelying
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accusationsofenvioustalebearers."
108 Hesaid:"Yahyab.Akthamisinnocentin
theeyesofGodofanysuchrelationshipwithyoungmen(asthat)ofwhichheis
accused.Igottoknowhismostintimatethoughtsandfoundhimtobemuchinfear
ofGod.However,hepossessedacertainplayfulnessandfriendlinessthatmight
109 Ele
haveprovokedsuchaccusations."IbnHibbanmentionedhimintheThiqat.
saidthatnoattentionshouldbepaidtothesetalesabouthimbecausemostofthem
werenotcorrect.
AsimilarstoryistheoneaboutthebasketreportedbyIbn'Abdrabbih,author
ofthe'Iqd,inexplanationofhowalMa'muncametobealHasanb.Sahl'ssonin
110 Onenight,onhisramblesthroughthe
lawbymarryinghisdaughterBuran.
streetsofBaghdad,alMa'munissaidtohavecomeuponabasketthatwasbeinglet
downfromoneoftheroofsbymeansofpulleysandtwistedcordsofsilkthread.Ele
seatedhimselfinthebasketandgrabbedthepulley,whichstartedmoving.Eleera
takenupintoachamberofsuchandsuchaconditionIbn'Abdrabbihdescribedthe
eyeandsoulfillingsplendorofitscarpets,themagnificenceofitsfurnishings,and
thebeautyofitsappearance.Then,awomanofextraordinary,seductivebeautyis
saidtohavecomeforthfrombehindcurtainsinthatchamber.Shegreetedal
Ma'munandinvitedhimtokeephercompany.Hedrankwinewithherthewhole
nightlong.Inthemorninghereturnedtohiscompanionsattheplacewherethey
hadbeenawaitinghim.Hehadfallensomuchinlovewiththewomanthatheasked
herfatherforherhand.HowdoesallthisaccordwithalMa'mun'swellknown
religionandlearning,withhisimitationofthewayoflifeofhisforefathers,the
rightguided('Abbasid)caliphs,withhisadoptionofthewayoflifeofthosepillars
ofIslam,the(first)fourcaliphs,withhisrespectforthereligiousscholars,orhis
observanceinhisprayersandlegalpracticeofthenormsestablishedbyGod!Como
coulditbecorrectthathewouldactlike(oneofthose)wickedscoundrelswho
amusethemselvesbyramblingaboutatnight,enteringstrangehousesinthedark,
andengaginginnocturnaltrystsinthemannerofBedouinlovers!Andhowdoes
thatstoryfitwiththepositionandnoblecharacterofalHasanb.Sahl'sdaughter,
andwiththefirmmoralityandchastitythatreignedinherfather'shouse!
Therearemanysuchstories.Theyarealwayscroppingupintheworksof
thehistorians.Theincentiveforinventingandreportingthemisa(general)
inclinationtoforbiddenpleasuresandforsmearingthereputationofothers.Pessoas
justifytheirownsubserviencetopleasurebycitingmenandwomenofthepast
(whoallegedlydidthesamethingstheyaredoing).Therefore,theyoftenappear
veryeagerforsuchinformationandarealerttofinditwhentheygothroughthe
pagesof(published)works.Iftheywouldfollowtheexampleofthepeople(ofthe
past)inotherrespectsandinthequalitiesofperfectionthatweretheirsandfor
111 "iftheywould
whichtheyarewellknown,"itwouldbebetterforthem,"
know." 112
Ioncecriticizedaroyalprinceforbeingsoeagertolearntosingandplay
thestrings.Itoldhimitwasnotamatterthatshouldconcernhimandthatitdidnot
113 whowastheleading
befithisposition.HereferredmetoIbrahimb.al'Mahdi
musicianandbestsingerinhistime.Ireplied:"Forheaven'ssake,whydoyounot
ratherfollowtheexampleofhisfatherorhisbrother?Doyounotseehowthat
activitypreventedIbrahimfromattainingtheirposition?"Theprince,however,was
deaftomycriticismandturnedaway.
Furthersillyinformationwhichisacceptedbymanyhistoriansconcernsthe
114 (Estes
'Ubaydid(Fatimids),theShi'ahcaliphsinalQayrawanandCairo.
Pgina70
historians)denytheir'Alidoriginandattack(thegenuinenessof)theirdescentfrom
theimamIsmail,thesonofJa'farasSadiq.Theybasethemselvesinthisrespecton
storiesthatweremadeupinfavoroftheweak'Abbasidcaliphsbypeoplewho
wantedtoingratiatethemselveswiththemthroughaccusationsagainsttheiractive
opponentsandwho(therefore)likedtosayallkindsofbadthingsabouttheir
inimigos.Weshallmentionsomesuchstoriesinourtreatmentofthehistoryof(the
'UbaydidFatimids).(Thesehistorians)donotcaretoconsiderthefactualproofsand
circumstantialevidencethatrequire(ustorecognize)thatthecontraryistrueand
thattheirclaimisalieandmustberejected.
Theyalltellthesamestoryaboutthe
115
begilnligoftheShi'ahdynasty.Abu
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'AbdallahalMuhtasib
wentamongtheKutamahurgingacceptanceofthefamily
ofMuhammad(the'Alids).Hisactivitybecameknown.Itwaslearnedhowmuchhe
caredfor'UbaydallahalMahdiandhisson,Abu1Qasim.Therefore,thesetwo
fearedfortheirlivesandfledtheEast,theseatofthecaliphate.Theypassedthrough
EgyptandleftAlexandriadisguisedasmerchants.IsaanNawshari,thegovernorof
EgyptandAlexandria,wasinformedofthem.Hesentcavalrytroopsinpursuitof
them,butwhentheirpursuersreachedthem,theydidnotrecognizethembecauseof
116 pedido
theirattireanddisguise.TheyescapedintotheMaghrib.AlMu'tadid
theAghlabidrulersofIfriqiyahinalQayrawanaswellastheMidraridrulersof
Sijilmasahtosearcheverywhereforthemandtokeepasharplookoutforthem.
Ilyasa',theMidraridlordofSijilmasah,learnedabouttheirhidingplaceinhis
countryanddetainedthem,inordertopleasethecaliph.ThiswasbeforetheShi'ah
victoryovertheAghlabidsinalQayrawan.Thereafter,asiswellknown,the
('UbaydidFatimid)propagandaspreadsuccessfullythroughoutIfriqiyahandthe
Maghrib,andthen,inturn,reachedtheYemen,Alexandriaand(therestof)Egypt,
SyriaandtheHijaz.The('UbaydidFatimids)sharedtherealmofIslamequallywith
theAbbasids.Theyalmostsucceededinpenetratingthehomecountryofthe
'Abbasidsandintakingtheirplaceasrulers.TheirpropagandainBaghdadandthe
'IraqmetwithsuccessthroughtheamiralBasasiri,oneoftheDaylamclientswho
hadgainedcontrolofthe'Abbasidcaliphs.Thishappenedastheresultofaquarrel
117 Forawholeyear,the('Ubaydid
betweenalBasasiriandthenonArabamirs.
Fatimids)werementionedintheFridayprayerfromthepulpitsofBaghdad.O
'Abbasidswerecontinuallybotheredbythe('UbaydidFatimid)powerand
preponderance,andtheUmayyadrulersbeyondthesea(inSpain)expressedtheir
annoyancewiththemandthreatenedwaragainstthem.Howcouldallthishave
befallenafraudulentclaimanttotherulership,whowas(moreover)considereda
liar? 118 Oneshouldcompare(thisaccountwith)thehistoryoftheQarmatian.
119
Hisgenealogywas,infact,fraudulent.Howcompletelydidhispropaganda
disintegrateandhisfollowersdisperse!Theirviciousnessandguilesoonbecame
aparente.Theycametoanevilendandtastedabitterfate.Ifthe'Ubaydid(
Fatimids)hadbeeninthesamesituation,itwouldhavebecomeknown,evenhadit
takensometime.
Whateverqualitiesofcharacteramanmayhave,.
Theywillbecomeknown,evenifheimaginestheyareconcealedfromthe
pessoas120
The('UbaydidFatimid)dynastylasteduninterruptedlyforabouttwohundred
andseventyyears.TheyheldpossessionoftheplacewhereIbrahim(Abraham)had
ficou 121 andwherehehadprayed,thehomeoftheProphetandtheplacewherehe
wasburied,theplacewherethepilgrimsstandandwheretheangelsdescended(to
bringtherevelationtoMuhammad).Then,theirrulecametoanend.Duringallthat
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time,theirpartisansshowedthemthegreatestdevotionandloveandfirmlybelieved
intheirdescentfromtheimamIsmail,thesonofJa'farasSadiq.Evenafterthe
dynastyhadgoneanditsinfluencehaddisappeared,peoplestillcameforwardto
presstheclaimsofthesect.Theyproclaimedthenamesofyoungchildren,
descendantsof(the'UbaydidFatimids),whomtheybelievedentitledtothecaliphate.
Theywentsofarastoconsiderthemashavingactuallybeenappointedtothe
successionbyprecedingimams.Hadtherebeendoubtsabouttheirpedigree,their
followerswouldnothaveundergonethedangersinvolvedinsupportingthem.A
sectariandoesnotmanipulatehisownaffairs,norsowconfusionwithinhisown
sect,noractasaliarwherehisownbeliefsareconcerned.
122 thegreatspeculative
'
theologian,wasinclinedtocreditthisunacceptableview(astothespuriousnessof
the'UbaydidFatimidgenealogy),andupheldthisweakopinion.Ifthereasonforhis
attitudewasthehereticalandextremistShi'ismof(the'UbaydidFatimids,itwould
123 (O
notbevalid,forhisdenialoftheir'Aliddescent)doesnotinvalidate
ItisstrangethatJudgeAbuBakralBaqillani
objectionablecharacterof)theirsectarianbeliefs,norwouldestablishmentoftheir
('Alid)descentbeofanyhelptothembeforeGodinthequestionoftheirunbelief.
GodsaidtoNoahconcerninghissons:"Hedoesnotbelongtoyourfamily.Itisan
improperaction.Sodonotaskmeregardingthatofwhichyouhaveno
knowledge." 124 MuhammadexhortedFatimahinthesewords:"OFatimah,act(as
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youwish).IshallbeofnohelptoyoubeforeGod."
124a
Whenamancomestoknowaproblemortobecertainaboutamatter,he
mustopenlystate(hisknowledgeorhiscertainty)."Godspeaksthetruth.Heleads
(meninto)therightway." 125 Thosepeople(the'UbaydidFatimids)wereconstantly
onthemovebecauseofthesuspicionsvariousgovernmentshadconcerningthem.
Theywerekeptunderobservationbythetyrants,becausetheirpartisanswere
numerousandtheirpropagandahadspreadfarandwide.Timeaftertimetheyhad
toleavetheplaceswheretheyhadsettled.Theirmen,therefore,tookrefugein
hiding,andtheir(identity)washardlyknown,as(thepoet)says:
Ifyouwouldaskthedayswhatmynameis,theywould
notknow,
AndwhereIam,theywouldnotknowwhereIam.
126
ThiswentsofarthatMuhammad,thesonoftheimamIsma'il,theancestor
127 Hispartisans
of'UbaydallahalMahdi,wascalled"theConcealed(Imam)."
calledhimbythatnamebecausetheywereagreedonthefacthewashidingoutof
fearofthosewhohadthemintheirpower.Thepartisansofthe'Abbasidsmade
muchuseofthisfactwhentheycameoutwiththeirattackagainstthepedigreeof
(the'UbaydidFatimids).Theytriedtoingratiatethemselveswiththeweak('Abbasid)
caliphsbyprofessingtheerroneousopinionthat(the'Aliddescentofthe'Ubaydid
Fatimidswasspurious).Itpleasedthe'Abbasidclientsandtheamirswhowerein
chargeofmilitaryoperationsagainsttheenemiesofthe('Abbasids).Ithelpedthem
andthegovernmenttomakeupfortheirinabilitytoresistandrepeltheKutimah
128 ofthe'Ubaydid(Fatimids),whohad
Berbers,thepartisansandpropagandists
takenSyria,Egypt,andtheHijazawayfrom(the'Abbasids).ThejudgesinBaghdad
eventuallypreparedanofficialstatementdenyingthe'Alidorigin(ofthe'Ubaydid
Fatimids). 129 Thestatementwaswitnessedbyanumberofprominentmen,among
130 andhisbrotheralMurtada,
131 andIbnalBathawi. 132
themtheSharifarRadi
Amongthereligiousscholars(whoalsowitnessedthedocument)wereAbuHamid
alIsfarayini, 133 alQuduri, 134 asSaymari 135 IbnalAkfani, 136 alAbiwardi, 137
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theShi'ahjuristAbu'Abdallahb.anNu'man,
138 andotherprominentMuslimsin
139 dayintheyear402[1011]inthe
Baghdad.Theeventtookplaceonememorable
timeofalQadir.Thetestimony(ofthesewitnesses)wasbaseduponhearsay,on
whatpeopleinBaghdadgenerallybelieved.Mostofthemwerepartisansofthe
'Abbasidswhoattackedthe'Alidorigin(ofthe'UbaydidFatimids).Thehistorians
reportedtheinformationastheyhadheardit.Theyhandeditdowntousjustasthey
140 letterconcerning
rememberedit.However,thetruthliesbehindit.AlMu'tadid's
'Ubaydallah(addressed)totheAghlabidinalQayrawanandtheMidraridin
Sijilmasah,testifiesmosttruthfullytothecorrectnessofthe('Alid)originofthe
('UbaydidFatimids),andprovesitmostclearly.AlMu'tadid(asaveryclose
relative)wasbetterqualifiedthananyoneelsetospeakaboutthegenealogyofthe
Prophet'shouse. 141
142 attractingtoit
Dynastyandgovernmentserveastheworld'smarketplace,
theproductsofscholarshipandcraftsmanshipalike.Waywardwisdomandforgotten
loreturnupthere.Inthismarketstoriesaretoldanditemsofhistoricalinformation
aredelivered.Whateverisindemandonthismarketisingeneraldemand
everywhereelse.Now,whenevertheestablisheddynastyavoidsinjustice,prejudice,
weakness,anddoubledealing,withdeterminationkeepingtotherightpathand
neverswervingfromit,thewaresonitsmarketareaspuresilverandfinegold.
However,whenitisinfluencedbyselfishinterestsandrivalries,orswayedby
vendorsoftyrannyanddishonesty,thewaresofitsmarketplacebecomeasdross
anddebasedmetals.Theintelligentcriticmustjudgeforhimselfashelooksaround,
examiningthis,admiringthat,andchoosingthis.
Asimilarandevenmoreimprobablestoryisoneprivatelydiscussedby
thosewhoattackthe('Alid)descentofIdrisb.Idrisb.'Abdallahb.Hasanb.al
143 Eles
Hasanb.'Allb.AbiTalib,whobecameimamafterhisfatherinMorocco.
hintatthepunishablecrimeofadulterybyinsinuatingthattheunbornchildleftafter
thedeathoftheelderIdriswasinfactthechildofRashid,aclientoftheIdrisids.
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HowstupidoftheseGodforsakenmen!TheyshouldknowthattheelderIdris
marriedintotheBerbertribesand,fromthetimehecametotheMaghribuntilhis
death,wasfirmlyrootedindesertlife.Inthedesert,nosuchthingcouldremaina
segredo.Therearenohidingplacestherewherethingscanbedoneinsecret.O
neighbors(iftheyarewomen)canalwaysseeand(iftheyaremen)alwayshear
whattheirwomenaredoing,becausethehousesarelowandclusteredtogether
withoutspacebetweenthem.Rashidwasentrustedwiththestewardshipofallthe
womenafterthedeathofhismaster,upontherecommendationoffriendsand
partisansoftheIdrisidsandsubjecttothesupervisionofthemall.Almdisso,todos
MoroccanBerbersagreedtorendertheoathofallegiancetotheyoungerIdrisashis
father'ssuccessor.Theyvoluntarilyagreedtoobeyhim.Theysworethattheywere
willingtodieforhim,andtheyexposedthemselvestomortaldangerprotectinghim
inhiswarsandraids.Hadtheytoldeachothersomesuchscandalousstoryorheard
itfromsomeoneelse,evenavengefulenemyorscandalmongeringrebel,someof
thematleastwouldhaverefusedtodothosethings.No,thisstoryoriginatedwith
the'AbbasidopponentsoftheIdrisidsandwiththeAghlabids,the'Abbasid
governorsandofficialsinIfriqiyah
Thishappenedinthefollowingmanner.WhentheelderIdrisfledtothe
144 alHadisentorderstotheAghlabidstoliein
MaghribafterthebattleofFakhkh,
waitandkeepasharpwatchoutforhim.However,theydidnotcatchhim,andhe
escapedsafelytotheMaghrib.Heconsolidatedhisposition,andhispropagandawas
bemsucedida.Lateron,arRashidbecameawareofthesecretShi'ahleaningsofWadih,
the'AbbasidclientandgovernorofAlexandria,andofhisdeceitfulattitudein
Page73
connectionwiththeescapeofIdristotheMaghrib,and(arRashid)killed(Wadih).
Then,ashShammakh,aclientof(arRashid's)father,suggestedtoarRashidaruse
bymeansofwhichtokillIdris.(AshShammakh)pretendedtobecomehisadherent
andtohavebrokenwithhis'Abbasidmasters.Idristookhimunderhisprotection
andadmittedhimtohisprivatecompany.Once,whenIdriswasalone,ash
Shammakhgavehimsomepoisonandthuskilledhim.Thenewsofhisdeathwas
receivedbythe'Abbasidsmostfavorably,sincetheyhopedthatitwouldcutthe
rootsandblunttheedgeofthe'AlidpropagandaintheMaghrib.Newsofthe
unbornchildleftafterIdris'deathhadnot(yet)reachedthem.Thus,itwasonlya
briefmomentuntilthe('Alid)propagandareappeared.TheShi'ahwassuccessfulin
theMaghrib,andShi'ahrulewasrenewedthroughIdris,Idris'son.Thiswasamost
painfulblowtothe'Abbasids.Weaknessandsenilityhadalreadytakenholdofthe
Arabdynasty.Nolongercould(the'Abbasids)aspiretothecontrolofremote
regies.FarawayastheelderIdriswasintheMaghrib,undertheprotectionofthe
Berbers,arRashidhadjustenoughpower,andnomore,topoisonhimwiththehelp
ofaruse.Therefore,the'AbbasidsnowhadrecoursetotheirAghlabidclientsin
Ifrigiyah.Theyaskedthemtohealthedangerousbreachcausedby(theIdrisids),to
takemeasuresagainstthewoethatthreatenedtobefallthedynastyfromthat
direction,andtouproot(theIdrisids)beforetheycouldspread.AlMa'munandthe
succeedingcaliphswrotetotheAghlabidstothiseffect.However,theAghlabids
werealsotooweak(tocontrol)theBerbersofMorocco,andmightbetterhavetried
toembarrasstheirownrulersas(theIdrisidsembarrassedthem),becausethepower
ofthecaliphatehadbeenusurpedbynonArabslaves,whodivertedtotheirown
145 overmen,taxes,andfunctionaries.Ele
purposesitsentirecontrolandauthority
wasasthecontemporary('Abbasid)poetdescribedit:
146
Acaliphinacage
BetweenWasifandBugha
Hesayswhattheytellhim,
Likeaparrot.
TheAghlabidamirs,therefore,wereafraidofpossibleintriguesandtriedall
kindsofexcuses.Sometimes,theybelittledtheMaghribanditsinhabitants.Atother
times,theytriedtoarousefearofthepowerofIdrisandhisdescendantswhohad
takenhisplacethere.Theywrotethe'Abbasidsthathewascrossingthebordersof
histerritory.Theyincludedhiscoinsamongtheirgifts,presents,andtaxcollections,
inordertoshowhisgrowinginfluenceandtospreadterrorabouthisincreasing
power,tomagnify(thedangers)whichwouldlieinattackingandfightinghim,as
theywerebeingaskedtodo,andtothreatenachangeinallegianceiftheywere
forcedtothat.Again,atothertimes,theyattackedthedescentofIdriswiththe
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(aforementioned)lie,inordertoharmhim.Theydidnotcarewhethertheaccusation
wastrueornot.Thedistance(fromBaghdad)wasgreat,and,weakmindedasthe
'AbbasidchildrenandtheirnonArabslaveswere,theytookanybody'swordand
listenedtoanybody'snoise.TheywentoninthismanneruntiltheAghlabidrule
cametoanend.
Thenastyremark(abouttheIdrisidgenealogy)thenbecameknowntothe
mob.Someslandererslistenedeagerlytoit,usingittoharmtheIdrisidswhenthere
wererivalries.WhydosuchGodforsakenmenstrayfromtheintentionsofthe
religiouslaw,whichknowsnodifferencebetweendefinite(fact)and(mere)guess?
146a Idriswasborninhisfather'sbed,and"thechildbelongstothebed."
147 um
(Muslim)articleoffaiththatthedescendantsofMuhammadareaboveanysuch
thing(asadultery).Godremovedeveryturpitudefromthemandcleansedthem.
Idris'bedisfreeofalluncleanlinessandallturpitude.Thisisdecidedinthe
Page74
Qur'an. 148 Whoeverbelievesthecontraryconfesseshisguiltandinvitesunbelief.
IhaverefutedtheaccusationagainstIdrishereatlength,inordertoforestall
doubtsandstrikeoutagainsttheenvious.Iheardthestorywithmyownearsfroma
manwhowashostileto(theIdrisids)andattackedtheirdescentwiththislying
invention.Inhisselfdeception,hepassedonthestoryontheauthorityofcertain
historiansoftheMaghribwhohadturnedtheirbacksonMuhammad'sdescendants
andwereskepticalconcerningtheirancestors.Butthesituation(oftheIdrisids)is
aboveallthatandnotsusceptibleofsucha(taint).(Nospaceshouldbedevotedto
refutingsuchanaccusation,since)todenyafaultwhere(theexistenceof)afaultis
149 However,Ididdefendthemhereinthisworld
impossibleis(initself)afault.
and,thus,IhopethattheywilldefendmeontheDayofResurrection.
Itshouldbeknownthatmostofthosewhoattackthe('Alid)descentof(the
Idrisids)arethemselvespersonswhoclaimtobedescendantsofMuhammador
pretendtobeconnectedwithhisdescendants,andwhoenvythedescendantsof
Idris.Theclaimto(Muhammadan)descentisagreattitletonobilityamongnations
andracesinallregions.Therefore,itissubjecttosuspicion.Now,bothintheir
nativeFezandintheotherregionsoftheMaghrib,thedescentoftheIdrisidsisso
wellknownandevidentthatalmostnoonecanshoworhopetoshowaswell
establishedapedigree.Itistheresultofcontinuoustransmissionbythemorerecent
nationsandgenerationsontheauthorityoftheolderprecedingones.TheIdrisids
countthehouseoftheirancestorIdris,thefounderandbuilderofFez,amongtheir
casas.Hismosqueisadjacenttotheirquarterandstreets.Hisswordis(suspended)
unsheathedatopthemainminaretoftheirresidence.Thereareotherrelicsofhis
whichhavebeenattestedtomanytimesinanuninterruptedtradition,sothatthe
traditionconcerningthemisalmostasvaluableasdirectobservation(astoits
confiabilidade).OtherdescendantsofMuhammadcanlookatthesesignswhichGod
gavetotheIdrisids.TheywillseetheMuhammadannobilityoftheIdrisids
enhancedbythemajestyoftheroyalauthoritytheirancestorsexercisedinthe
Maghrib.Theywillrealizethattheythemselveshavenothingofthesortandthat
theydonotmeasureupevenhalfwaytoanyoneoftheIdrisids.Theywillalso
realizethatthosewhoclaimtobeMuhammad'sdescendantsbutdonothavesuch
testimoniestoconfirmtheirclaimastheIdrisidshave,mayatbestfindtheirposition
conceded(aspossiblytrue),becausepeoplearetobebelievedwithregardtothe
150 butthereisadifferencebetweenwhatis
descenttheyclaimforthemselves,
knownandwhatismereguess,betweenwhatiscertainandwhatismerely
concededaspossiblytrue.
Whentheyrealizethesefacts,theyarechokedintheirownspittle(which
theyswallowinimpotentjealousy).Theirprivateenvycausesmanyofthemtowish
thattheycouldbringdowntheIdrisidsfromtheirnoblepositiontothestatusof
ordinary,humblepersons.Therefore,theyhaverecoursetospiteandpersistent
malevolenceandinventerroneousandlyingaccusationssuchastheonediscussed.
Theyjustifythemselvesbytheassumptionthatallguessesareequallyprobable.
Theyoughtto(prove)that!WeknowofnodescendantsofMuhammadwhose
lineageissoclearlyandobviouslyestablishedasthatofthedescendantsofIdrisof
thefamilyofalHasan.ThemostdistinguishedIdrisidsatthistimearetheBanu
'ImraninFez.TheyaredescendantsofYahyaalJutib.Muhammadb.Yahyaal
'Addamb.alQasimb.Idrisb.Idris.Theyarethechiefsofthe'Alidsthere.Theylive
(atthepresenttime)inthehouseoftheirancestorIdris.Theyaretheleading
nobilityoftheentireMaghrib.Weshallmentiontheminconnectionwiththe
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Idrisids,ifGodwills. 151 Theyarethedescendantsof'Imranb.Muhammadb.al

Hasanb.Yahyab.'Abdallahb.Muhammadb.'Allb.Muhammadb.Yahyab.
Ibrahimb.YahyaalJuti.Thechiefoftheir(house)atthistimeisMuhammadb.
Pgina75
Muhammadb.Muhammadb.'Imran.
Tothesewickedstatementsanderroneousbeliefsonemayaddthe
accusationsthatweakmindedjuristsintheMaghribleveledagainsttheimamal
152 Hewasaccusedofdeceitand
Mahdi,theheadoftheAlmohaddynasty.
insinceritywhenheinsisteduponthetrueonenessofGodandwhenhecomplained
abouttheunjustpeoplebeforehistime.Allhisclaimsinthisrespectweredeclared
tobefalse,evendowntohisdescentfromthefamilyofMuhammad,whichhis
Almohadfollowersaccept.DeepdownintheirheartsitwasenvyofalMahdi's
successthatledthejuriststodeclarehimaliar.Intheirselfdeception,theythought
thattheycouldcompetewithhiminreligiousscholarship,juridicaldecisions,and
religio.Hethenturnedouttobesuperiortothem.Hisopinionwasaccepted,what
hesaidwaslistenedto,andhegainedafollowing.Theyenviedthissuccessofhis
andtriedtolessenhisinfluencebyattackinghisdogmasanddeclaringhisclaimsto
befalse.Furthermore,theywereusedtoreceivefromalMahdi'senemies,the
Lamtunahkings(theAlmoravids),arespectandanhonortheyreceivedfromnoone
else,becauseofthesimplereligion(oftheAlmoravids).UndertheLamtunah
dynasty,religiousscholarsheldapositionofrespectandwereappointedtothe
council,everybodyaccordingtohisinfluenceamonghispeopleinhisrespective
village.Thescholars,therefore,becamepartisans(oftheAlmoravids)andenemies
oftheirenemies.TheytriedtotakerevengeonalMahdiforhisoppositiontothem,
hiscensureofthem,andhisstruggleagainstthem.Thiswastheresultoftheir
partisanshipfortheLamtunahandtheirbiasinfavoroftheLamtunahdynasty.Al
Mahdi'spositionwasdifferentfromtheirs.Hedidnotsharetheirbeliefs.Whatelse
couldbeexpectedofamanwhocriticizedtheattitudeoftherulingdynastyashe
didandwasopposedinhiseffortsbyitsjurists?Hecalledhispeopletoaholywar
againstthem.Heuprootedthedynastyandturneditupsidedown,despiteitsgreat
strength,itstremendouspower,andthestrongforceofitsalliesanditsmilitia.
Followersofhiskilledinthestrugglewereinnumerable.Theyhadswornallegiance
tohimuntildeath.Theyhadprotectedhimfromdeathwiththeirownlives.Eles
hadsoughtnearnesstoGodbysacrificingthemselvesforthevictoryoftheMahdi's
causeaspartisansoftheenterprisethateventuallygainedtheupperhandand
153 (AlMahdihimself)remainedalways
replacedthedynastiesonbothshores.
frugal,retiring,patientintribulation,andverylittleconcernedwiththeworldtothe
ltimahediedwithoutfortuneorworldlypossessions.Hedidnotevenhavechildren,
aseverybodydesiresbutasoneoftenisdeceivedindesiring.Ishouldliketoknow
whathecouldhavehopedtoobtainbythiswayoflifewereitnot(tolookupon)the
faceofGod,forhedidnotacquireworldlyfortuneofanykindduringhislifetime.
Moreover,ifhisintentionhadnotbeengood,hewouldnothavebeensuccessful,
andhispropagandawouldnothavespread."ThisishowGodformerlyproceeded
withHisservants. 154
The(jurists')disavowalof(alMahdi's)descentfromMuhammad'sfamilyis
notbackedupbyanyproof.Wereitestablishedthathehimselfclaimedsuch
descent,hisclaimcouldnotbedisproved,becausepeoplearetobebelieved
155 Itmightbesaidthatleadership
regardingthedescenttheyclaimforthemselves.
overapeopleisvestedonlyinmenoftheirownskin.Thisiscorrect,aswillbe
mentionedinthefirst 156 chapterofthisbook.Mas 157 alMahdiexercisedleadership
overalltheMasmudah.Theyagreedtofollowhimandbeguidedbyhimandhis
Harghahgroup,and,eventually,Godgavecompletesuccesstohispropaganda.Em
thisconnection,itmustberealizedthatalMahdi'spowerdidnotdependexclusively
onhisFatimiddescent,andthepeopledidnotfollowhimonthataccount(only).
TheyfollowedhimbecauseoftheirHarghahMasmudahgroupfeelingandbecause
ofhisshareinthatgroupfeelingwhichwasfirmlyrootedinhim.(AlMahdi's)
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Page76
Fatimiddescenthadbecomeobscuredandknowledgeofithaddisappearedfrom
amongthepeople,althoughithadremainedaliveinhimandhisfamilythrough
familytradition.Hisoriginal(Fatimid)descenthad,inaway,beensloughedoff,
andhehadputontheskinoftheHarghahMasmudahandthusappearedasoneof
theirskin.ThefactthathewasoriginallyofFatimiddescentdidnotharmhimwith
regardtohisgroupfeeling,sinceitwasnotknowntothemembersofthegroup.
Thingslikethathappenfrequentlyonceone'soriginaldescenthasbecomeobscured.
Onemightcompare(withtheabove)thestoryofArfajahandJarir
158 ArfajahhadbelongedtotheAzdbut
concerningtheleadershipoftheBajilah.
hadputontheskinoftheBajilahsosuccessfullythathewasabletowranglewith
Jarirovertheleadershipbefore'Umar,ashasbeenreported.Thisexamplemakes
oneunderstandwhatthetruthislike.
Godistheguidetothatwhichiscorrect.
Lengthydiscussionofthesemistakeshastakenusratherfarfromthe
purposeofthiswork.However,manycompetentpersonsandexperthistorians
slippedinconnectionwithsuchstoriesandassertions,andtheystuckintheirminds.
Manyweakmindedanduncriticalpersonslearnedthesethingsfromthem,andeven
(thecompetenthistorians)themselvesacceptedthemwithoutcriticalinvestigation,
andthus(strangestories)creptintotheirmaterial.Inconsequence,historiography
becamenonsensicalandconfused,anditsstudentsfumbledaround.Historiography
cametobeconsideredadomainofthecommonpeople.Therefore,today,the
scholarinthisfieldneedstoknowtheprinciplesofpolitics,the(true)natureof
existentthings,andthedifferencesamongnations,places,andperiodswithregard
towaysoflife,characterqualities,customs,sects,schools,andeverythingelse.Ele
furtherneedsacomprehensiveknowledgeofpresentconditionsinalltheserespects.
Hemustcomparesimilaritiesordifferencesbetweenthepresentandthepast(or
distantlylocated)conditions.Hemustknowthecausesofthesimilaritiesincertain
casesandofthedifferencesinothers.Hemustbeawareofthedifferingoriginsand
beginningsof(different)dynastiesandreligiousgroups,aswellasofthereasons
andincentivesthatbroughtthemintobeingandthecircumstancesandhistoryofthe
personswhosupportedthem.Hisgoalmustbetohavecompleteknowledgeofthe
reasonsforeveryhappening,andtobeacquaintedwiththeoriginofeveryevent.
Then,hemustchecktransmittedinformationwiththebasicprinciplesheknows.Seisso
fulfillstheirrequirements,itissound.Otherwise,thehistorianmustconsideritas
spuriousanddispensewithit.Itwasforthisreasonalonethathistoriographywas
highlyconsideredbytheancients,somuchsothatatTabari,alBukhari,and,before
them,IbnIshaqandotherMuslimreligiousscholars,chosetooccupythemselves
comisso.Mostscholars,however,forgotthis,the(real)secretofhistoriography,with
theresultthatitbecameastupidoccupation.Ordinarypeopleaswellas(scholars)
whohadnofirmfoundationofknowledge,considereditasimplemattertostudy
andknowhistory,todelveintoitandspongeonit.Straysgotintotheflock,bitsof
shellweremixedwiththenut,truthwasadulteratedwithlies.
"ThefinaloutcomeofthingsisuptoGod."
159
A 160 hiddenpitfallinhistoriographyisdisregardforthefactthatconditions
withinthenationsandraceschangewiththechangeofperiodsandthepassingof
dias.Thisisasoreafflictionandisdeeplyhidden,becomingnoticeableonlyaftera
longtime,sothatrarelydomorethanafewindividualsbecomeawareofit.
Thisisasfollows.Theconditionoftheworldandofnations,theircustoms
andsects,doesnotpersistinthesameformorinaconstantmanner.Thereare
differencesaccordingtodaysandperiods,andchangesfromoneconditionto
outro.Thisisthecasewithindividuals,times,andcities,and,inthesamemanner,
Pgina77
ithappensinconnectionwithregionsanddistricts,periodsanddynasties.
"ThisishowGodformerlyproceededwithHisservants."
161
TheoldPersiannations,theSyrians,theNabataeans,theTubba's,the
Israelites,andtheCopts,allonceexisted.Theyallhadtheirownparticular
institutionsinrespectofdynasticandterritorialarrangements,theirownpolitics,
crafts,languages,technicalterminologies,aswellastheirownwaysofdealingwith
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theirfellowmenandhandlingtheirculturalinstitutions.Their(historical)relics
testifytothat.TheyweresucceededbythelaterPersians,theByzantines,andthe
Arabs.Theoldinstitutionschangedandformercustomsweretransformed,either
intosomethingverysimilar,orintosomethingdistinctandaltogetherdifferent.
Then,therecameIslamwiththeMudardynasty.Again,allinstitutionsunderwent
anotherchange,andforthemostpartassumedtheformsthatarestillfamiliaratthe
presenttimeastheresultoftheirtransmissionfromonegenerationtothenext.
Then,thedaysofArabrulewereover.Theearlygenerationswhohad
cementedArabmightandfoundedtherealmoftheArabs,weregone.Opoder
wasseizedbyothers,bynonArabsliketheTurksintheeast,theBerbersinthe
162 inthenorth.Withtheir
162a passing,entire
west,andtheEuropeanChristians
nationsceasedtoexist,andinstitutionsandcustomschanged.Theirglorywas
forgotten,andtheirpowernolongerheeded.
Thewidelyacceptedreasonforchangesininstitutionsandcustomsisthe
factthatthecustomsofeachracedependonthecustomsofitsruler.Astheproverb
163
says:"Thecommonpeoplefollowthereligionoftheruler."
Whenpoliticallyambitiousmenovercometherulingdynastyandseize
power,theyinevitablyhaverecoursetothecustomsoftheirpredecessorsandadopt
mostofthem.Atthesametime,theydonotneglectthecustomsoftheirownrace.
Thisleadstosomediscrepanciesbetweenthecustomsofthe(new)rulingdynasty
andthecustomsoftheoldrace.
Thenewpower,inturn,issucceededbyanotherdynasty,andcustomsare
furthermixedwiththoseofthenewdynasty.Morediscrepanciescomein,andthe
discrepancybetweenthenewdynastyandthefirstoneismuchgreater(thanthat
betweenthesecondandthefirstone).Gradualincreaseinthedegreeofdiscrepancy
continues.Theeventualresultisanaltogetherdistinct(setofcustomsand
institutions).Aslongasthereisthiscontinuedsuccessionofdifferentracestoroyal
authorityandgovernment,discrepanciesincustomsandinstitutionswillnotceaseto
ocorrer.
Analogicalreasoningandcomparisonarewellknowntohumannature.Eles
arenotsafefromerror.Togetherwithforgetfulnessandnegligence,theyswayman
fromhispurposeanddiverthimfromhisgoal.Often,someonewhohaslearneda
gooddealofpasthistoryremainsunawareofthechangesthatconditionshave
undergone.Withoutamoment'shesitation,heapplieshisknowledge(ofthepresent)
tothehistoricalinformationandmeasuresthehistoricalinformationbythethingshe
hasobservedwithhisowneyes,althoughthedifferencebetweenthetwoisgreat.
Consequently,hefallsintoanabyssoferror.
Thismaybeillustratedbywhatthehistoriansreportconcerningthe
164 Theystatethathisfatherwasaschoolteacher.No
circumstancesofAlHajjaj.
presenttime,teachingisacraftandservestomakealiving.Itisafarcryfromthe
prideofgroupfeeling.Teachersareweak,indigent,androotless.Manyweak
professionalmenandartisanswhoworkforalivingaspiretopositionsforwhich
theyarenotfitbutwhichtheybelievetobewithintheirreach.Theyaremisledby
theirdesires,aropewhichoftenslipsfromtheirhandsandprecipitatesthemintothe
Pgina78
abyssofruinousperdition.Theydonotrealizethatwhattheydesireisimpossible
formenlikethemtoattain.Theydonotrealizethattheyareprofessionalmenand
artisanswhoworkforaliving.AndtheydonotknowthatatthebeginningofIslam
andduringthe(Umayyadand'Abbasid)dynasties,teachingwassomething
diferente.Scholarship,ingeneral,wasnotacraftinthatperiod.Scholarshipwas
transmittingstatementsthatpeoplehadheardtheLawgiver(Muhammad)make.Ele
wasteachingreligiousmattersthatwerenotknown,bywavyoforaltransmission.
Personsofnobledescentandpeoplewhosharedinthegroupfeeling(oftheruling
dynasty)andwhodirectedtheaffairsofIslamweretheoneswhotaughttheBookof
GodandtheSunnahoftheProphet,(andtheydidso)asonetransmitstraditions,not
asonegivesprofessionalinstruction.(TheQur'an)wastheirScripture,revealedto
theProphetintheirmidst.Itconstitutedtheirguidance,andIslamwastheirreligion,
andforittheyfoughtanddied.Itdistinguishedthemfromtheothernationsand
ennobledthem.TheywishedtoteachitandmakeitunderstandabletotheMuslims.
Theywerenotdeterredbycensurecomingfrompride,norweretheyrestrainedby
criticismcomingfromarrogance.ThisisattestedbythefactthattheProphetsentthe
mostimportantofthemenaroundhimwithhisembassiestotheArabs,inorderto
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teachthemthenormsofIslamandthereligiouslawshebrought.Hesenthisten
companions 165 andothersafterthemonthismission.
Then,Islambecamefirmlyestablishedandsecurelyrooted.Faroffnations
acceptedIslamatthehandsoftheMuslims.Withthepassingoftime,thesituation
ofIslamchanged.Manynewlawswereevolvedfromthe(basic)textsastheresult
ofnumerousandunendingdevelopments.Afixednormwasrequiredtokeep(the
166 Foritsacquisition,
process)freefromerror.Scholarshipcametobeahabit.
studywasrequired.Thus,scholarshipdevelopedintoacraftandprofession.Este
167
willbementionedinthechapteronscholarshipandinstruction.
Themenwhocontrolledthegroupfeelingnowoccupiedthemselveswith
directingtheaffairsofroyalandgovernmentalauthority.Thecultivationof
scholarshipwasentrustedtoothers.Thus,scholarshipbecameaprofessionthat
servedtomakealiving.Menwholivedinluxuryandwereincontrolofthe
governmentweretooproudtodoanyteaching.Teachingcametobeanoccupation
restrictedtoweakindividuals.Asaresult,itspractitionerscametobedespisedby
themenwhocontrolledthegroupfeelingandthegovernment.
Now,Yusuf,thefatherofalHajjaj,wasoneofthelordsandnoblesofthe
Thaqif,wellknownfortheirshareintheArabgroupfeelingandfortheirrivalry
withthenobilityoftheQuraysh.AlHajjaj'steachingoftheQur'anwasnotwhat
teachingoftheQur'anisatthistime,namely,aprofessionthatservestomakea
vivo.HisteachingwasteachingasitwaspracticedatthebeginningofIslamand
aswehavejustdescribedit.
Anotherillustrationofthesame(kindoferror)isthebaselessconclusion
criticalreadersofhistoricalworksdrawwhentheyhearaboutthepositionofjudges
andabouttheleadershipinwarandthecommandofarmiesthatjudges(formerly)
exercised.Theirmisguidedthinkingleadsthemtoaspiretosimilarpositions.Eles
thinkthattheofficeofjudgeatthepresenttimeisasimportantasitwasformerly.
WhentheyhearthatthefatherofIbnAbi'Amir,whohadcompletecontrolover
Hisham,andthatthefatherofIbn'Abbad,oneoftherulersofSevilla,were
judges, 168 theyassumethattheywerelikepresentdayjudges.Theyarenotaware
ofthechangeincustomsthathasaffectedtheofficeofjudge,andwhichwillbe
169 IbnAbi
explainedbyusinthechapterontheofficeofjudgeinthefirstbook.
'AmirandIbn'AbbadbelongedtoArabtribesthatsupportedtheUmayyaddynasty
inSpainandrepresentedthegroupfeelingoftheUmayyads,anditisknownhow
Page79
importanttheirpositionswere.Theleadershipandroyalauthoritytheyattaineddid
notderivefromtherankofthejudgeshipassuch,inthepresentdaysensethat(the
officeofjudgeconstitutesanadministrativerank).Intheancientadministrative
organization,theofficeofjudgewasgivenbythedynastyanditsclientstomenwho
sharedinthegroupfeeling(ofthedynasty),asisdoneinouragewiththewazirate
intheMaghrib.Onehasonlytoconsiderthefactthat(inthosedaysjudges)
accompaniedthearmyonitssummercampaignsandwereentrustedwiththemost
importantaffairs,suchasareentrustedonlytomenwhocancommandthegroup
feelingneededfortheirexecution.
Hearingsuchthings,somepeoplearemisledandgetthewrongideaabout
condies.Atthepresenttime,weakmindedSpaniardsareespeciallygiventoerrors
inthisrespect.Thegroupfeelinghasbeenlostintheircountryformanyyears,as
theresultoftheannihilationoftheArabdynastyinSpainandtheemancipationof
theSpaniardsfromthecontrolofBerbergroupfeeling.TheArabdescenthasbeen
remembered,buttheabilitytogainpowerthroughgroupfeelingandmutualco
operationhasbeenlost.Infact,the(Spaniards)cametobelike(passive)
subjects, 170 withoutanyfeelingfortheobligationofmutualsupport.Eleseram
enslavedbytyrannyandhadbecomefondofhumiliation,thinkingthattheirdescent,
togetherwiththeirshareintherulingdynasty,wasthesourceofpowerand
authority.Therefore,amongthem,professionalmenandartisansaretobefound
pursuingpowerandauthorityandeagertoobtainthem.Ontheotherhand,those
whohaveexperiencewithtribalconditions,groupfeeling,anddynastiesalongthe
westernshore,andwhoknowhowsuperiorityisachievedamongnationsandtribal
groups,willrarelymakemistakesorgiveerroneousinterpretationsinthisrespect.
Anotherillustrationofthesamekindoferroristheprocedurehistorians
followwhentheymentionthevariousdynastiesandenumeratetherulersbelonging
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tothem.Theymentionthenameofeachruler,hisancestors,hismotherandfather,
hiswives,hissurname,hissealring,hisjudge,doorkeeper,andwazir.Nisso
respect,theyblindlyfollowthetraditionofthehistoriansoftheUmayyadand
'Abbasiddynasties,withoutbeingawareofthepurposeofthehistoriansofthose
vezes.(Thehistoriansofthosetimes)wrotetheirhistoriesformembersoftheruling
dynasty,whosechildrenwantedtoknowthelivesandcircumstancesoftheir
ancestors,sothattheymightbeabletofollowintheirstepsandtodowhatthey
fez, 171 evendowntosuchdetailsasobtainingservantsfromamongthosewhowere
172 andgivingranksandpositionstothe
leftoverfromthe(previous)dynasty
descendantsofitsservantsandretainers.Judges,too,sharedinthegroupfeelingof
thedynastyandenjoyedthesameimportanceaswazirs,aswehavejustmentioned.
Therefore,thehistoriansofthattimehadtomentionallthesethings.
Lateron,however,variousdistinctdynastiesmadetheirappearance.O
timeintervalsbecamelongerandlonger.Historicalinterestnowwasconcentrated
ontherulersthemselvesandonthemutualrelationshipsofthevariousdynastiesin
respecttopowerandpredominance.(Theproblemnowwas)whichnationscould
standup(totherulingdynasty)andwhichweretooweaktodoso.Portanto,
pointlessforanauthorofthepresenttimetomentionthesonsandwives,the
engravingonthesealring,thesurname,judge,wazir,anddoorkeeperofanancient
dynasty,whenhedoesnotknowtheorigin,descent,orcircumstancesofits
members.Presentdayauthorsmentionallthesethingsinmereblindimitationof
formerauthors.Theydisregardtheintentionsoftheformerauthorsandforgetto
payattentiontohistoriography'spurpose.
Anexceptionarethewazirswhowereveryinfluentialandwhosehistorical
importanceovershadowedthatoftherulers.Suchwazirsas,forinstance,al
Ijajjaj,theBandMuhallab,theBarmecides,theBanuSahlb.Nawbakht,Kaffiral
Pgina80
Ikhshidi,IbnAbi'Amir,andothersshouldbementioned.Thereisnoobjectionto
dealingwiththeirlivesorreferringtotheirconditionsforinimportancetheyrank
withtherulers.
Anadditionalnotetoendthisdiscussionmayfinditsplacehere.
Historyreferstoeventsthatarepeculiartoaparticularageorrace.
Discussionofthegeneralconditionsofregions,races,andperiodsconstitutesthe
historian'sfoundation.Mostofhisproblemsrestuponthatfoundation,andhis
historicalinformationderivesclarityfromit.Itformsthetopicofspecialworks,
suchastheMurujadhdhahabofalMas'udi.Inthiswork,alMas'udicommented
upontheconditionsofnationsandregionsintheWestandintheEastduringhis
period(whichwas)thethreehundredandthirties[theninehundredandforties].Ele
mentionedtheirsectsandcustoms.Hedescribedthevariouscountries,mountains,
oceans,provinces,anddynasties.HedistinguishedbetweenArabicandnonArabic
grupos.Hisbook,thus,becamethebasicreferenceworkforhistorians,their
principalsourceforverifyinghistoricalinformation.
173 whodidsomethingsimilarfor
AlMas'udiwassucceededbyalBakri
routesandprovinces,totheexclusionofeverythingelse,because,inhistime,not
manytransformationsorgreatchangeshadoccurredamongthenationsandraces.
However,atthepresenttimethatis,attheendoftheeighth[fourteenth]centurythe
situationintheMaghrib,aswecanobserve,hastakenaturnandchangedentirely.
TheBerbers,theoriginalpopulationoftheMaghrib,havebeenreplacedbyan
influxofArabs,(thatbeganin)thefifth[eleventh]century.TheArabsoutnumbered
andoverpoweredtheBerbers,strippedthemofmostoftheirlands,and(also)
obtainedashareofthosethatremainedintheirpossession.Thiswasthesituation
until,inthemiddleoftheeighth[fourteenth]century,civilizationbothintheEast
andtheWestwasvisitedbyadestructiveplaguewhichdevastatednationsand
174 Itswallowedupmanyofthegoodthingsof
causedpopulationstovanish.
civilizationandwipedthemout.Itovertookthedynastiesatthetimeoftheir
senility,whentheyhadreachedthelimitoftheirduration.Itlessenedtheirpower
andcurtailedtheirinfluence.Itweakenedtheirauthority.Theirsituationapproached
thepointofannihilationanddissolution.Civilizationdecreasedwiththedecreaseof
ahumanidade.Citiesandbuildingswerelaidwaste,roadsandwaysignswere
obliterated,settlementsandmansionsbecameempty,dynastiesandtribesgrew
weak.Theentireinhabitedworldchanged.TheEast,itseems,wassimilarlyvisited,
thoughinaccordancewithandinproportionto(theEast'smoreaffluent)
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civilization.Itwasasifthevoiceofexistenceintheworldhadcalledoutfor
oblivionandrestriction,andtheworldhadrespondedtoitscall.Godinheritsthe
earthandwhomeverisuponit.
Whenthereisageneralchangeofconditions,itisasiftheentirecreation
hadchangedandthewholeworldbeenaltered,asifitwereanewandrepeated
creation,aworldbroughtintoexistenceanew.Therefore,thereisneedatthistime
thatsomeoneshouldsystematicallysetdownthesituationoftheworldamongall
regionsandraces,aswellasthecustomsandsectarianbeliefsthathavechangedfor
theiradherents,doingforthisagewhatalMas'udididforhis.Thisshouldbea
modelforfuturehistorianstofollow.Inthisbookofmine,Ishalldiscussasmuch
ofthataswillbepossibleformehereintheMaghrib.Ishalldosoeitherexplicitly
orimplicitlyinconnectionwiththehistoryoftheMaghrib,inconformitywithmy
intentiontorestrictmyselfinthisworktotheMaghrib,thecircumstancesofits
racesandnations,anditssubjectsanddynasties,totheexclusionofanyother
regio. 175 (Thisrestrictionisnecessitated)bymylackofknowledgeofconditions
intheEastandamongitsnations,andbythefactthatsecondhandinformation
wouldnotgivetheessentialfactsIamafter.AlMas'udi'sextensivetravelsin
Page81
variouscountriesenabledhimtogiveacompletepicture,ashementionedinhis
work.Nevertheless,hisdiscussionofconditionsintheMaghribisincomplete."E
176 Godistheultimaterepositoryof(all)
Heknowsmorethananyscholar."
knowledge.Manisweakanddeficient.Admission(ofone'signorance)isaspecific
(religious)duty.HewhomGodhelps,findshisway(made)easyandhiseffortsand
questssuccessful.WeseekGod'shelpforthegoaltowhichweaspireinthiswork.
Godgivesguidanceandhelp.Hemaybetrusted.
ItremainsforustoexplainthemethodoftranscribingnonArabicsounds
whenevertheyoccurinthisbookofours.
177 ofspeech,aswillbe
Itshouldbeknownthattheletters(sounds)
178
explainedlateron,
aremodificationsofsoundsthatcomefromthelarynx.Estes
modificationsresultfromthefactthatthesoundsarebrokenupincontactwiththe
uvulaandthesidesofthetongueinthethroat,againstthepalateortheteeth,and
alsothroughcontactwiththelips.Thesoundismodifiedbythedifferentwaysin
whichsuchcontacttakesplace.Asaresult,theletters(sounds)sounddistinct.Seu
combinationconstitutesthewordthatexpresseswhatisinthemind.
No 179 allnationshavethesameletters(sounds)intheirspeech.Onenation
hasletters(sounds)differentfromthoseofanother.Theletters(sounds)ofthe
Arabsaretwentyeight,asisknown.TheHebrewsarefoundtohaveletters(sounds)
thatarenotinourlanguage.Inourlanguage,inturn,thereareletterssounds)that
arenotintheirs.ThesameappliestotheEuropeanChristians,theTurks,the
Berbers,andothernonArabs.
180 choseto
Inordertoexpresstheiraudibleletters(sounds),literateArabs
useconventionalletterswrittenindividuallyseparate,suchas',b,j,r,t,andsoforth
throughallthetwentyeightletters.Whentheycomeuponaletter(sound)forwhich
thereisnocorrespondingletter(sound)intheirlanguage,itisnotindicatedin
writingandnotclearlyexpressed.Scribessometimesexpressitbymeansofthe
letterwhichisclosesttoitinourlanguage,theoneeitherprecedingorfollowing
lo.181 Thisisnotasatisfactorywayofindicatingaletter(sound)butacomplete
replacementofit.
OurbookcontainsthehistoryoftheBerbersandothernonArabs.Nasua
namesandinsomeoftheirwords,wecameacrossletters(sounds)thatdidnot
correspondwithourwrittenlanguageandconventionalorthography.Portanto,
wereforcedtoindicatesuchsounds(byspecialsigns).Aswesaid,wedidnotfindit
satisfactorytousethelettersclosesttothem,becauseinouropinionthisisnota
satisfactoryindication.Inmybook,therefore,Ihavechosentowritesuchnon
Arabicletters(sounds)insuchawayastoindicatethetwoletters(sounds)closest
toit,sothatthereadermaybeabletopronounceitsomewhereinthemiddle
betweenthesoundsrepresentedbythetwolettersandthusreproduceitcorrectly.
IderivedthisideafromthewaytheQur'anscholarswritesoundsthatarenot
sharplydefined,suchasoccur,forinstance,inassirataccordingtoKhalaf's
leitura. 182 Thesistobepronouncedsomehowbetweensandz.Inthiscase,they
183
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spellthewordwithsand
writeazintoit.
thusindicateapronunciation
184
somewhereinthemiddlebetweenthetwosounds.
Inthesameway,Ihaveindicatedeveryletter(sound)thatistobe
pronouncedsomehowinthemiddlebetweentwoofourletters(sounds).TheBerber
k,forinstance,whichispronouncedmidwaybetweenourclearkandj(g)orq,as,
forinstance,inthenameBuluggin,isspelledbymewithakwiththeadditionof
185 Este
onedotfromthejbelow,oronedotortwofromtheqontopofit.
Page82
indicatesthatthesoundistobepronouncedmidwaybetweenkandj(g)orq.This
soundoccursmostfrequentlyintheBerberlanguage.Intheothercases,Ihave
spelledeachletter(sound)thatistobepronouncedmidwaybetweentwoletters
(sounds)ofourlanguage,withasimilarcombinationoftwoletters.Thereaderwill
thusknowthatitisanintermediatesoundandpronounceitaccordingly.Inthisway,
wehaveindicateditsatisfactorily.Hadwespelleditbyusingonlyoneletter(sound)
185a wewouldhavechangeditsproperpronunciationto
adjacenttoitoneitherside,
thepronunciationoftheparticularletter(sound)inourownlanguage(whichwe
mighthaveused),andwewouldhavealteredthewaypeoplespeak.Thisshouldbe
conhecido.
Godgivessuccess.
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Pgina83
1Cf.Issawi,pp.26f.,andJ.Sauvaget,Historiensarabes(Paris,1946),pp.
13842.
2"Personalitycriticism"(aljarhwatta'dil)isconcernedwithinvestigatingthe
reliabilityorunreliabilityofthetransmittersoftraditions.IbnKhaldunoften
hasoccasiontorefertoitsee,forinstance,p.76and2:16off.,447ff.,below.
2aCf.n.379toCh.i,below.
3Cf.alMas'udi,Murujadhdhahab,II,425ff.Thestorygoesbackultimately
tothesnake(dragon)thatfrightenedtheworkmenwhobuiltAlexandria.Cf.
PseudoCallisthenes,HistoriaAlexandriMagni,ed.Kroll(Berlin,1926),p.
32.
4Gharar"risk"isalegalterm,usedmainlyinconnectionwithcommercial
assuntos.Inthiscontextitimpliesunlawfulgambling.
5The"vitalspirit"which,accordingtoGalenicandMuslimmedicine,was
believedtooriginateintheleftcavityoftheheart.Seealsopp.210,329,and
2:136,374,below.
6Mas'uqmayrefertodeathbylightning,butalsoincludesotherkindsof
inexplicablesuddendeath.Cf.Lisanal'Arab,XII,66.
7Cf.alMas'udi,Murujadhdhahab,IV,94.ThestoryoftheStatueofthe
StarlingwasmentionedbeforealMas'idibyIbnKhurradadhbih,Kitdbal
Masalikwalmamalik,tr.MJdeGoeje(BibliothecaGeographorum
Arabicorum,No.6)(Leiden,1889),p.88.Manyothergeographersrefertoit
cf.J.Marquart,OsteuropaischeandostasiatischeStreifzage(Leipzig,1903),
pp.260ff.and,morerecently,MJDeny,"LaLegendedel'eaudes
sauterellesetdel'oiseauquidetruitcesinsectes,"Journalasiatique,CCI1
(1923),325.Marquartsoughttheoriginofthestoryinapopularetymology
fortheCapitol:Campidoglio,campod'oglio"oliveoilfield."
8AlBakrisMasalikcontainsabriefreferencetothe"CopperCity."Cf.SENHORITA.
NuruOsmaniye,3034,fol.186a,Laleli,2144,fol.58a.Thisreferencedoes
notappearinWMdeSlane,Descriptiondel'Afriqueseptentrionale(2ded.
Algiers,1913).NoneoftheavailabletextssaysanythingaboutaGateCity,"
AvillagecalledDhatalabwab,which,however,isdifferentfromtheone
mentionedhere,isreferredtobyalBakriinMu'jammasta'jam,p.218.Cf.
alsobelow,2:245.
9Cf.2:237f.,below.
10IbnKhaldunreferstoMurujadhdhahab,IV,95.However,headdssome
detailstoalMas'udi'sverybriefstatement,fromhisownknowledgeofthe
famousstory.AnearliercontemporaryofalMas'udigivesitinconsiderable
detail:IbnalFaqih,Kitabalbuldan(BibliothecaGeographorumArabicorum,
No.5)(Leiden,1885),pp.71(ng),88ff.,quotedbyYaqut,Mujamal
buldan,ed.Wustenfeld,IV,455ff,andothergeographers.Intheeleventh
century,thetheologianalKhatibalBaghdadistudieditinmonographform
underthetitleof"TheStoryoftheBronzeCityandtheLeadenCupola."Cf.
Yusufal'Ashsh,alKhatibalBaghdadi(Damascus,1945),p.109.Cf.alsoG.
Pgina84
FerrandinJournalasiatique,CCVII(1925,61ff.Throughitsinclusionin
TheArabianNights,thestoryhasbecomefamiliartoWesternreaders.
Insteadof"CopperCity,"thecityisreferredtoas"BronzeCity"byal
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Mas'udiandelsewhere.Theword"bronze"(sufr)isattimeswrongly
translatedas"brass."Cf.M.AgaOglu,"ABriefNoteontheIslamic
TerminologyforBronzeandBrass,"JournaloftheAmericanOriental
Society,LXIV(1944),21832.Thevacillationbetween"BronzeCity"and
"CopperCity"isduetothefactthattheArabicwordsforbronzeandcopper
wereoftenusedinterchangeablywithoutregardtotheirprecisemeaning.Cf.
G.LeviDellaVida,"The'BronzeEra'inMuslimSpain,"Journalofthe
AmericanOrientalSociety,LXIII(1943),183(n.7).
11Thegreatgeneral(AD640716/17)whocompletedtheconquestofthe
MuslimWest.Cf.E.LeviProvencalinEI,sv"Musab.Nulair."
12Thesameargumentoccursabove,pp.24and27.
13Cf.Issawi,pp.34f.
14Referringtotheinjunctionsofthereligiouslaw.
Forthisparagraph,oneshouldcomparewhatIbnKhaldunsaysin'Ibar,II,
116:"Inconnectionwithhappeningsthatcanbereferredtosensual
perception,theinformationtransmittedbyasingleinformant(khaharal
wahid)issufficient,ifitssoundnessappearsprobable."
15Cf.RANicholson,TranslationsofEasternPoetryandProse,pp.179f.
16Cf.Issawi,pp.36f.
17"Conventional"isusedhereinthesenseofthemorecommon"traditional."
18Cf.3:368,below.
19InlaterMuslimscholarship,itwasconsidereddisrespectfultosuggestthat
earlierscholarsknewlessthanoneselforthanother,morerecentmen.Cf.,for
instance,F.Rosenthal,"AlAsturlabiandasSamaw'alonScientific
Progress,"Osiris,IX(1950,563.
20See3:114ff.,below,where'Umar'sallegedactionandalMa'mun's
translatingactivitiesarediscussedagain.
21Qur'an17.85(87).
22Cf.p.lxxv,above,and2:417,below.
23Cf.,forinstance,alAmidi,alIhkdmfiusulala/kdm(Cairo,1914),I,16f.
IbnKhaldunwaswellacquaintedwiththisauthor'sworks.
24Cf.also2:295,below.
25Cf.Murujadhdhahab,II,169ff.Mobedh(magupat)isthetitleofthe
Zoroastrianpriest.MobedhanactuallyisthePersianpluraloftheword.Cf.
also2:104f.,below.
Inanabbreviatedform,thespeechisquotedasmadeby'Abdallahb.Tahir
(cf.2:139,below),inIbnAbiHajalahatTilimsani,Sukkarddnas
(Cairo,1317/1899,inthemarginofal'Amili,Mikhldh),p.86.
26Imarah,fromthesamerootas'umran,andpracticallyidenticalwithit.Cf.al
Mubashshirb.Fatik,Mukhtaralhikam,No.3ofthesayingsofSeth:"Ifa
rulerthinksthathecanamasspropertythroughinjustice,heiswrong,for
Pgina85
propertycanbeamassedonlythroughcultivationofthesoil('imaratalarl)."
Cf.theSpanishtranslationpublishedbyH.Knust,Mittheilungenausdem
Eskurial,p.82.
27Cf.alMas'udi,Murujadhdhahab,II,210.Anosharwanisthecelebrated
SassanianrulerKhosrawI,AD531579.Ashortenedformofthesayingis
quotedanonymouslybyIbnQutaybah,'Uyunalakhbar(Cairo,1343
49/1925 30),I,9.Asimilarlyshortenedformisascribedto'Aliinamarginal
noteinoneoftheMSSoftheSecretumSecretorumcf.Badawisedition
(citedbelow,n.29),p.128(n.1).
28CandD:alkulliyat.B:alkalimat"words."
29ThepseudoAristotelianPolitics,whichIbnKhaldunalsoquotesbelow,p.
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235and2:48,isbetterknownasSirralasrar"SecretumSecretorum."O
workissupposedtohavebeentranslatedfromtheGreekbyYahyab.al
Bitriqcf.GAL,I,2032ded.,1,221f.Suppl.,I,364.Ithadevengreater
successinEuropeanlanguagesthaninArabic.
TheArabictexthasrecentlybeenpublishedby'AbdarRahmanBadawi,
FontesGraecaedoctrinarumpoliticarumIslamicarum(Cairo,1954),I,65
171.AmodernEnglishtranslationoftheArabicwaspreparedbyIsmaiL'Ali
andASFulton,andpublishedinVol.VoftheworksofRogerBacon,ed.
R.Steele(Oxford,1920).Cf.M.Plessner,OrientalistischeLiteraturzeitung,
XXVIII(1925),912ff.AneditionandFrenchtranslationwerepreparedbyP.
Sbathbuthaveremainedunpublished.Cf.P.Sbath,AlFrhris(Cairo,1938),
1,9(n.4).
Thepassagequotedappearsattheendofthethirdchapterdealingwith
justice.Cf.pp.12628ofBadawi'sed.,andRogerBacon,ed.cit.,V,226cf.
alsopp.L11f.and126.Cf.,further,M.Steinschneider,"Diearabischen
UbersetzungenausdemGriechischen,"inZwolftesBeiheftzumCentralblatt
furBibliothekswesen(Leipzig,1893),p.82.AfifteenthcenturyEnglish
renderingmaybefoundinR.Steele,ThreeProseVersionsoftheSecreta
Secretorum(EarlyEnglishTextSociety,ExtraSeriesNo.74)(London,1898),
p.207.
AmongotherArabicauthorswhoquotethispassage,mentionmaybemade
ofIbnJuljul[tenthcentury](cf.Badawi,op.cit.,p.37oftheintrod.),andal
Mubashshirb.Fatik[eleventhcentury],Mukhtaralhikam,attheendofthe
chapteronAristotle.IbnJuljul,inturn,wasquotedbyIbnAbiUlaybi'ah,
'Uyunalanba',ed.Muller,I,66f.IbnAbiUsaybi'ahshowstheeight
sentencesinscribedalongthesidesofanoctagon.Cf.alsoR.Blachere's
translationofSa'idalAndalusi,KitabTabaqatalumam(Paris,1935),p.68.
Therearequiteafewminorvariationsinthetextasitappearsinthevarious
fontes.Cf.nowWadSayyid'seditionofIbnJuljul,LesGenerationsdes
medecinsetdessages(Cairo,1955),p.26.
TheMSSoftheMuqaddimahusuallyleaveanemptyspaceforinsertionof
thecircleinwhichthesayingistobeinscribed.ThedrawingisexecutedinB
andC.Theartisticallyexecuteddrawingofaninscribedoctagonreproduced
herecomesfromanIstanbulMSoftheSecretum,Reiselkuttap(Asir1),
1002,fol.121b.(Cf.Frontispiece,Vol.2.)
30Ma'luf"familiar"mayherepossiblymean"harmonious."Arabicta'lif
translatesGreekarmonia.Cf.,forinstance,P.KrausandR.Walzer,Galeni
CompendiumTimaeiPlatonis(CorpusPlatonicumMediiAevi,PlatoArabus
i)(London,1951),p.106.
Page86
31Cf.pp.313ff.,below.
32Abdallahb.alMuqaffa',d.142[769/60].Cf.GAL,I,151f.Suppl.,I,233ff.
Cf.alsobelow,3:393.
33Muhammadb.alWalid,ca.451to520or525[1059to1126or1131].Cf.
GAL,I,459Suppl.,I,829f.Cf.tambmacima,p.lxxxv.
34ThewazirofKhosrawIAnosharwanwhoappearsinArabicliteratureandis
thechiefrepresentativeofPersianwisdom.
35IbnKhaldunhereusestwoproverbialexpressionsfortruthfulinformation.
Theyare:"Juhaynahhastherightinformation,"and"Hegavemethetrueage
ofhiscamel."
36Cf.Qur'an24.35(35).
37Cf.RANicholson,TranslationsofEasternPoetryandProse,pp.180f.
38Cf.2:411ff.,below.
39Arabicusesthesameword(waby)forProphetical"inspiration"andforwhat
wewouldtranslateinthiscontextas"instinct."The"inspiration"ofbeesis
mentionedinQur'an16.68(70).
40Qur'an20.50(52).
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41Cf.Issawi,p.26.
42Cf.above,p.lxxxi,andbelow,p.249.
Page87
FIRSTPREFATORYDISCUSSION
HUMANO1 SOCIALORGANIZATIONissomethingnecessary.O
philosophersexpressedthisfactbysaying:"Manis`political'bynature."
hecannotdowithoutthesocialorganizationforwhichthephilosophersusethe
technicalterm"town"(polis).
2 Isto,
Thisiswhatcivilizationmeans.(Thenecessarycharacterofhumansocial
organizationorcivilization)isexplainedbythefactthatGodcreatedandfashioned
maninaformthatcanliveandsubsistonlywiththehelpoffood.Heguidedmanto
anaturaldesireforfoodandinstilledinhimthepowerthatenableshimtoobtainit.
However,thepoweroftheindividualhumanbeingisnotsufficientforhim
toobtain(thefood)heneeds,anddoesnotprovidehimwithasmuchfoodashe
requirestolive.Evenifweassumeanabsoluteminimumoffoodthatis,food
enoughforoneday,(alittle)wheat,forinstancethatamountoffoodcouldbe
obtainedonlyaftermuchpreparationsuchasgrinding,kneading,andbaking.Cada
ofthesethreeoperationsrequiresutensilsandtoolsthatcanbeprovidedonlywith
thehelpofseveralcrafts,suchasthecraftsoftheblacksmith,thecarpenter,andthe
potter.Assumingthatamancouldeatunpreparedgrain,anevengreaternumberof
operationswouldbenecessaryinordertoobtainthegrain:sowingandreaping,and
threshingtoseparateitfromthehusksoftheear.Eachoftheseoperationsrequiresa
numberoftoolsandmanymorecraftsthanthosejustmentioned.Itisbeyondthe
powerofonemanalonetodoallthat,or(even)partofit,byhimself.Thus,he
cannotdowithoutacombinationofmanypowersfromamonghisfellowbeings,if
heistoobtainfoodforhimselfandforthem.Throughcooperation,theneedsofa
numberofpersons,manytimesgreaterthantheirown(number),canbesatisfied.
Likewise,eachindividualneedsthehelpofhisfellowbeingsforhisdefense,
tambm.WhenGodfashionedthenaturesofalllivingbeingsanddividedthevarious
powersamongthem,manydumbanimalsweregivenmoreperfectpowersthanGod
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gavetoman.Thepowerofahorse,forinstance,ismuchgreaterthanthepowerof
man,andsoisthepowerofadonkeyoranox.Thepowerofalionoranelephantis
manytimesgreaterthanthepowerof(man).
Aggressivenessisnaturalinlivingbeings.Therefore,Godgaveeachofthem
aspeciallimbfordefenseagainstaggression.Toman,instead,Hegavetheabilityto
think,andthehand.Withthehelpoftheabilitytothink,thehandisabletoprepare
thegroundforthecrafts.Thecrafts,inturn,procureformantheinstrumentsthat
servehiminsteadoflimbs,whichotheranimalspossessfortheirdefense.Lances,
forinstance,taketheplaceofhornsforgoring,swordstheplaceofclawstoinflict
wounds,shieldstheplaceofthickskins,andsoon.Thereareothersuchthings.
3
TheywereallmentionedbyGaleninDeusupartium.
Thepowerofoneindividualhumanbeingcannotwithstandthepowerofany
onedumbanimal,especiallynotthepowerofthepredatoryanimals.Manis
generallyunabletodefendhimselfagainstthembyhimself.Norishis(unaided)
powersufficienttomakeuseoftheexistinginstrumentsofdefense,becausethere
aresomanyofthemandtheyrequiresomanycraftsand(additional)things.Isto
absolutelynecessaryformantohavethecooperationofhisfellowmen.Tolongoquanto
thereisnosuchcooperation,hecannotobtainanyfoodornourishment,andlife
cannotmaterializeforhim,becauseGodfashionedhimsothathemusthavefoodif
heistolive.Nor,lackingweapons,canhedefendhimself.Thus,hefallspreyto
animalsanddiesmuchbeforehistime.Undersuchcircumstances,thehuman
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specieswouldvanish.When,however,mutualcooperationexists,manobtainsfood
forhisnourishmentandweaponsforhisdefense.God'swiseplanthatman(kind)
shouldsubsistandthehumanspeciesbepreservedwillbefulfilled.
Consequently,socialorganizationisnecessarytothehumanspecies.Sem
it,theexistenceofhumanbeingswouldbeincomplete.God'sdesiretosettlethe
worldwithhumanbeingsandtoleavethemasHisrepresentativesonearth
notmaterialize.Thisisthemeaningofcivilization,theobjectofthescienceunder
discussion.
4 faria
Theaforementionedremarkshavebeeninthenatureofestablishingthe
existenceoftheobjectin(this)particularfield.Ascholarinaparticulardisciplineis
notobligedtodothis,sinceitisacceptedinlogicthatascholarinaparticular
sciencedoesnothavetoestablishtheexistenceoftheobjectinthatscience.
otherhand,logiciansdonotconsideritforbiddentodoso.Thus,itisavoluntary
contribuio.
5 No
God,inHisgrace,givessuccess.
Quando6 mankindhasachievedsocialorganization,aswehavestated,and
whencivilizationintheworldhasthusbecomeafact,peopleneedsomeoneto
exercisearestraininginfluenceandkeepthemapart,foraggressivenessand
injusticeareintheanimalnatureofman.Theweaponsmadeforthedefenseof
humanbeingsagainsttheaggressivenessofdumbanimalsdonotsufficeagainstthe
aggressivenessofmantoman,becauseallofthempossessthoseweapons.Assim,
somethingelseisneededfordefenseagainsttheaggressivenessofhumanbeings
towardeachother.Itcouldnotcomefromoutside,becausealltheotheranimalsfall
shortofhumanperceptionsandinspiration.Thepersonwhoexercisesarestraining
influence,therefore,mustbeoneofthemselves.Hemustdominatethemandhave
powerandauthorityoverthem,sothatnooneofthemwillbeabletoattackanother.
Thisisthemeaningofroyalauthority.
Ithasthusbecomeclearthatroyalauthorityisanaturalqualityofman
whichisabsolutelynecessarytomankind.Thephilosophersmentionthatitalso
7 Onediscerns
existsamongcertaindumbanimals,suchasthebeesandthelocusts
amongthemtheexistenceofauthorityandobediencetoaleader.Theyfollowthe
oneofthemwhoisdistinguishedastheirleaderbyhisnaturalcharacteristicsand
corpo.However,outsideofhumanbeings,thesethingsexistastheresultofnatural
dispositionanddivineguidance,andnotastheresultofanabilitytothinkorto
8
administrate."Hegaveeverythingitsnaturalcharacteristics,andthenguidedit."
Thephilosophersgofurther.Theyattempttogivelogicalproofofthe
existenceofprophecyandtoshowthatprophecyisanaturalqualityofman.Nisso
connection,theycarrytheargumenttoitsultimateconsequencesand'saythat
humanbeingsabsolutelyrequiresomeauthoritytoexercisearestraininginfluence.
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Theygoontosaythatsuchrestraininginfluenceexiststhroughthereligiouslaw
(thathasbeen)ordainedbyGodandrevealedtomankindbyahumanbeing.(This
humanbeing)isdistinguishedfromtherestofmankindbyspecialqualitiesof
divineguidancethatGodgavehim,inorderthathemightfindtheotherssubmissive
tohimandreadytoacceptwhathesays.Eventually,theexistenceofa(restraining)
authorityamongthemandoverthembecomesafactthatisacceptedwithoutthe
slightestdisapprovalordissent.
Thispropositionofthephilosophersisnotlogical,asonecansee.Existncia
andhumanlifecanmaterializewithout(theexistenceofprophecy)through
injunctionsapersoninauthoritymaydeviseonhisownorwiththehelpofagroup
feelingthatenableshimtoforcetheotherstofollowhimwhereverhewantstogo.
Peoplewhohavea(divinelyrevealed)bookandwhofollowtheprophetsarefewin
Page89
9 whohaveno(divinelyrevealed)
numberincomparisonwith(all)theMagians
livro.Thelatterconstitutethemajorityoftheworld'sinhabitants.Still,they(too)
havepossesseddynastiesandmonuments,nottomentionlifeitself.Theystill
possessthesethingsatthistimeintheintemperatezonestothenorthandthesouth.
Thisisincontrast 10 withhumanlifeinthestateofanarchy,withnoonetoexercise
arestraininginfluence.Thatwouldbeimpossible.
Thisshowsthat(thephilosophers)arewrongwhentheyassumethat
prophecyexistsbynecessity.Theexistenceofprophecyisnotrequiredbylogic.Sua
(necessarycharacter)isindicatedbythereligiouslaw,aswasthebeliefoftheearly
Muslims.
Godgivessuccessandguidance.
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SECONDPREFATORYDISCUSSION
Thepartsoftheearthwherecivilizationisfound.ToEu
11
informationaboutoceans,rivers,andzones.
IN 12 THEBOOKSofphilosopherswhospeculatedabouttheconditionofthe
world,ithasbeenexplainedthattheearthhasasphericalshapeandisenvelopedbythe
13
elementofwater.Itmaybecomparedtoagrapefloatinguponwater.
Thewaterwithdrewfromcertainpartsof(theearth),becauseGodwantedtocreate
livingbeingsuponitandsettleitwiththehumanspeciesthatrulesas(God's)
14 Onemightfromthisgettheimpressionthatthe
representativeoverallotherbeings.
waterisbelowtheearth.Thisisnotcorrect.Thenatural"below"oftheearthisthecore
andmiddleofitssphere,thecentertowhicheverythingisattractedbyitsgravity.Todos
sidesoftheearthbeyondthatandthewatersurroundingtheearthare"above."Whensome
partoftheearthissaidtobe"below,"itissaidtobesowithreferencetosomeother
region(oftheearth).
Thepartoftheearthfromwhichthewaterhaswithdrawnisonehalfthesurfaceof
thesphereoftheearth.Ithasacircularformandissurroundedonallsidesbytheelement
ofwaterwhichformsaseacalled"theSurroundingSea"(alBahralMuhit).Itisalso
16 BotharenonArabic
calledlablayah, 15 withthickeningofthesecondl,oroceanos.
palavras.Itisalsocalled"theGreenSea"and"theBlackSea."
Thepartoftheearththatisfreefromwater(andthussuitable)forhuman
civilizationhasmorewasteandemptyareasthancultivated(habitable)areas.Theempty
areainthesouthislargerthanthatinthenorth.Thecultivatedpartoftheearthextends
moretowardthenorth.Intheshapeofacircularplaneitextendsinthesouthtothe
17 line,behindwhichtherearemountainsseparating
equatorandinthenorthtoacircular
(thecultivatedpartoftheearth)fromtheelementalwater.Enclosedbetween(these
mountains)istheDamofGogandMagog.Thesemountainsextendtowardtheeast.No
eastandthewest,theyalsoreachtheelementalwater,attwosections(points)ofthe
circular(line)thatsurrounds(thecultivatedpartoftheearth).
Thepartoftheearththatisfreefromwaterissaidtocoveronehalforlessofthe
sphere(oftheearth).Thecultivatedpartcoversonefourthofit.Itisdividedintoseven
zonas. 18
Theequatordividestheearthintotwohalvesfromwesttoeast.Itrepresentsthe
lengthoftheearth.Itisthelongestlineonthesphereof(theearth),justastheeclipticand
theequinoctiallinearethelongestlinesonthefirmament.Theeclipticisdividedinto360
graus.Thegeographicaldegreeistwentyfiveparasangs,theparasangbeing12,000
cubitsorthreemiles,sinceonemilehas4,000cubits.Thecubitistwentyfourfingers,and
19 Thedistanceofthe
thefingerissixgrainsofbarleyplacedcloselytogetherinonerow.
equinoctialline,paralleltotheequatoroftheearthanddividingthefirmamentintotwo
parts,isninetydegreesfromeachofthetwopoles.However,thecultivatedareanorthof
20 Therestisemptyanduncultivatedbecauseof
theequatoris(only)sixtyfourdegrees.
thebittercoldandfrost,exactlyasthesouthernpartisaltogetheremptybecauseofthe
calor.Weshallexplainitall,ifGodwills.
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Informationaboutthecultivatedpartanditsboundariesandaboutthecities,towns,
mountains,rivers,wasteareas,andsandydesertsitcontains,hasbeengivenbymensuch
21 and,afterhim,bytheauthoroftheBookofRoger.
asPtolemyintheGeography
22
Thesemendividedthecultivatedareaintosevenpartswhichtheycalledthesevenzones.
Thebordersofthesevenzonesareimaginary.Theyextendfromeasttowest.Inwidth
(latitudinalextension)theyareidentical,inlength(longitudinalextension)different.O
firstzoneislongerthanthesecond.Thesameappliestothesecondzone,andsoon.O
seventhzoneistheshortest.Thisisrequiredbythecircularshapethatresultedfromthe
withdrawalofthewaterfromthesphereoftheearth.
Accordingtothesescholars,eachofthesevenzonesisdividedfromwesttoeast
intotencontiguoussections.Informationaboutgeneralconditionsandcivilizationisgiven
foreachsection.
(Thegeographers)mentionedthattheMediterraneanwhichweallknowbranches
offfromtheSurroundingSeainthewesternpartofthefourthzone.Itbeginsatanarrow
straitsabouttwelvemileswidebetweenTangierandTarifa,calledtheStreet(of
Gibraltar).Itthenextendseastwardandopensouttoawidthof600miles.Itterminatesat
theendofthefourthsectionofthefourthzone,adistanceof1,160parasangsfromits
startingpoint.There,itisborderedbythecoastofSyria.Onthesouth,itisborderedbythe
coastoftheMaghrib,beginningwithTangierattheStraits,thenlfrigiyah,Barqah,and
Alexandria.Onthenorth,itisborderedbythecoastofConstantinople,thenVenice,
Rome,France,andSpain,backtoTarifaattheStreet(ofGibraltar)oppositeTangier.O
MediterraneanisalsocalledtheRomanSeaortheSyrianSea.Itcontainsmanypopulous
23
islands.Someofthemarelarge,suchasCrete,Cyprus,Sicily,Majorca,andSardinia.
Inthenorth,theysay,twootherseasbranchofffromtheMediterraneanthrough
twostraits.OneofthemisoppositeConstantinople.ItstartsattheMediterraneanina
narrowstraits,onlyanarrowshotinwidth.Itflowsforathreedays'runandtouches
Constantinople.Then,itattainsawidthoffourmiles.Itflowsinthischannelforsixty
miles,whereitisknownastheStraitsofConstantinople.Throughamouthsixmileswide,
24 andbecomesaseathat,fromthere,turnseastwardinits
itthenflowsintotheBlackSea,
25 andendsatthecountryofthe
curso.ItpassesthelandofHeracleia(inBithynia)
Khazars,1,300milesfromitsmouth.AlongitstwocoastslivetheByzantine,theTurkish,
theBulgar(Burjin) '26 andtheRussiannations.
ThesecondseathatbranchesofffromthetwostraitsoftheMediterraneanisthe
AdriaticSea(GulfofVenice).ItemergesfromByzantineterritoryatitsnorthernlimit.
Then,fromSant'Angelo(de'Lombardi),itswesternboundaryextendsfromthecountryof
theVenetianstotheterritoryofAquileia,1,100milesfromwhereitstarted.Onitstwo
shoreslivetheVenetians,theByzantines(Rum),andothernations.ItiscalledtheGulfof
Venice(AdriaticSea).
FromtheSurroundingSea,theysay,alargeandwideseaflowsontheeastat
thirteendegreesnorthoftheequator.Itflowsalittletowardthesouth,enteringthefirst
zona.Thenitflowswestwithinthefirstzoneuntilitreachesthecountryofthe
27 andBibalMandebinthefifthsectionof(the
AbyssiniansandtheNegroes(theZanj)
firstzone),4,500parasangsfromitsstartingpoint.ThisseaiscalledtheChinese,Indian,
orAbyssinianSea(IndianOcean).Itisborderedonthesouthbythecountryofthe
Negroes(Zanj)andthecountryofBerberawhichImru'ulQaysmentionedinhispoem.
These"Berbers"donotbelongtotheBerberswhomakeupthetribesintheMaghrib.O
28
29 e
seaisthenborderedbytheareaofMogadishu,Sufilah,andthelandofalWigwiq,
byothernationsbeyondwhichthereisnothingbutwasteandemptyareas.Onthenorth,
whereitstarts,itisborderedbyChina,thenbyEasternandWesternIndia(alHindandas
Sind),andthenbythecoastoftheYemen,thatis,alAhqif,Zabid,andothercities.Onde
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itends,itisborderedbythecountryoftheNegroes,and,beyondthem,theBeja.
30
Twootherseas,theysay,branchofffromtheIndianOcean.Oneofthembranches
offwheretheIndianOceanends,atBibalMandeb.Itstartsoutnarrow,thenflows
wideningtowardthenorthandslightlytothewestuntilitendsatthecityofalQulzumin
thefifthsectionofthesecondzone,1,400milesfromitsstartingpoint.ThisistheSeaof
31 isthe
alQulzumorSeaofSuez(RedSea).FromtheRedSeaatSueztoFustat
distanceofathreedays'journey.TheRedSeaisborderedontheeastbythecoastofthe
32 andthen,whereitends,byMidyan(Madyan),Aila
Yemen,theHijiz,andJiddah,
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(Aylah),andFaran. 33 Onthewest,itisborderedbythecoastofUpperEgypt,'Aydhib,
Suakin,andZayla'(Zila'),andthen,whereitbegins,bythecountryoftheBeja.Itendsat
alQulzum.It(would)reachtheMediterraneanatal'Arish.Thedistancebetween(theRed
SeaandtheMediterranean)isasixdays'journey.Manyrulers,bothMuslimandpre
Islamic,havewantedtocutthroughtheinterveningterritory(withacanal)butthishasnot
beenachieved.
ThesecondseabranchingofffromtheIndianOceanandcalledthePersianGulf
(theGreenGulf),branchesoffattheregionbetweenthewestcoastofIndiaandalAhqaf
intheYemen.ItflowstowardthenorthandslightlytothewestuntilitendsatalUbullah
onthecoastofalBasrahinthesixthsectionofthesecondzone,440parasangsfromits
startingpoint.ItiscalledthePersianGulf(PersianSea).Itisborderedontheeastbythe
coastofWesternIndia,Mukrin,Kirmin,Firs,andalUbullahwhereitends.Onthewest,it
isborderedbythecoastofalBahrayn,theYamamah,Oman,ashShihr,andalAhgaf
whereitstarts.BetweenthePersianGulfandalQulzumliestheArabianPeninsula,jutting
outfromthemainlandintothesea.ItissurroundedbytheIndianOceantothesouth,by
theRedSeatothewest,andbythePersianGulftotheeast.Itadjoinsthe'Iraqinthe
regionbetweenSyriaandalBasrah,wherethedistancebetween(Syriaandthe'Iraq)is
1,500miles.(Inthe'Iraq)arealKufah,alQidistyah,Baghdad,theReceptionHallof
Khosraw(atCtesiphon) 34 andalHirah.BeyondthatlivenonArabnationssuchasthe
Turks,theKhazars,andothers.TheArabianPeninsulacomprisestheHijazinthewest,the
Yamamah,alBahrayn,andOmanintheeast,andinthesouththeYemenalongthecoast
oftheIndianOcean.
Inthecultivatedarea(oftheearth),theysay,thereisanotherseatothenorthinthe
landoftheDaylam.Thisseahasnoconnectionwiththeotherseas.ItiscalledtheSeaof
JurjanandTabaristan(CaspianSea).Itslengthis1,000miles,anditswidth600.Tothe
westofitliesAzerbaijanandtheDaylamterritorytotheeastofitthelandoftheTurks
andKhuwirizmtothesouthofitTabaristanandtothenorthofitthelandoftheKhazars
andtheAlans.
Theseareallthefamousseasmentionedbythegeographers.
Theyfurthersaythatinthecultivatedpartof(theearth),therearemanyrivers.O
largestamongthemarefourinnumber,namely,theNile,theEuphrates,theTigris,andthe
RiverofBalkhwhichiscalledOxus(Jayhun).
TheNilebeginsatalargemountain,sixteendegreesbeyondtheequatoratthe
boundaryofthefourthsectionofthefirstzone.ThismountainiscalledtheMountainof
theQumr. 35 Nohighermountainisknownonearth.Manyspringsissuefromthe
mountain,someofthemflowingintoonelakethere,andsomeofthemintoanotherlake.
Fromthesetwolakes,severalriversbranchoff,andallofthemflowintoalakeatthe
equatorwhichisatthedistanceofatendays'journeyfromthemountain.Fromthatlake,
tworiversissue.Oneofthemflowsduenorth,passingthroughthecountryoftheNubah
andthenthroughEgypt.HavingtraversedEgypt,itdividesintomanybrancheslyingclose
unscomosoutros.Eachoftheseiscalleda"channel."AllflowintotheMediterraneanat
Alexandria.ThisriveriscalledtheEgyptianNile.ItisborderedbyUpperEgyptonthe
Pgina93
east,andbytheoasesonthewest.Theotherriverturnswestward,flowingduewestuntil
36 AlltheNegronations
itflowsintotheSurroundingSea.ThisriveristheSudaneseNile.
livealongitsborders.
TheEuphratesbeginsinArmeniainthesixthsectionofthefifthzone.Itflows
souththroughByzantineterritory(Anatolia)pastMalatyatoManbij,andthenpasses
Siflin,arRaggah,andalKufahuntilitreachestheMarsh(alBatha')betweenalBasrah
andWasit.FromthereitflowsintotheIndianOcean.Manyriversflowintoitalongits
curso.OtherriversbranchofffromitandflowintotheTigris.
TheTigrisoriginatesinanumberofspringsinthecountryofKhilat,whichisalso
inArmenia.ItpassesonitscoursesouthwardthroughMosul,Azerbaijan,andBaghdadto
Wasit.There,itdividesintoseveralchannels,allofwhichflowintotheLakeofalBasrah
andjointhePersianGulf.TheTigrisflowseastoftheEuphrates.Manylargeriversflow
intoitfromallsides.TheregionbetweentheEuphratesandtheTigris,whereitisfirst
formed,istheJazirahofMosul,facingSyriaonbothbanksoftheEuphrates,andfacing
AzerbaijanonbothbanksoftheTigris.
TheOxusoriginatesatBalkh,intheeighthsectionofthethirdzone,inagreat
numberofspringsthere.Largeriversflowintoit,asitfollowsacoursefromsouthto
north.ItflowsthroughKhurasan,thenpastKhurasantoKhuwarizmintheeighthsection
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ofthefifthzone.ItflowsintoLakeAral(theLakeofGurganj)whichissituatedatthefoot
[north?]ofthecityof(Gurganj).Inlengthasinwidth,itextendsthedistanceofone
37 whichcomesfrom
month'sjourney.TheriverofFarghanahandTashkent(ashShash),
theterritoryoftheTurks,flowsintoit.WestoftheOxuslieKhurasanandKhuwarizm.
EastofitliethecitiesofBukhari,atTirmidh,andSamarkand.Beyondthatarethecountry
38 and(other)nonArabnations.
oftheTurks,Farghanah,theKharlukh,
(All)thiswasmentionedbyPtolemyinhisworkandbytheSharaf(alIdrisi)inthe
BookofRoger.Allthemountains,seas,andriverstobefoundinthecultivatedpartofthe
eartharedepictedonmapsandexhaustivelytreatedingeography.Wedonothavetogo
anyfurtherintoit.Itistoolengthyasubject,andourmainconcerniswiththeMaghrib,
thehomeoftheBerbers,andtheArabhomecountriesintheEast.
Godgivessuccess.
SUPPLEMENTARYNOTE
TOTHESECONDPREFATORYDISCUSSION
Thenorthernquarteroftheearthhasmorecivilization
thanthesouthernquarter.Thereasonthereof.
WEKNOWFROMOBSERVATIONandfromcontinuoustraditionthatthefirst
andthesecondofthecultivatedzoneshavelesscivilizationthantheotherzones.O
cultivatedareainthefirstandsecondzonesisinterspersedwithemptywasteareasand
sandydesertsandhastheIndianOceantotheeast.Thenationsandpopulationsofthefirst
andsecondzonesarenotexcessivelynumerous.Thesameappliestothecitiesandtowns
there.
Thethird,fourth,andsubsequentzonesarejusttheopposite.Wasteareasthereare
few.Sandydesertsalsoarefewornonexistent.Thenationsandpopulationsare
tremendous.Citiesandtownsareexceedinglynumerous.Civilizationhasitsseatbetween
thethirdandthesixthzones.Thesouthisallemptiness.
Manyphilosophershavementionedthatthisisbecauseoftheexcessiveheatand
Pgina94
slightnessofthesun'sdeviationfromthezenithinthesouth.Letusexplainandprovethis
declarao.Theresultwillclarifythereasonwhycivilizationinthethirdandfourthzones
issohighlydevelopedandextendsalsotothefifth,<sixth,>andseventhzones.
Wesay:Whenthesouthandnorthpoles(ofheaven)areuponthehorizon,they
constitutealargecirclethatdividesthefirmamentintotwoparts.Itisthelargestcircle(in
it)andrunsfromwesttoeast.Itiscalledtheequinoctialline.Inastronomy,ithasbeen
explainedintheproperplacethatthehighestspheremovesfromeasttowestinadaily
motionbymeansofwhichitalsoforcesthespheresenclosedbyittomove.Thismotionis
perceptibletothesenses.Ithasalsobeenexplainedthatthestarsintheirsphereshavea
motionthatiscontrarytothismotionandis,therefore,amotionfromwesttoeast.O
periodsofthismovementdifferaccordingtothedifferentspeedsofthemotionsofthe
stars.
Paralleltothecoursesofallthesestarsintheirspheres,thererunsalargecircle
whichbelongstothehighestsphereanddividesitintotwohalves.Thisistheecliptic
(zodiac).Itisdividedintotwelve"signs."Ashasbeenexplainedintheproperplace,the
equinoctiallineintersectstheeclipticattwooppositepoints,namely,atthebeginningof
AriesandatthebeginningofLibra.Theequinoctiallinedividesthezodiacintotwo
halves.Oneofthemextendsnorthwardfromtheequinoctiallineandincludesthesigns
fromthebeginningofAriestotheendofVirgo.Theotherhalfextendssouthwardfromit
andincludesthesignsfromthebeginningofLibratotheendofPisces.
Whenthetwopolesfalluponthehorizon<whichtakesplaceinoneparticular
region>amongalltheregionsoftheearth,alineisformeduponthesurfaceoftheearth
thatfacestheequinoctiallineandrunsfromwesttoeast.Thislineiscalledtheequator.
Accordingtoastronomicalobservation,thislineisbelievedtocoincidewiththebeginning
ofthefirstofthesevenzones.Allcivilizationistothenorthofit.
Thenorthpolegraduallyascendsonthehorizonofthecultivatedarea(oftheearth)
untilitselevationreachessixtyfourdegrees.Here,allcivilizationends.Thisistheendof
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theseventhzone.Whenitselevationreachesninetydegreesonthehorizonthatisthe
linethenitisatitszenith,andthe
distancebetweenthepoleandtheequinoctial
equinoctiallineisonthehorizon.Sixofthesignsofthezodiac,thenorthernones,remain
abovethehorizon,andsix,thesouthernones,arebelowit.
Civilizationisimpossibleintheareabetweenthesixtyfourthandtheninetieth
degrees,fornoadmixtureofheatandcoldoccurstherebecauseofthegreattimeinterval
entreeles.Generation(ofanything),therefore,doesnottakeplace.
ThesunisatitszenithontheequatoratthebeginningofAriesandLibra.Itthen
declinesfromitszenithdowntothebeginningofCancerandCapricorn.Itsgreatest
declinationfromtheequinoctiallineistwentyfourdegrees.
Now,whenthenorthpoleascendsonthehorizon,theequinoctiallinedeclines
fromthezenithinproportiontotheelevationofthenorthpole,andthesouthpole
descendscorrespondingly,asregardsthethree(distancesconstitutinggeographical
latitude). 39 Scholarswhocalculatethe(prayer)timescallthisthelatitudeofaplace.Quando
theequinoctiallinedeclinesfromthezenith,thenorthernsignsofthezodiacgraduallyrise
aboveit,proportionatelytoitsrise,untilthebeginningofCancerisreached.Enquantoisso,
thesouthernsignsofthezodiaccorrespondinglydescendbelowthehorizonuntilthe
beginningofCapricornisreached,becauseoftheinclinationofthe(twohalvesofthe
zodiac)upwardsordownwardsfromthehorizonoftheequator,aswehavestated.O
northernhorizoncontinuestorise,untilitsnorthernlimit,whichisthebeginningof
Cancer,isinthezenith.ThisiswherethelatitudeistwentyfourdegreesintheHijazand
theterritoryadjacent.Thisisthedeclinationfromtheequinoctialatthehorizonofthe
equatoratthebeginningofCancer.Withtheelevationofthenorthpole(Cancer)rises,
untilitattainsthezenith.Whenthepolerisesmorethantwentyfourdegrees,thesun
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descendsfromthezenithandcontinuestodosountiltheelevationofthepoleissixtyfour
degrees,andthesun'sdescentfromthezenith,aswellasthedepressionofthesouthpole
underthehorizon,isthesamedistance.Then,generation(ofanything)stopsbecauseofthe
excessivecoldandfrostandthelongtimewithoutanyheat.
Atandnearingitszenith,thesunsendsitsraysdownupontheearthatrightangles.
Inotherpositions,itsendsthemdownatobtuseoracuteangles.Whentheraysformright
angles,thelightisstrongandspreadsoutoverawidearea,incontrasttowhathappensin
thecaseofobtuseandacuteangles.Therefore,atandnearingitszenith,theheatisgreater
thaninotherpositions,becausethelight(ofthesun)isthereasonforheatandcalefaction.
ThesunreachesitszenithattheequatortwiceayearintwopointsofAriesandLibra.Nenhuma
declination(ofthesun)goesveryfar.Theheathardlybeginstobecomemoretemperate,
whenthesunhasreachedthelimitofitsdeclinationatthebeginningofCanceror
Capricornandbeginstoriseagaintowardthezenith.Theperpendicularraysthenfall
heavilyuponthehorizonthere(intheseregions)andholdsteadyforalongtime,ifnot
permanently.Theairgetsburninghot,evenexcessivelyso.Thesameistruewheneverthe
sunreachesthezenithintheareabetweentheequatorandlatitudetwentyfourdegrees,as
itdoestwiceayear.Theraysexercisealmostasmuchforceuponthehorizonthere(atthis
latitude)astheydoattheequator.Theexcessiveheatcausesaparchingdrynessintheair
thatprevents(any)generation.Astheheatbecomesmoreexcessive,waterandallkindsof
moisturedryup,and(thepowerof)generationisdestroyedinminerals,plants,and
animals,because(all)generationdependsonmoisture.
Now,whenthebeginningofCancerdeclinesfromthezenithatthelatitudeof
twentyfivedegreesandbeyond,thesunalsodeclinesfromitszenith.Theheatbecomes
temperate,ordeviatesonlyslightlyfrom(beingtemperate).Then,generationcantake
lugar.Thisgoesonuntilthecoldbecomesexcessive,duetothelackoflightandthe
obtuseanglesoftheraysofthesun.Then,(thepowerof)generationagaindecreasesandis
destruda.However,thedestructioncausedbygreatheatisgreaterthanthatcausedby
greatcold,becauseheatbringsaboutdesiccationfasterthancoldbringsaboutfreezing.
Therefore,thereislittlecivilizationinthefirstandsecondzones.Existeum
mediumdegreeofcivilizationinthethird,fourth,andfifthzones,becausetheheatthereis
temperateowingtothedecreasedamountoflight.Thereisagreatdealofcivilizationin
thesixthandseventhzonesbecauseofthedecreasedamountofheatthere.Atfirst,cold
doesnothavethesamedestructiveeffectupon(thepowerof)generationasheatitcauses
desiccationonlywhenitbecomesexcessiveandthushasdrynessadded.Esteocaso
beyondtheseventhzone.(All)this,then,isthereasonwhycivilizationisstrongerand
moreabundantinthenorthernquarter.AndGodknowsbetter!
O
40 philosophersconcludedfromthesefactsthattheregionattheequatorand
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beyondit(tothesouth)wasempty.Onthestrengthofobservationandcontinuous
tradition,itwasarguedagainstthemthat(tothecontrary)itwascultivated.Howwouldit
bepossibletoprovethis(contention)?Itisobviousthatthe(philosophers)didnotmeanto
denyentirelytheexistenceofcivilizationthere,buttheirargumentationledthemto(the
realization)that(thepowerof)generationmust,toalargedegree,bedestroyedthere
becauseoftheexcessiveheat.Consequently,civilizationtherewouldbeeitherimpossible,
oronlyminimallypossible.Thisisso.Theregionattheequatorandbeyondit(tothe
south),evenifithascivilizationashasbeenreported,hasonlyaverylittleofit.
42 andthatwhat
Averroes 41 assumedthattheequatorisinasymmetricalposition
isbeyondtheequatortothesouthcorrespondstowhatisbeyondittothenorth
consequently,asmuchofthesouthwouldbecultivatedasofthenorth.Hisassumptionis
notimpossible,sofaras(theargumentof)thedestructionofthepowerofgenerationis
emcausa.However,astotheregionsouthoftheequator,itismadeimpossiblebythefact
thattheelementofwatercoversthefaceoftheearthinthesouth,wherethecorresponding
areainthenorthadmitsofgeneration.Onaccountofthegreateramountofwater(inthe
Pgina96
south),Averroes'assumptionofthesymmetrical(positionoftheequator)thusturnsoutto
beimpossible.Everythingelsefollows,sincecivilizationprogressesgraduallyandbegins
itsgradualprogresswhereitcanexist,notwhereitcannotexist.
Theassumptionthatcivilizationcannotexistattheequatoriscontradictedby
continuoustradition.AndGodknowsbetter!
43 aswasdonebythe
Afterthisdiscussion,wewishtodrawamapoftheearth,
authoroftheBookofRoger.Then,weshallgiveadetaileddescriptionofthemap.
DETAILEDDESCRIPTIONOFTHEMAP
44
THISDESCRIPTlONistwofold.Thereisadetaileddescriptionandageneral
descrio.
Thedetaileddescriptionconsistsofadiscussionofeachcountry,mountain,sea,
andriverofthecultivatedpartoftheearth.Thisdiscussionwillbefoundinthefollowing
seo.
Thegeneraldescriptionconsistsofadiscussionofthedivisionofthecultivated
partoftheearthintosevenzones,theirlatitudinal(extension),andthelengthoftheirdays.
Suchisthecontentsofthissection.
Letusbegintoexplainthesethings.Wehavementionedbeforethattheearthfloats
45 God'splanforcivilizationandfortheelemental
upontheelementalwaterlikeagrape.
generationofliferesultedinmakingpartof(theearth)freeofwater.
Thepartthatisfreeofwaterissaidtoconstituteonehalfthesurfaceoftheearth.
Thecultivatedpartisonefourthofit.Therestisuncultivated.Accordingtoanother
opinion,thecultivatedpartisonlyonesixthofit.Theemptyareasofthepartwhichis
freeofwaterlietothesouthandtothenorth.Thecultivatedareainbetweenformsa
continuumthatstretchesfromwesttoeast.Thereisnoemptyareabetweenthecultivated
partandthe(Surrounding)Seainthesetwodirections.
Theyfurthersaid:Acrossthecultivatedpartoftheearthanimaginarylineruns
fromwesttoeastfacingtheequinoctialline(ofthefirmament)inregionswherethetwo
polesofthefirmamentareonthehorizon.Atthislinecivilizationbegins.Itextendsfrom
therenorthwards.
Ptolemysaid:"Asamatteroffact,civilizationextendsbeyondthatlinetothe
46
south."Heindicatedthelatitudinalextension,aswillbementioned.
47 expressestheopinionthatbeyondtheseventhzone
Ishaqb.alHasanalKhazini
(tothenorth)thereisanothercivilization.Heindicateditslatitudinalextension,asweshall
KEYTOTHEMAP
1South
41Mukrin
2West
42Kirmin
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3North
43Firs
4East
44alBahlus
5Emptybeyondtheequatorbecause
oftheheat
45Azerbaijan
6Equator
46Desert
7LamlamCountry
47Khurasin
8Maghzawah(Maguzawa?)
48Khuwirizm
Pgina97
9Kanem
[Country
49EasternIndia
10Bornu
50Tashkent
11Gawgaw
51Soghd
12Zaghiy
52China
13atTijuwin
53Tughuzghuz
14Nubia
54Gascogne
15Abyssinia
55Brittany
16Ghanah
56Calabria
17Lamtah
57France
18asSus
58Venice
19Morocco
59Germany(Alaminiyah)
20Tangier
60Macedonia
21Sinhijah
61Bohemia
22Dar'ah
62Jathuliyah
23Ifriqiyah
63Jarmaniyah
24Fezzan
64alBaylagin
25Jarid
65Armenia
26Kawir
66Tabaristan
27DesertofBerenice
67Alans
28InnerOases
68Bashqirs
29UpperEgypt
69Bulgars
30Egypt
70Pechenegs
31Beja
71StinkingLand
32Hijiz
72WasteCountry
33Syria
73Magog
34Yemen
74Ghuzz
35Yamimah
75Tiirgish
36alBasrah
76Adhkish
37'Iraq
77Khallukh
38ashShihr
78Gog
39Oman
79Kimik
40WesternIndia
80Emptyinthenorthbecauseofthecold
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Pgina98
mention. 48 AlKhaziniisoneoftheleadingscholarsinthiscraft(geography).
*Further,theancientphilosophersdividedthecultivatedpartoftheearthinthe
northintosevenzonesbymeansofimaginarylinesrunningfromwesttoeast.Eles
maintainthatthesezoneshavedifferentlatitudinalextensions.Thiswillbediscussedin
detalhe.
Thefirstzonerunsalongtheequator,northofit.Southofit,thereisonlythe
civilizationtowhichreferencewasmadebyPtolemy.Beyondthatarewasteregionsand
sandydeserts,uptothecircleofwaterwhichiscalledtheSurroundingSea.Tothenorth,
thefirstzoneisfollowed,successively,bythesecondthroughtheseventhzones.(A
seventhzone)constitutesthenorthernlimitofcivilization.Beyonditareonlyemptyand
wasteregions,downtotheSurroundingSeaas(inthesouth).However,theemptyregions
inthesoutharemuchlargerthanthoseinthenorth.*
Astolatitudesandlengthofdaysinthevariouszones,itshouldbeknownthatthe
twopolesofthefirmamentareuponthehorizonattheequatorinthewestandtheeast.
Itshouldbeknownthat,aswasmentionedabove,thephilosophersdividedthe
cultivatedpartoftheearthintosevenpartsfromsouthtonorth.Thesepartstheycalled
zonas.Thewholeofthecultivatedareaisdistributedoverthesezones.Eachzoneextends
fromwesttoeast.
Thefirstzonerunsfromwesttoeastwiththeequatorasitssouthernborder.
Pgina99
Beyondit,thereareonlywasteregionsandsandydeserts,andcivilizationofasortthat,if
itactuallyexists,ismorelikenoncivilization.Tothenorth,thefirstzoneisfollowed,
successively,bythesecondthroughtheseventhzones.Theseventhzoneconstitutesthe
northernlimitofcivilization.Beyondit(tothenorth)areonlyemptyandwasteregions
untiltheSurroundingSeaisreached.Thesituationisthesamehereasitisbeyondthe
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firstzonetothesouth.However,theemptyareasinthenortharemuchsmallerthanthose
inthesouth.
Thesunthereisatthezenith.Aswefollowthecultivatedpartoftheearthfarther
andfarthernorth,thenorthpoleascendsslightly,andthesouthpoledescends
correspondingly,(atthehorizon).Furthermore,thesunmovesacorrespondingdistance
from(itszenithat)theequinoctialline.Thesethreedistancesareequaltoeachother.Cada
ofthemiscalledgeographicallatitude.Thisiswellknowntothescholarswhodetermine
the(prayer)times.
Peopleholddifferentopinionsastothelatitudinalextension(ofthecultivatedpart
oftheearth)andastothelatitudinalextension(breadth)ofthevariouszones.Ptolemy
holdstheopinionthatthelatitudinalextensionoftheentirecultivatedpartoftheearthis
77 1 / 2.Thelatitudinalextensionofthecultivatedpartbeyondtheequatortothesouthis
1/ .Conforme
11 . 48a Thus,thelatitudinalextensionofthezonesinthenorthis66
2
48b thesecondto20 thethirdto27 thefourthto
him,thefirstzoneextendsto16
33 thefifthto38 thesixthto43 theseventhto48 .49 Hethendeterminedthedegree
2 / miles,(wereittobe)measuredonthesurface
onthefirmamentashavingalengthof66
3
oftheearth. 50 Thus,thefirstzonefromsouthtonorthis1,067miles(wide)osegundo
zone,2,333milesthethirdzone,2,790milesthefourthzone,2,185milesthefifthzone,
2,520milesthesixthzone,2,840miles,andtheseventhzone,3,150miles.
*Thelengthofnightanddaydiffersinthevariouszonesbyreasonofthe
declinationofthesunfromtheequinoctiallineandtheelevationofthenorthpoleabove
thehorizon.Thiscausesadifferenceinthearcsofdayandnight.
Thelengthofnightanddaydyersinthedifferentzonesbyreasonofthedeclination
ofthesunfromtheequinoctiallineandtheelevationofthenorthpoleabovethehorizon.
Thiscausesadeferenceinthearcsofdayandnight.
Attheboundaryofthefirstzone,thelongestnightwhichoccurswhenthesun
entersCapricornandthelongestdaywhichoccurswhenthesunentersCancerreacha
maximumofthirteenhours.Thesameisthecaseattheboundaryofthesecondzoneinthe
north.Thelengthofdaytherereachesitsmaximumofthirteenandonehalfhourswhen
thesunentersCancer,thesummertropic.Thelongestnightwhenthesunenters
Capricorn,thewintertropicisaslong.Fortheshortestdayandnight,therethusremains
thedifferencebetweenthirteenandonehalfandtwentyfour,whichisthecombined
numberofhoursofdayandnight,oronecompleterevolutionofthefirmament.Thesame
isthecasealsoattheboundaryofthethirdzoneinthenorth,wherenightanddayreacha
maximumlengthoffourteenhoursattheboundaryofthefourthzone,wheretheyreacha
maximumlengthoffourteenandonehalfhoursattheboundaryofthefifthzone,where
theyreachamaximumlengthoffifteenhoursattheboundaryofthesixthzone,where
theyreachamaximumlengthoffifteenandonehalfhoursandattheboundaryofthe
seventhzone,wheretheyreachamaximumlengthofsixteenhours.There,civilization
ends.Thedifferenceinthemaximumlengthofnightanddayinthevariouszones,
consequently,isanevenlydistributed,gradualincreaseofhalfanhourineach,allthe
wayfromthefirstzoneinthesouthtothelastzoneinthenorth.
Inconnectionwiththesezones,"geographicallatitude"referstothedistance
betweenthesunatitszenithinagivenplaceandtheequinoctiallinewhereitisatthe
Pgina100
zenithontheequator.Itlikewisecorrespondstothedepressionofthesouthpolebelowthe
horizoninthatparticularplace,aswellastotheelevationofthenorthpole.Aswas
mencionadoantes, 51 thesethreedistancesareequaltoeachother.Theyarecalled
"geographicallatitude."
Attheboundaryofthefirstzone,thelongestnightwhichoccurswhenthesun
entersCapricornandthelongestdaywhichoccurswhenthesunentersCancerreach,
accordingtoPtolemy,amaximumoftwelveandonehalfhoursattheboundaryofthe
secondzone,amaximumofthirteenhoursattheboundaryofthethirdzone,amaximum
ofthirteenandonehalfhoursattheboundaryofthefourthzone,amaximumoffourteen
hoursattheboundaryofthefifthzone,amaximumofonehalfhourmoreno
boundaryofthesixthzone,amaximumoffifteenhoursandattheboundaryofthe
seventhzone,amaximumofonehalfhourmore.Fortheshortestdayandnight,therethus
remainsthedifferencebetweenthelastfigureandtwentyfour,whichisthecombined
numberofhoursofdayandnight,oronecompleterevolutionofthefirmament.O
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differenceinthemaximumlengthofnightanddayinthevariouszones,consequently,is
anevenlydistributed,gradualincreaseofhalfanhourineach,allthewayfromthefirst
zoneinthesouthtothelastzoneinthenorth.*
Ishaqb.alHasanalKhazinimaintainsthatthelatitudinalextensionofcivilization
25',andthelongestnightanddaythere,thirteen
beyondtheequator(tothesouth)is16
horas.Thelatitudinalextensionofthefirstzoneandthelengthofdayandnightthereare
51a eo
thesameasbeyondtheequator(tothesouth).Thesecondzoneextendsto24,
lengthofits(longest)dayandnightatitsfarthestpointisthirteenandonehalfhours.Para
andfourteenhours.Forthefourthzone,theyare36
e
thethirdzone,thefiguresare30
andfifteenhours.Parao
fourteenandonehalfhours.Forthefifthzone,theyare41
sixthzone,theyare45 andfifteenandonehalfhours.Fortheseventhzone,theyare
48 1/ 2 andsixteenhours.Thelatitudinalextensionofcivilizationbeyondtheseventhzone
,Eo
(tothenorth)reachesfromtheboundaryoftheseventhzoneto(latitude)63
lengthofthe(longest)dayandnighttotwentyhours.
Otherleadingscholarsinthediscipline,apartfromIshaqalKhazini,maintainthat
27'.
thelatitudinalextensionofthecultivatedareabeyondtheequator(tothesouth)is16
Thefirstzoneextendsto20
15'thesecondto27
13'thethirdto33
20'thefourthto
38 1/ 2 52 thefifthto43 thesixthto47 53'or,accordingtoanotheropinion,to46
andtheseventhto51
53'.Civilizationbeyondtheseventhzoneextendsto77
50'
53 oneoftheleadingscholarsinthediscipline,onealso
to20 13'ofthesecond,to
findsthatthelatitudinalextensionofthefirstzoneisfrom1
InAbuJafaralKhazini,
27 13'ofthethird,to3339'ofthefourth,to3823'ofthefifth,to42
54
sixth,to47 2'andoftheseventh,to6045'.
58'do
ThisisasmuchasIknowaboutthedifferentopinionsconcerninglatitudinal
extensionandlengthofdayandnightinthezonesandconcerningtheirwidthasindicated
inmiles.
God"createdeverything.Then,Hedeterminedit."
55
Thegeographershavesubdividedeachofthesevenzoneslengthwisefromwestto
eastintenequalsections.Theymentionthecountries,cities,mountains,andriversofeach
section,andthetravelingdistancesbetweenthem.
Weshallnowbrieflysummarizethebestknowncountries,rivers,andseasofeach
seo.OurmodelwillbethedatasetforthintheNuzhatalmushtaqwhichal'Alawial
56
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85 IbnasSammak, 86 andal'Umari, 87 eele

Tirmidhi 105 publishedtraditionsonhisauthority.ThehadithexpertalMizzi

Idrisids,ifGodwills. 151 Theyarethedescendantsof'Imranb.Muhammadb.al

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