Aramco 1

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
API Storage Tank
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Civil
File Reference: CSE11001
For additional information on this subject, contact

J.H. Thomas on 875-2230
Civil
API Storage Tank
CONTENTS
PAGE
TYPES, COMPONENTS, AND USES OF STORAGE TANKS.............................. 1

Background .................................................................................................... 1
API Atmospheric Storage Tanks .................................................................... 1
Supported Cone Roof Tank ................................................................. 2
Self-Supporting Fixed Roof Tank....................................................... 3
Floating Roof Tank............................................................................. 4
Fixed Roof with Internal Floating Roof Tank..................................... 5
API Low-Pressure Storage Tanks................................................................... 7
Single-Walled, Low-Pressure Tank .................................................... 8
Double-Walled, Low-Pressure Tank................................................... 9
Spheroidal Low-Pressure Tank........................................................... 10
Spherical Low-Pressure Tank ............................................................. 12
Other Storage Tanks....................................................................................... 13
APPLICABLE CODES AND STANDARDS FOR SELECTED
STORAGE TANKS ................................................................................................... 14
Codes and Standards for API Atmospheric Storage Tanks ............................ 14
API Standard 650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage..................... 14
API 653, Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration and
Reconstruction ............................................................................... 15
SAES-A-004, Pressure Testing........................................................... 16
SAES-B-005, Spacing and Diking for Atmospheric and LowPressure Tanks ............................................................................... 16
SAES-B-007B, Air Foam Systems for Storage Tanks........................ 16
SAES-D-100, Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Tanks ........................ 16
SAES-D-108, Storage Tank Integrity ................................................. 16
32-SAMSS-005, Atmospheric Steel Tanks ........................................ 16
Codes and Standards for API Low-Pressure Storage Tanks ............... 17
API Standard 620, Design and Construction of Large,
Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks ........................................... 17
SAES-A-004, Pressure Testing........................................................... 17
SAES-B-005, Spacing and Diking for Atmospheric and
Low-Pressure Tanks............................................................................ 17
SAES-D-100, Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Tanks ........................ 18
32-SAMSS-006, Large Welded Low-Pressure Tanks ........................ 18
Civil
API Storage Tank
TYPES, MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, AND ALLOWABLE STRESSES

OF STEELS COMMONLY USED FOR STORAGE TANKS ................................. 19
Background .................................................................................................... 19
Design Metal Temperature.................................................................. 19
Minimum Tensile Strength ................................................................. 20
Minimum Yield Strength .................................................................... 20
Allowable Stresses .............................................................................. 20
Allowable Types of Steels.............................................................................. 21
Atmospheric Storage Tanks................................................................ 21
Low-Pressure Storage Tanks .............................................................. 26
CALCULATING CIVIL/MECHANICAL LOADS FOR ATMOSPHERIC
STORAGE TANKS ................................................................................................... 27
Background .................................................................................................... 27
Estimating the Minimum Acceptable Thickness of Tank Components.......... 27
API One-Foot Method ........................................................................ 28
Minimum Shell Course Thicknesses for Construction Purposes ........ 29
Minimum Thicknesses for Tank Bottoms........................................... 30
Weight Loads ................................................................................................. 31
Background......................................................................................... 31
Procedures........................................................................................... 31
Total Pressure and Equivalent Liquid Height................................................. 34
Background......................................................................................... 34
Procedures........................................................................................... 37
Roof Live Load .............................................................................................. 38
Background......................................................................................... 38
Procedure ............................................................................................ 38
Wind Loads .................................................................................................... 39
Background......................................................................................... 39
Saudi Aramco Standards ................................................................................ 40
Formulas......................................................................................................... 41
Wind Loads .................................................................................................... 41
Civil
API Storage Tank
Wind Roof-Lift Loading................................................................................. 44

Earthquake Base-Overturning Moment.......................................................... 46
Background......................................................................................... 46
Saudi Aramco Standards..................................................................... 46
Seismic Zones ..................................................................................... 46
Formulas ............................................................................................. 47
Appurtenances ................................................................................................ 50
MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR ADDITIONS OR
MODIFICATIONS TO THE APPURTENANCES ON A STORAGE TANK ......... 51
Background .................................................................................................... 51
Membrane Stress ............................................................................................ 51
Bending Stress................................................................................................ 51
Peak Stresses .................................................................................................. 53
Changes in Dead Weight ................................................................................ 54
Attachments.................................................................................................... 54
Ladders or Spiral Stairways ................................................................ 54
Platforms............................................................................................. 55
Accesses.............................................................................................. 55
Supports .............................................................................................. 56
USES OF VARIOUS TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS FOR STORAGE TANKS....... 57
General ........................................................................................................... 57
Soil ................................................................................................................. 58
Preloading ........................................................................................... 58
Compaction......................................................................................... 58
Excavation and Backfill...................................................................... 59
Types of Foundations ..................................................................................... 59
Compacted Earth with Oiled Sand Pad............................................... 59
Ringwalls ............................................................................................ 60
Concrete Pad ....................................................................................... 62
Piled Foundation ................................................................................. 63
Civil
API Storage Tank
Saudi Aramco Requirements.......................................................................... 64

32-SAMSS-005, Atmospheric Steel Tanks ........................................ 64
32-SAMSS-006, Large, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks ....................... 67
SAES-D-108, Storage Tank Integrity ................................................. 67
SAES-M-100, Saudi Aramco Building Code ..................................... 67
SAES-Q-005, Concrete Foundations .................................................. 67
EFFECTS OF TYPES OF SETTLEMENT ON STORAGE TANKS ....................... 70
Background .................................................................................................... 70
Types of Settlement........................................................................................ 70
Uniform............................................................................................... 70
Planar Tilt ........................................................................................... 71
Deviation from Planar Tilt .................................................................. 73
Center-to-Edge.................................................................................... 74
Local Shell or Bottom......................................................................... 75
Evaluation of Tank Settlement ....................................................................... 76
CALCULATING TANK SETTLEMENT ................................................................. 77
WORK AID
WORK AID 1: PROCEDURES AND DATABASES FOR CALCULATING
CIVIL/MECHANICAL LOADS FOR ATMOSPHERIC
STORAGE TANKS ........................................................................ 79
Work Aid 1A:
Work Aid 1B:
Work Aid 1C:
Work Aid 1D:
Procedure for Calculating Weight Loads .............................. 79

Procedure for Calculating Total Pressure .............................. 82
Procedure for Calculating Roof Live Load............................ 83
Procedure and Database for Calculating
Wind Loads ......................................................................... 84
Work Aid 1E: Procedure and Databases for Calculating
Earthquake Base-Overturning Moment................................ 86
Work Aid 1F: Procedure for Calculating Live Loads for
Appurtenances....................................................................... 91
WORK AID 2: PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING TANK SETTLEMENT...... 92
GLOSSARY .........................................................................................................................94
Civil
API Storage Tank
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
Figure 5.
Figure 6.
Figure 7.
Figure 8.
Figure 9.
Figure 10.
Figure 11.
Figure 12.
Figure 13.
Figure 14.
Figure 15.
Figure 16.
Figure 17.
Figure 18.
Figure 19.
Figure 20.
Figure 21.
Figure 22.
Figure 23.
Figure 24.
Figure 25.
Figure 26.
Figure 27.
Figure 28.
Figure 29.
Figure 30.
Figure 31.
Figure 32.
Figure 39.
Figure 40.
Figure 41.
Figure 42.
Figure 43.
Figure 44.
Figure 45.
Cone Roof Tank .................................................................................................. 2

Geodesic Dome Fixed Roof Tank....................................................................... 3
Floating Roof Tank ............................................................................................. 4
Fixed Cone Roof with Internal Floating Roof Tank ........................................... 6
Single-Walled, Low-Pressure Tank .................................................................... 8
Double-Walled, Low-Pressure Tank................................................................... 9
Spheroidal Low-Pressure Tanks.......................................................................... 11
Spherical Low-Pressure Tank ............................................................................. 12
Material Groups .................................................................................................. 22
Minimum Permissible Design Metal Temperatures for Plates Used
In Tank Shells Without Impact Testing............................................................... 23
Permissible Plate Materials and Allowable Stresses (psi)................................... 25
Minimum Shell Thicknesses for API 650 Tanks ................................................ 29
Hydrostatic Pressure vs. Depth Below Liquid Surface ....................................... 35
Effect of Vapor Pressure on the Total Pressure at a Given Depth
Below the Surface................................................................................................ 36
Wind Base-Shear Force, FW, and Wind Base-Overturning Moment, MW ......... 39
Wind Roof-Lift Load, LW ................................................................................... 40
Bending Stress..................................................................................................... 52
Stress Concentration............................................................................................ 53
Compacted Earth with Oiled Sand Pad ............................................................... 59
Crushed Stone Ringwall...................................................................................... 61
Concrete Ringwall............................................................................................... 62
Concrete Pad ....................................................................................................... 62
Piled Foundation with Concrete Slab.................................................................. 64
Required Number of Reference Points................................................................ 66
Required Settlement Readings ............................................................................ 66
Safety Factors for Foundations ........................................................................... 68
Uniform Settlement............................................................................................. 71
Planar Tilt Settlement.......................................................................................... 72
Deviation From Planar Tilt Settlement............................................................... 73
Center-To-Edge Settlement................................................................................ 74
Local Shell or Bottom Settlement ....................................................................... 75
Current and Initial Tank Elevation Readings ...................................................... 78
Height-Correction and Gust Response Factors ................................................... 84
Factor k ............................................................................................................... 86
Weight Coefficients ............................................................................................ 87
Site Amplification Factor .................................................................................... 88
Height Coefficients ............................................................................................. 89
Graph for Plotting Data....................................................................................... 92
Example of a Plot................................................................................................ 93
Civil
API Storage Tank
TYPES, COMPONENTS, AND USES OF STORAGE TANKS

Background
This section discusses the types, components, and uses of the following general types of
storage tanks:
API atmospheric
API low-pressure
Other
API Atmospheric Storage Tanks

API atmospheric storage tanks store crude oil, petroleum products, chemicals, and water.
These tanks are the most common type of storage for petroleum products.
An API atmospheric storage tank consists of a:
Conical steel bottom resting directly on the ground or on a prepared foundation
Vertical, cylindrical steel shell
Roof (The type of roof used depends on the liquid being stored.)
This section discusses the following types of API atmospheric storage tanks:
Supported cone roof
Self-supporting fixed roof
Floating roof
Fixed roof with internal floating roof
Civil
API Storage Tank
Supported Cone Roof Tank

A supported cone roof tank has a fixed roof in the shape of a cone that is supported by rafters
on girders or by rafters on roof trusses. The girders or trusses are in turn supported by
columns resting on the tank bottom.
The supported cone roof tank cannot withstand any significant pressure or vacuum. The roof
must be equipped with an open vent, a pressure-actuated vent, or a "frangible joint". A
frangible joint is a weak welded seam at the roof-to-shell junction. The weld is designed to
fail before any major rupture can occur in the tanks shell. Without proper venting, vapor
pressure changes sufficient to damage the roof or shell may result from daily temperature
fluctuations, normal filling and emptying cycles, or from vapor generation due to a fire in the
vicinity of the tank.
Components - Figure 1 shows a supported cone roof tank and its primary components.
Usage - Supported cone roof tanks are used when floating roof tanks are not required or are
not more economical. Supported cone roof tanks can be larger in diameter than selfsupporting, fixed roof tanks.
Open vent
(if pressure/vacuum vent not used)
Pressure vacuum
vent
Roof truss
Nozzle
Roof
Gauge manhole
Access
hatch
platform
Nozzle
Shell
Roof
support
column
Water
draw-off
Sump
Top angle
Foam
connection
Ladder
Spiral
(For small diameter tanks stairway
without spiral stairway)
Shell
nozzles
Shell
manhole
Bottom
Figure 1. Cone Roof Tank
Civil
API Storage Tank
Self-Supporting Fixed Roof Tank

The roof of a self-supporting, fixed roof tank is supported completely from the shell without
supplementary structural members. Therefore, it provides all of its own structural support.
The roof may be either conical or dome-shaped. A dome-shaped roof can support itself at a
larger diameter than a cone-shaped roof. The self-supporting, fixed roof tank has the same
characteristics and usages as the supported cone roof tank, except for its roof support details.
Components - Figure 2 shows a geodesic dome fixed roof tank and its primary components.
Usage - Self-supporting, fixed roof tanks are practical only where relatively small fixed roof
tanks are required.
Center dome vent

Roof
Access hatch
Platform
Shell
Ladder
Appurtenances
Bottom
Figure 2. Geodesic Dome Fixed Roof Tank
Civil
API Storage Tank
Floating Roof Tank

A floating roof tank has an open top and a movable roof that floats on top of the liquid being
stored. A space between the floating roof and the tank shell allows the roof to move freely as
liquid is added to or withdrawn from the tank. To minimize evaporation losses and reduce the
risk of fire, a flexible sealing device is attached to the floating roof. This sealing device can
move freely up and down the tank shell and closes off the space between the rim of the roof
and the tank shell.
By virtually eliminating the vapor space above the liquid, the floating roof tank greatly
reduces:
Evaporative losses
Fire danger
Corrosion caused by the presence of air
Components - Figure 3 shows the features of a floating roof tank that distinguish it from a
fixed roof tank.
Usage - Saudi Aramco Standard SAES-D-100 specifies that floating roof tanks must be used
to store petroleum products with flash points below 54C (130F) or if the flash point is less
than 8C (15F) higher than the storage temperature. Examples of these products are gasoline
and naphtha. SAES-D-100 also specifies that floating roof tanks should not to be used to
store products that tend to boil under atmospheric conditions.
Tank
shell
Wind
girder
Continuous
fabric seal
Gauge
Automatic
hatch
bleeder vent
Roof
supports
Deck
Pontoon
Tank
bottom
Emergency
drain
Roof
Pontoon
supports
manhole
Deck
manhole
Screen
Check
valve
Articulated
pipe drain
Figure 3. Floating Roof Tank

Civil
API Storage Tank
Fixed Roof with Internal Floating Roof Tank

A fixed roof with internal floating roof tank is either a self-supporting roof tank or a
supported cone roof tank with an internal floating roof inside. The internal floating roof floats
on top of the liquid being stored. A flexible sealing device closes off the space between the
rim of the internal floating roof and the tank shell.
The internal floating roof is usually constructed of materials other than steel, such as
aluminum or polyurethane. Usually, the internal floating roof is designed to be assembled
within a completely constructed tank. The internal floating roof functions the same way as
the floating roof in the floating roof tank: it virtually eliminates the vapor space above the
liquid.
Components - Figure 4 shows a fixed roof with internal floating roof tank and its primary
components.
Usage - This type of tank typically is used when the service of an existing fixed roof tank is
changed and a floating roof tank should be used for the new service. The tank is prepared for
the new service by adding the internal floating roof inside the existing tank. This type of tank
also may be required when a floating roof tank needs a fixed roof for environmental
protection or product quality. In this case, a fixed roof is often added to an existing floating
roof tank. A fixed roof with internal floating roof tank has the same usage as a floating roof
tank.
Civil
API Storage Tank
2
1
4
6
5
8
10
11
13
12
14
15
LEGEND
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Peripheral roof vent

Center roof vent
Roof hatch
Antirotation device
Overflow vent
Seal
Manway
Gauge flotewell
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Column negotiating device

Support legs
Vacuum-relief device
Internal floating roof
Antistatic grounding
Gauge funnel
Pontoon
Figure 4. Fixed Cone Roof with Internal Floating Roof Tank
Civil
API Storage Tank
API Low-Pressure Storage Tanks

API low-pressure storage tanks store the following:
Gases
Liquids that require a small amount of pressurization
Liquids that require containment of the vapor as well as the liquid
This section discusses the following types of API low-pressure storage tanks:
Single-walled
Double-walled
Spheroidal
Spherical
Civil
API Storage Tank
Single-Walled, Low-Pressure Tank

The single-walled, low-pressure tank only uses one layer of steel on the shell of the tank to
contain the liquid and vapor.
Components - Figure 5 shows a single-walled, low-pressure tank and its primary
components.
Pressure safety valve/

vacuum vent
Roof
Roof
manhole
Compression
ring
3/4 Page Graphic

(6.5" X 5.375")
Shell
Ladder
Bottom
Figure 5. Single-Walled, Low-Pressure Tank
Civil
API Storage Tank
Double-Walled, Low-Pressure Tank

The double-walled, low-pressure tank uses two layers of steel for the shell of the tank to
contain the liquid and vapor.
Usage - This type of tank is used for refrigerated storage. Insulation is installed between the
inner and outer layers of the shell. The space between the shells generally is maintained at a
slightly positive pressure by a gas, such as nitrogen, that will not liquefy at the storage
temperature.
Components - Figure 6 shows one design of a double-walled, low-pressure tank and its
primary components.
Safety valve
Ceiling hangers
Fill/discharge
nozzle
Cone Roof
Insulated
suspended
ceiling
Inner shell
Insulation
Insulation
Outer shell
Bottom
Figure 6. Double-Walled, Low-Pressure Tank
Civil
API Storage Tank
Spheroidal Low-Pressure Tank

The spheroidal low-pressure tank approximates the ideal shape of a free-standing liquid
droplet in which the shell stresses are theoretically equal in all directions. The normal design
pressure of spheroidal tanks ranges from 17 kPa(ga) - 103 kPa (ga) (2.5 to 15 psig). Although
commercially available, spheroidal tanks are not used widely since spheres are generally more
economical to build.
Components - Figure 7 shows two typical spheroid and low-pressure tank designs and their
primary components.
10
Civil
API Storage Tank
Ordinary Spheroid
Supports
Elevation
Section
Sand cushion
Noded Spheroid
Tie
Truss
Supports
Elevation
Section
Sand cushion
Figure 7. Spheroidal Low-Pressure Tanks
11
Civil
API Storage Tank
Spherical Low-Pressure Tank

The most common type of pressure storage, the spherical low-pressure tank, is a sphere on
individual support columns. It provides the maximum volume of storage for the amount of
wall material used.
Components - Figure 8 shows a spherical low-pressure tank and its components.
Figure 8. Spherical Low-Pressure Tank
12
Civil
API Storage Tank
Other Storage Tanks

Other general types of storage tanks exist. Generally, these tanks are small tanks or tanks
built with special storage requirements, including shop-built tanks and chemical storage tanks.
Normally they provide atmospheric pressure storage only.
13
Civil
API Storage Tank
APPLICABLE CODES AND STANDARDS FOR SELECTED STORAGE TANKS

This section discusses the codes and standards that apply to storage tanks.
Codes and Standards for API Atmospheric Storage Tanks
The following codes and standards apply to API atmospheric storage tanks:
API Standard 650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage
API Standard 653, Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration and Reconstruction
SAES-A-004, Pressure Testing
SAES-B-005, Spacing and Diking for Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Tanks
SAES-B-007B, Air Foam Systems for Storage Tanks
SAES-D-100, Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Tanks
SAES-D-108, Storage Tank Integrity
32-SAMSS-005, Atmospheric Steel Tanks

API Standard 650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage
This standard provides the requirements for vertical, cylindrical, aboveground, carbon-steel
storage tanks. This standard applies to the following tanks:
Tanks with internal pressures from atmospheric pressure to 17 kPa (ga) (2.5
psig)
Tanks that are nonrefrigerated
Tanks with design temperatures less than 260C (500F)
Tanks that store petroleum, other liquid products, or water
This standard covers material, design, fabrication, erection, and testing.

The appendices in this standard cover:
Optional design basis for small tanks
Recommendations for design and construction of foundations for above ground

oil storage tanks
External floating roofs
14
Civil
API Storage Tank
Technical inquiries
Seismic design of storage tanks
Design of tanks for small internal pressures
Structurally supported aluminum dome roofs
Internal floating roofs
Undertank leak detection and subgrade protection
Shop-assembled storage tanks
Example of application of the variable-design-point procedure to determine

shell plate thicknesses
API Standard 650 storage tank data sheets
Requirements for tanks operating at elevated temperatures
Use of materials that are on hand but are not identified as complying with any
listed specification
Recommendations for underbottom connections
Allowable external loads on tank shell openings

API 653, Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration and Reconstruction
This standard covers requirements for inspection, repair, alteration and reconstruction of API
650 (and its predecessor API 12C) atmospheric storage tanks that have already been placed in
service. The standard includes the following sections:
Suitability for Service
Brittle Fracture Considerations
Inspection
Materials
Design Considerations for Reconstructed Tank
Tank Repair and Alteration
15
Civil
API Storage Tank
Dismantling and Reconstruction
Welding
Examination and Testing
Marking and Reconstruction
This standard also has appendices that cover evaluation criteria for tank bottom settlement and
checklists for tank inspection.
This standard provides the pressure-testing requirements for storage tanks.
This standard provides the spacing and diking requirements for aboveground storage tanks.
SAES-B-007B, Air Foam Systems for Storage Tanks
This standard provides the basic requirements for the installation of air foam fire protection
systems for large, atmospheric storage tanks.
This standard provides the requirements for the selection, design, and installation of carbonsteel, stainless-steel, and fiberglass storage tanks. The standard applies to the following tanks:
Tanks that store crude oils, petroleum products, water, and other liquids
Tanks with internal operating pressures not greater than 103 kPa (ga) (15 psig)
Tanks with design temperatures between -168C and +260C (-270F and
+500F)
This standard provides the requirements for testing and inspecting welded steel tanks that
have already been put into service and does not apply to the initial construction of tanks. This
standard parallels the API 653 Standard and covers additions and exceptions to the API-653
Standard.
This specification covers modifications and additions to API Standard 650. The specification
is included with the purchase order supplied to the tank vendor.
16
Civil
API Storage Tank
Codes and Standards for API Low-Pressure Storage Tanks

The following codes and standards apply to API low-pressure storage tanks:
API Standard 620, Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure

Storage Tanks
32-SAMSS-006, Large Welded Low-Pressure Tanks

API Standard 620, Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure
Storage Tanks
This standard provides the requirements for aboveground tanks with a single vertical-axis-ofrevolution. The standard applies to the following tanks:
Tanks with internal pressures greater than 3.4 kPa (ga) (0.5 psig) but not
greater than 103 kPa (ga) (15 psig)
Tanks with metal temperatures from -168C to +120C (-270F and +250F)
Tanks that are large enough to require field erection
Tanks that store liquid or gaseous petroleum products, water, and other liquids
Specifically excluded from this standard are small shop-built tanks, tanks covered by API
Standard 650, and lift-type gas holders.
This standard provides the pressure-testing requirements for storage tanks.
This standard provides the spacing and diking requirements for aboveground storage tanks.
17
Civil
API Storage Tank

This standard provides the requirements for the selection, design, and installation of carbonsteel, stainless-steel, and fiberglass storage tanks. The standard applies to the following tanks:
Tanks that store crude oils, petroleum products, water, and other liquids
Tanks with internal operating pressures not greater than 103 kPa (ga) (15 psi)
Tanks with design temperatures between -168C and +260C (-270F and
+500F)
32-SAMSS-006, Large Welded Low-Pressure Tanks
This specification covers modifications and additions to API Standard 620. The specification
is limited to single-walled, aboveground, low-pressure tanks. The specification excludes
spheres and spheroids. The specification is included with the purchase order supplied to the
tank vendor.
18
Civil
API Storage Tank
Types, Mechanical Properties, and allowable stresses of steels commonly

used for storage tanks
Background
This section discusses the types of steels commonly used for storage tanks. The section
provides information on the mechanical properties and allowable stresses of these steels.
The following factors are important in selecting the steel for a storage tank:
Design metal temperature
Minimum tensile strength
Minimum yield strength
Allowable stresses
Design Metal Temperature

Since most steels become brittle at low temperature and lose their strength at elevated
temperatures, it is important to select a steel that is appropriate for the range of temperatures
at the tank site and for the necessary storage conditions of the contained fluid. For storage
tanks a (minimum) design metal temperature and a maximum operating temperature is usually
specified. According to API Standard 650, unless experience or special local conditions
justify another assumption, the (minimum) design metal temperature is assumed to be 8.3C
(15F) above the lowest one-day mean ambient temperature in the location where the tank is
to be installed.
The (minimum) design metal temperature for refrigerated tanks may also be determined by
the temperature being maintained by refrigeration. This temperature will usually be lower
than 8.3C(15F) above the one-day mean ambient temperature.
The maximum operating temperature may also be important in the design of storage tanks
used for heated fluids if the temperature is above 93C (200F). Above 93C (200F) API
650 Standard requires a reduction in the allowable stress used in the tanks design.
19
Civil
API Storage Tank
Minimum Tensile Strength

Adequate assurance that a tank will not rupture under normal operating loads is required;
therefore, it is important to select a steel that has sufficient tensile strength. Tensile strength is
the maximum stress to which a material can be subjected without rupturing. The Minimum
Tensile Strength is the minimum value of the tensile strength required by the applicable
material standard which governs the manufacture of the steel.
Minimum Yield Strength
A tank must keep its shape and not permanently deform under normal operating loads;
therefore, it is important to select a steel that has a sufficient yield strength. Yield strength is
the amount of stress a material can undergo before there is a relatively large plastic
deformation for small increases in stress. If the stress in the tank is kept below this value, the
tank will not suffer any permanent deformation. The Minimum Yield Strength is the
minimum value of the yield strength required by the applicable materials standard which
governs the manufacture of the steel.
Allowable Stresses
The thickness of tank components such as the shell and roof must be determined using
formulas contained in the applicable API Standard. Typically, these formulas use an
allowable stress that depends upon the materials of construction and may depend on the
maximum operating temperature. The allowable design stress is based on applying a factor of
safety to the materials minimum tensile and yield strength. In the case of API 650 tanks, a
maximum Allowable Product Design Stress, Sd, and a maximum Allowable Hydrostatic Test
Stress, St, is used in the formulas to determine tank shell thickness. The Allowable Product
Design Stress is used when normal operating fluid is contained. During hydrostatic test, a
slightly higher allowable Hydrostatic Test Stress is permitted because this is a controlled
situation. Sd is limited to 40% of the minimum tensile strength or 2/3 of the minimum yield
strength. St is limited to 3/7 of the minimum tensile strength and 3/4 of the minimum yield
strength.
20
Civil
API Storage Tank
Allowable Types of Steels

Atmospheric Storage Tanks
API Standard 650 permits the use of several specifications of steel plates for atmospheric
storage tank construction. API Standard 650 also identifies permissible specifications for
structural shapes, piping and forgings, flanges, bolting, and for welding electrodes. These
specifications are based on the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM),
Canadian Standards Association (CSA), and International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) specifications. The ASTM, CSA, and ISO specifications classify steels based on alloy
content, manufacturing process, yield strengths and toughness.
The types of steels permitted by API Standard 650 are divided into eight groups according to
the steel manufacturing process used for each material. Figure 9 identifies the material
groups. Figure 10 shows the (minimum) design metal temperature permitted for each
material group without requiring impact testing based on plate thickness. Figure 11 provides
the allowable stresses from API 650 for particular material specifications.
21
Civil
API Storage Tank
Group I
As Rolled, Semikilled
Group II
As Rolled, Killed or
Semikilled
Group III
As Rolled, Killed
Fine-Grain Practice
Group IIIA
Normalized, Killed
Fine-Grain Practice
Material
Notes
A 131 CS
A 573-58
A 516-55
A 516-60
G40.21M-260W
Fe 42 D
Grade 41
10
10
10
9, 10
4, 9, 10
5, 9, 10
Material
Notes
Material
Notes
Material
A 283 C
A 285 C
A 131 A
A 36
Fe 42 B
Grade 37
Grade 41
2
2
2
2, 3
4
3, 5
6
A 131 B
A 36
A 442-55
A 442-60
G40.21M-260W
Fe 42 C
Grade 41
7
2, 6
A 573-58
A 516-55
A 516-60
G40.21M-260W
Fe 42 D
Grade 41
4
5, 8
Notes
9
4, 9
5, 9
Group IV
As Rolled, Killed
Fine-Grain Practice
Group IVA
As Rolled, Killed
Fine-Grain Practice
Group V
Normalized, Killed
Fine-Grain Practice
Material
Material
Notes
Material
Notes
A 662 C
A 573-70
G40.21M-300W
G40.21M-350W
11
9, 11
9, 11
A 573-70
A 516-65
A 516-70
G40.21M-300W
G40.21M-350W
10
10
10
9, 10
9, 10
A 573-65
A 573-70
A 516-65
A 516-70
A 662 B
G40.21M-300W
G40.21M-350W
Fe 44 B, C, D
Fe 52 C, D
Grade 44
Notes
9
9
4, 9
9
5, 9
Group VI
Normalized or
Quenched and
Tempered, Killed
Fine-Grain Practice
Reduced Carbon
Material
Notes
A 131 EH 36
A 633 C
A 633 D
A 537 I
A 537 II
A 678 A
A 678 B
A 737 B
Notes:
1.
Most of the listed material specification numbers refer to ASTM specifications (including Grade or Class); there are,
however, some exceptions: G40.21M (including Grade) is a CSA specification; Grades Fe 42, Fe 44, and Fe 52
(including Quality) are contained in ISO 630; and Grade 37, Grade 41, and Grade 44 are related to national standards
(see 2.2.5).
2. Must be killed or semikilled.
3. Thickness 0.50 inch.
4. Maximum manganese content of 1.5 percent.
5. Thickness 0.75 inch maximum when controlled-rolled steel is used in place of normalized steel.
6. Manganese content shall be 0.80-1.20 percent by heat analysis for all thicknesses.
7. Thickness 1 inch.
8. Must be killed.
9. Must be killed and made to fine-grain practice.
10. Must be normalized.
11. Must have chemistry (heat) modified to a maximum carbon content of 0.20 percent and a maximum manganese content
of 1.60 percent (see 2.2.6.4).
Source:
ANSI/API Standard 650, Ninth Edition, Washington, D.C., American Petroleum Institute, July 1993, Table 2-3.
Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.
Figure 9. Material Groups
22
Civil
Design metal temperature (F)
API Storage Tank
60
60
50
50
pI
ou
Gr
40
40
V
up I
Gro
30
30
20
VA
I
up I
pI
Gro
ou
r
A
G
I
pI
ou
r
G
10
0
-10
20
pV
Grou
See Note 1
u
ro
pI
10
II
0
-10
VI
Group
-20
-20
-30
-30
Group IIIA
-40
-50
-60
-40
See Note 2
0.25
-50
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
-60
Thickness, including corrosion allowance (inches)

Notes:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The Group II and Group V lines coincide at thicknesses less than 1/2 inch.
The Group III and Group IIIA lines coincide at thicknesses less than 1/2 inch.
The materials in each group are listed in Table 2-3.
This figure is not applicable to controlled-rolled plates (see 2.2.7.4).
Use the Group IIA curve for pipe and flanges (see 2.5.5.2 and 2.5.5.3).
Source: ANSI/API Standard 650, Ninth Edition, Washington, D.C., American Petroleum Institute, July 1993, Figure 2-1.
Note:
To convert F to C subtract 32F from the temperature in degrees F and multiply by 5/9. To convert inches to mm
multiply the thickness in inches by 25.4.
Figure 10. Minimum Permissible Design Metal Temperatures

for Plates Used In Tank Shells Without Impact
Testing
23
Civil
API Storage Tank
Cost and acceptability of the material, at the specified design metal temperature and required
thickness, determine the selection of the steel specification. In general, higher strength steels
cost more per pound.
Note that the principal difference between structural steels, such as ASTM A36, and most
other specifications permitted by API Standard 650 is that the structural steel has a higher
minimum design metal temperature and may not be able to be used without impact testing if
the required thickness is too large (refer to Figure 11).
24
Civil
API Storage Tank
Plate
Specification
Grade
Minimum
Yield
Strength
A 283
A 285
A 131
A 36
A 131
C
C
A, B, CS
-EH 36
30,000
30,000
34,000
36,000
51,000
A 442
A 442
A 573
A 573
A 573
55
60
58
65
70
A 516
A 516
A 516
A 516
Minimum
Tensile
Strength
Product Design
Stress Sd
Hydrostatic
Test
Stress St
55,000
55,000
58,000
58,000
71,000a
20,000
20,000
22,700
23,200
28,400
22,500
22,500
24,900
24,900
30,400
30,000
32,000
32,000
35,000
42,000
55,000
60,000
58,000
65,000
70,000a
20,000
21,300
21,300
23,300
28,000
22,500
24,000
24,000
26,300
30,000
55
60
65
70
30,000
32,000
35,000
38,000
55,000
60,000
65,000
70,000
20,000
21,300
23,300
25,300
22,500
24,000
26,300
28,500
A 662
A 662
A 537
A 537
B
C
1
2
40,000
43,000
50,000
60,000
65,000
70,000a
70,000a
80,000a
26,000
28,000
28,000
32,000
27,900
30,000
30,000
34,300
A 633
A 678
A 678
A 737
C, D
A
B
B
50,000
50,000
60,000
50,000
70,000a
70,000a
80,000a
70,000a
28,000
28,000
32,000
28,000
30,000
30,000
34,300
30,000
G40.21M
G40.21M
G40.21M
G40.21M
260W
300W
350WT
350W
37,700
43,500
50,800
58,800
23,800
26,100
27,900
26,100
25,500
28,000
29,800
28,000
37
41
44
30,000
34,000
36,000
20,000
22,700
24,000
22,500
25,000
26,800
B, C
B, C
C, D
34,000
35,500
48,500
22,700
23,700
28,400
25,500
26,600
30,400
ASTM Specifications
CSA Specifications
59,500
65,300
69,600a
65,300
National Standards
52,600
58,300
62,600
ISO 630
Fe42
Fe44
Fe52
60,000
62,500
71,000a
a By agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer, the tensile strength of these materials may be increased to 75,000
pounds per square inch minimum and 90,000 pounds per square inch maximum (and to 85,000 pounds per square inch minimum
and 100,000 pounds per square inch maximum for ASTM A 537, Class 2, and A 678, Grade B). When this is done, the allowable
stresses shall be determined as stated in 3.6.2.1 and 3.6.2.2.
Source:
ANSI/API Standard 650, Ninth Edition, Washington, D.C., American Petroleum Institute, July 1993, Table 3-2.
SI Note: To convert allowable stresses in psi to MPa multiply by 6.895 x 10-3
Figure 11. Permissible Plate Materials and Allowable Stresses

(PSI)
25
Civil
API Storage Tank
Low-Pressure Storage Tanks

API Standard 620 permits the use of several specifications of steel plates for low-pressure
storage tank construction. API Standard 620 also identifies permissible specifications for
structural shapes, piping and forgings, flanges, bolting, and for welding electrodes. These
specifications are based on ASTM, CSA, and ISO specifications. The ASTM, CSA, and ISO
specifications classify steels based on alloy content, manufacturing process, yield strengths
and toughness.
Similar to API 650, the API Standard 620 requirements for selection of steel are based on
(minimum) design metal temperature and plate thickness and are presented in Table 2-1 of
API 620. Also allowable stresses and weld-joint efficiency are specified in Table 3-1 and
Table 3-2 of the standard.
26
Civil
API Storage Tank
CALCULATING CIVIL/MECHANICAL LOADS for atmospheric storage tanks

Background
This section discusses and demonstrates how to calculate the civil/mechanical loads imposed
on atmospheric storage tanks. Civil/mechanical loads are loads with which a civil or
mechanical engineer would be concerned when designing a tank or its foundation. The
following types of loads are covered:
Weight Loads
Total Pressure
Roof Live Load
Wind Loads
Earthquake Base-Overturning Moment
Live Loads on Appurtenances
Before the weight loads acting on a tank or its foundation can be calculated, the thickness of
the various components of which a tank is comprised must be known or estimated. The next
section discusses how to estimate the thickness of tank components if these weight loads are
not known.
Estimating the Minimum Acceptable Thickness of Tank Components
API 650 and API 620 have many criteria for determining the minimum thicknesses of tank
components. In this section we will discuss only one of the methods given in API 650 for
determination of the minimum thickness of the tank shell courses. We will also indicate the
API 650 minimum thickness requirements for tank bottoms and roofs.
Corrosion allowances, if required, should be added to the minimum thicknesses that are
calculated by the API method that is described later in this module, or the minimum
thicknesses specified in API Standards. Corrosion allowances are usually specified by the
metallurgical engineer and any further discussion is outside the scope of this course.
The API 650 method and minimum thickness requirements presented in this module can be
used for initial thickness estimates for the main components of a tank for the civil/mechanical
design. Note that the specific methods and requirements of the applicable API standard should
be used in any definitive work. PEDP course MEX 203 is recommended if the Participant is
interested in a more in-depth treatment of API 650 and API 620 requirements.
27
Civil
API Storage Tank
API One-Foot Method

While the liquid contents at the top of a storage tank are essentially at atmospheric pressure,
the pressure increases with the depth below the liquid's surface due to the weight of the liquid
above. Therefore, the lower shell courses of a tank are usually thicker than the upper shell
courses to withstand the greater pressure. To account for the increase in pressure the
thickness of each shell course must be calculated using an appropriate method. The API 650
One-Foot Method is one method that can be used to estimate the thicknesses of API 650 tank
shell courses.
In the One-Foot Method, the thickness of each shell course is determined based on limiting
the circumferential membrane stress in the shell at a point that is one foot above the lowest
point of each shell course to be below an allowable stress. (Hence the name for the method.)
The other method presented in API 650 is called the Variable-Design-Point Method. The
Variable-Design-Point Method is much more complex than the One-Foot Method, and
discussion of it is outside the scope of this course. The Variable Design Point Method is an
iterative method that uses the shell course thicknesses determined by the One-Foot Method as
its initial starting point. Therefore, the Variable-Design-Point Method can be considered as a
means to "fine-tune" the shell thicknesses of each course. The Variable-Design-Point Method
usually results in slightly thinner and hence more economical tank shells. It should be noted
that the One-Foot Method is actually limited by API 650 to be used only for tanks under 60 m
(200 ft.) in diameter and that the Variable-Design-Point Method must be used for larger tanks.
However, the One-Foot Method can still be used as a initial estimating tool.
In the One-Foot Method, the minimum thickness of the shell is determined as the larger of
two quantities, td or tt, as described below:
td = C1d(H-C2)G/Sd + CA
tt = C1d(H-C2)/St
td
= Minimum thickness of the shell based on design conditions in inches

(millimeters).
tt
= Minimum thickness of the shell based on hydrostatic test conditions in

inches (millimeters).
C1
= Constant, which accounts for the density of water and the dimensional unit
system used, equal to 2.6 for U.S. units and 4.9 for S.I. units.
C2
= Constant, equal to 1 foot for U.S. units and 0.3 meters for S.I. units.
28
Civil
API Storage Tank
= Nominal diameter of the tank in feet (meters).
= Design liquid level of the tank in feet (meters).
= Specific gravity of the liquid stored with respect to water (dimensionless).
CA
= Corrosion allowance, if required, in inches (millimeters).
Sd
= Allowable Product Design Stress for design conditions (Figure 11) in psi
(MPa).
St
= Allowable Hydrostatic Test Stress for hydrostatic test conditions (Figure

11) in psi (MPa).
Note that the above equation is based on the 1993 edition of API 650, in which the weld-joint
efficiency of the tank's vertical seams is assumed to be 1.0. In re-evaluating an existing tank,
the allowable stresses, Sd and St, may have to be multiplied by a weld-joint efficiency, E,
equal to 0.7 or 0.85, depending on the degree of radiography used in the original construction.
Minimum Shell Course Thicknesses for Construction Purposes
API 650 also specifies minimum thicknesses for shell courses for construction purposes based
on tank diameter. These minimum thicknesses are indicated in Figure 12 and may govern the
thicknesses of the upper shell courses. Note that the corrosion allowance, if required, should
be added to the plate thicknesses shown in Figure 12.
Nominal Tank Diameter
Nominal Plate Thickness
meters
ft.
mm
in.
<15.25
<50
4.5
3/16
15.25 to 36.5
50 to 120
6.0
1/4
36.5 to 61.0
120 to 200
7.5
5/16
>61
>200
9.0
3/8
Figure 12. Minimum Shell Thicknesses for API 650 Tanks
29
Civil
API Storage Tank
Minimum Thicknesses for Tank Bottoms

Per API 650, the minimum new nominal thickness of the tank bottom plates is 6 mm (1/4 in.)
excluding corrosion allowance. The minimum new nominal thickness of roofs is 4.5 mm
(3/16 in.) excluding corrosion allowance. Note that API uses the terminology nominal plate
thicknesses, since the normal tolerances on plate materials is 0.01 inch or 0.25 mm.
Sample Problem 1: Estimating the thicknesses of the lowest shell course of an
tank
API-650
Given :
A floating roof tank with:
A diameter of 200 ft.
A design liquid storage height of 64 ft.
An eight-foot shell course height
Material is A516 Gr 65
Corrosion Allowance of 0.125 in.
The tank contains oil with a specific gravity of 0.75
Solution:
From Figure 11 for A516 Gr 65, Sd equals 23300 psi and St equals 26300 psi and using the
previous equations:
td = (2.6 x 200 x (64-1) x 0.75)/23300 + 0.125 = 1.180 in.
tt = (2.6 x 200 x (64-1))/26300 = 1.24 in.
A plate thickness equal to the next nominal thickness (1-1/4 inches) would probably be used.
Note that the minimum thickness required for hydrotest governs the design. Also note that if
the specific gravity of the oil was greater than 0.8, the design case would have governed
rather than the hydrotest case, and the minimum thickness for the shell would then have been
based on the design case.
30
Civil
API Storage Tank
Weight Loads
Background
When designing a tank and its foundation, the design engineer must consider the weight loads
which are the weight of the tank and the maximum weight of its contents. Since most
petroleum products are lighter than water, the heaviest weight load occurs during hydrostatic
testing, which is done using water.
If a tank and its foundation are designed to withstand the total hydrostatic test weight, WT, the
tank foundation should also be able to withstand the weight load imposed during normal
operation when lighter weight crude oils or petroleum products are stored.
The total hydrostatic test weight, WT, is equal to the sum of the hydrostatic test water weight,
WH, the tank dead weight empty, WD, and any live loads acting on the tank roof or
appurtenances during the test. The tank dead weight empty, WD, is equal to the weight of the
tank bottom, Wb, the weight of the shell, Ws, the weight of the roof(s), Wr, the weight of any
appurtenances, Wa, and the weight of any insulation, Wi, that may be installed at the time of
the hydrostatic test.
Note that insulation is usually not installed at the time of test and the live loads on the roof
and appurtenances are usually small compared to other loads involved, and may be
considered negligible for the purposes of estimating the total hydrostatic test weight, WT.
Procedures
The procedures for calculating weight loads are provided in Work Aid 1A.
Sample Problem 2: Calculating Weight Loads
Calculate the hydrostatic test water weight, the tank dead weight empty, and total hydrostatic
test weight of a floating roof tank.
Given:
A floating roof tank with:
A diameter of 300 ft.
A designed liquid storage height of 45 ft.
A tank shell consisting of six, 8 ft. high courses of steel plates with the
following course thicknesses:
-
First course (bottom course), 1-3/8 in.
Second course, 1-1/8 in.
31
Civil
API Storage Tank
Third course, 15/16 in.
Fourth course, 11/16 in.
Fifth course, 7/16 in.
Sixth course (top course), 3/8 in.
A floating roof:
-
That is 3/16 in. thick
With pontoons and other support structure that add 20% to the weight of
the roof
A bottom that is 1/4 in. thick
The appurtenances on the tank add 2% to the weight of the tank
Solution:
Use Work Aid 1A.
In Step 1, calculate the hydrostatic test water weight, WH:
WH =/4d2HLw
WH =/4 x (300)2 x 45 x 62.4
WH =~198,500,000 lb.
In Step 2, calculate the weight of the tank bottom, Wb:
Wb = 4 d2t st
Wb =(/4 x (300)2 x 0.25/12) x 490
Wb = ~721,600 lb.
In Step 3, calculate the weight of the tank shell, Ws:
Since all of the tank shell courses have the same height, the average thickness of
the shell courses can be computed and used to simplify the calculation:
tavg = (1-3/8 + 1-1/8 + 15/16 + 11/16 + 7/16 + 3/8)/6
= 0.8232 in. = 0.0686 ft.
32
Civil
API Storage Tank
Using values given for this problem:

Ws =
Ws =
Ws =
dth x Vst
x 300 x 490 x 48 x 0.0686
~1,520,000 lb.
In Step 4, calculate the weight of the floating roof, Wr:

Using the values given for this problem, including 20% for roof structure:
Wr
Wr
Wr
= 4 d2t
st x D.F.
= (/4 x (300)2 x 3/16 x 490 x (1 + 0.20)
12
= ~649,400 lb.
In Step 5, calculate the weight of the appurtenances, Wa:

Given that the appurtenances are 2% of the tank weight, and using the values
calculated in Steps 2 through 4:
Wa
Wa
Wa
= (Ws + Wb + Wr) x 0.02

= (1,520,000 + 721,600 + 649,400) x 0.02
= ~57,820 lb.
In Step 6, calculate the tank dead weight empty, WD:

W D = W s + Wb + Wr + Wa + Wi
WD = 1,520,000 + 721,600 + 649,400 + 57,820
WD = ~2,949,000 lb.
In Step 7, calculate the total hydrostatic test weight, WT:
WT =WH + WD
WT =198,500,000 + 2,949,000
WT =~201,450,000 lb.
Answer:
The hydrostatic test water weight is approximately 198,500,000 lb. The tank dead weight
empty is approximately 2,949,000 lb. The total hydrostatic test weight is approximately
101,400,000 lb.
33
Civil
API Storage Tank
Total Pressure and Equivalent Liquid Height

Background
Different pressure loads act on the tank bottom, tank shell, and tank roof that are sometimes
used in the design of these components.
Sources of Pressure on a Tank Bottom - The total pressure on a tank bottom is due to:
Hydrostatic pressure
Vapor pressure
Sources of Pressure on a Tank Shell - The sources of pressure on a tank shell are as follows:
Hydrostatic pressure
Vapor pressure
Wind pressure effects
Sources of Pressure on a Tank Roof - The sources of pressure on a tank roof are as follows:
Vapor pressure
Wind pressure effects
The hydrostatic pressure, PH, increases with the depth below the liquid surface. The highest
hydrostatic pressure occurs during hydrostatic testing.
The vapor pressure, PV, is a function of the volatility of the liquid contained in the tank at its
storage temperature. The process engineer determines the vapor pressure for which the tank
should be designed.
The total pressure, PT, to which a component is subjected is equal to the sum of the individual
pressures. The highest total pressure may occur during the normal operation due to the vapor
pressure in addition to the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid being stored.
The effects of wind pressure on the tank shell and roof will be covered in a later section.
34
Civil
API Storage Tank
Effect of Depth and Liquid Density on Hydrostatic Pressure - Figure 13 shows that the
hydrostatic pressure increases as the depth below the liquid surface increases, and as the
liquid density or specific gravity increases.
Pressure (psi)
0
10
15
20
25
30
16
24
40
48
=
ity
rav
cg
cifi
spe
32
)
er
at
(w
1
=
ity
5
av
0.7
gr
=
ity
ific
av
ec
gr
sp
ific
0
ec
0.5
sp
Liquid Depth (ft)
56
Figure 13. Hydrostatic Pressure vs. Depth Below Liquid

Surface
SI Note:
To convert psi to kPa multiply by 6.895 kPa/psi.

To convert feet to meters multiply by .3 m/ft.
35
Civil
API Storage Tank
Effect of Vapor Pressure - Figure 14 shows the effect of increasing vapor pressures on the
total pressure at a given depth in a tank. Note that the vapor pressure of API 650 tanks is
limited to be below 17 kPa (2.5 psig) and that the vapor pressure of API 620 tanks is limited
to 103 kPa
(15 psig) at the top of the tank.
Pressure (psi)
15
20
10
25
30
35
Liquid depth (ft)
8
16
no
va
rp
re
ss
=
10
ps
i(
sp
ec
ifi
=
80
ity
ity
0.
av
av
gr
gr
ity
av
56
ific
gr
ec
ic
sp
cif
i(
pe
ps
(s
ur
ur
ss
48
ur
ss
re
40
po
re
rp
rp
po
32
po
va
va
24
80
80
SI Note:
0.
0.
Figure 14. Effect of Vapor Pressure on the Total Pressure at a

Given
Depth Below the Surface
To convert psi to kPa multiply by 6.895 kPa/psi.

To convert feet to meters multiply by .3 m/ft.
Equivalent Liquid Height - In order to account for the effects of vapor pressure the concept
of equivalent liquid height will be introduced. The equivalent liquid height is equal to the
total pressure divided by the specific gravity of the liquid stored in the tank. This equivalent
liquid height is then used in the API 650 equations to determine the thickness of the shell
course instead of the actual fill height.
36
Civil
API Storage Tank
Procedures
The procedure for calculating total pressure and the equivalent liquid height is provided in
Work Aid 1B.
Sample Problem 3: Total Pressure
Calculate the total pressure at the bottom of a cone roof tank and the equivalent liquid height
due to vapor pressure in the tank.
Given:
The tank has a designed liquid storage height of 64 ft. The vapor pressure of the liquid is 2.5
psig. The specific gravity of the oil is 0.9.
Solution:
Use Work Aid 1B.
In Step 1, calculate the hydrostatic pressure, PH:
PH = h x C.F.
PH = (62.4 x 0.9) x 64 x 1/144
PH = 25.0 psig
In Step 2, calculate the total pressure, PT:
PT
PT
PT
=
=
=
P H + PV
25.0 + 2.5
~27.5 psig
In Step 3, calculate the equivalent liquid height, Heq:

Heq
Heq
Heq
=
=
=
PT x C.F. /
27.5 x 144 / (62.4 x 0.9)
70.5 ft.
Answer:
The total pressure at the bottom of the tank is approximately 27.5 psig. The equivalent liquid
height that can be used for design of the shell course is 70.5 ft.
37
Civil
API Storage Tank
Roof Live Load

Background
The roof live load consists of the weights of items on the roof that are not a part of the
permanent structure. Some examples are as follows:
Personnel
Equipment
Rainwater
Sand or dust
The roofs, tank and its foundation must be designed with the capability to support the roof
live load. A minimum required live load of 122 Kg/m2 or 1.2 kN/m2 (25 lb./ft.2) is specified
in 32-SAMSS-006 for low-pressure tanks. The same minimum live load is specified in API
Standard 650 for atmospheric tanks. If more than this minimum live load must be supported,
then a higher load should be specified. Higher live loads, such as those due to heavy
personnel traffic, heavy equipment, heavy rains or heavy accumulations of sand or dust,
should be indicated by the process engineer. If the tank is designed for a positive vapor
pressure, the roof must be designed for this also.
Procedure
The procedure for calculating roof live load is provided in Work Aid 1C.
Sample Problem 4: Roof Live Load
Calculate the roof live load for a flat roofed tank that is 100 ft. in diameter. Assume that the
minimum roof live load is applicable.
Solution:
Use Work Aid 1C, to calculate the roof live load, LRLL:
LRLL =
2
4 d RL
LRLL =
/4 d2RL
LRLL =
/4 (100)2 x 25
LRLL =
~196,350 lb.
Answer:
The roof live load is approximately 196,350 lb.
38
Civil
API Storage Tank
Wind Loads
Background
A strong wind can overturn or slide a tank off its foundation or cause a tank wall to collapse.
Empty tanks are especially vulnerable to wind forces. Wind forces acting on tank
appurtenances, such as platforms and ladders, can overload these appurtenances or their
attachments to the tank. The pressure due to the wind varies around the circumference of the
tank from a high pressure on the windward side to a low pressure (vacuum) on the leeward
side. The effects of wind increase with increasing height above grade. Wind blowing over
the top of the tank can also cause a negative pressure or vacuum to act on the tank roof. In
tank design, the primary loads that concern a civil/mechanical engineer are the wind baseshear force, FW, the wind base-overturning moment, MW, and the wind roof-lift load, LW.
These loads are discussed in detail later in this section and the procedures for the calculation
of these loads is provided in Work Aid 1D. Figures 15 and 16 provide diagrams of these
wind forces.
Wind
Mw
Fw
Figure 15. Wind Base-Shear Force, FW, and Wind BaseOverturning Moment, MW
39
Civil
API Storage Tank
Lw
Wind
Wind
Figure 16. Wind Roof-Lift Load, LW

The following factors affect the wind load on a tank:
Wind velocity (V)
Tank diameter (d)
Tank height (H)
Tank height to tank diameter ratio (H/d)
The number, size, and characteristics of appurtenances
The wind loads on the tank are a cumulative effect of the wind pressure acting over a surface
area of the tank and of wind drag or lift coefficients. The wind pressure increases with
increasing velocity and increasing height. The wind drag coefficient is a function of the H/d
ratio of the tank. The loads on the tank increase with increasing height and diameter of the
tank and with the number and size of appurtenances.
Saudi Aramco Standards
SAES-D-100 requires that all tanks be designed to withstand a reference wind velocity, Vr, of
137 km/h (85 mph) which is measured at 10 m (33 ft.) above grade. SAES-D-100 requires
that the tanks be designed for wind loads in accordance with ANSI/ASCE 7-88 (formerly
ANSI Standard A58.1) for exposure Level C.
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Civil
API Storage Tank
Formulas
The following equations are based on equations presented in ANSI/ASCE 7-88 (formerly
ANSI Standard A58.1).
The wind pressure increases with increasing velocity. The wind pressure at the reference
elevation, qr, can be calculated from the following equation:
qr
= 0.0473 Vr2
(S.I. Units)
= 0.00256 Vr2 (U.S. Units)
where:
qr
= Wind pressure at the reference elevation, Pa (lb./ft.2)
Vr
= Wind velocity at the reference elevation, km/h (mph)
(Eqn. 1 SI)
(Eqn. 1 US)
Based on the design wind velocity of 137 Km/h (85 mph) indicated in SAES-D-100, qr is
equal to 888 Pa (18.5 lb./ft.2)
Wind Loads
The wind load on the tank or an appurtenance is proportional to the wind pressure which
increases as the elevation increases, the projected area of a portion of the tank or an
appurtenance, and a wind drag coefficient.
The wind force on a portion of the tank or an appurtenance can then be expressed as:
f
= AKhGCfqr (Eqn. 2)
= Wind force on a portion of a tank or an appurtenance, N (lbs.)
= Effective projected area of a portion of the tank or an appurtenance, m2 (ft.2)
Kh
= Gust-response factor based on the maximum height of the structure

(dimensionless).
Cf
= Surface drag coefficient (dimensionless)
qr
= Wind pressure at the reference elevation, 888 Pa (18.5 lb./ft.2).
where:
Height-correction factor which varies with height above the reference

elevation, (dimensionless).
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Civil
API Storage Tank
The wind force increases as the height above the reference elevation increases. In order to
determine the wind force at a higher elevation, a height correction factor, Kh, and a gust
response factor, G, are used. Kh and G that are found in ANSI/ASCE 7-88 are based on the
height and exposure classification of the location. Excerpts of these tables are presented in
Work Aid 1D for exposure classification C.
The wind drag coefficient, Cf, is given in ANSI/ASCE 7-88 for typical structures with various
proportions. For most tanks the H/D (Height/Diameter) ratio is less than one and the surface
roughness of the tank is relatively smooth. Therefore, a typical value of Cf that would be
used for a tank is 0.5. The wind drag coefficient, Cf, for an appurtenance is a function of the
appurtenance's shape and solidity (net area/gross area) ratio. The value of Cf for
appurtenances ranges from approximately 0.7 to 2.0 depending on the shape and solidity
ratio. The Participant should reference ANSI/ASCE 7-88 directly if detailed calculations are
to be made of wind load on appurtenances.
When determining the effective projected area of a tank, the designer can include the wind
force on every appurtenance in the calculation or the designer can estimate the effect of the
appurtenances by assuming the tank has an effective diameter, D, slightly larger than its
actual outside diameter. However for this course, the wind load on the tank will be
approximated by using the nominal tank diameter or the nominal tank diameter plus two times
the insulation thickness (if any), and the effect of the wind load on the appurtenances will be
ignored.
Since the wind load increases with height above the reference elevation, it is typical to assume
that the tank is divided up into a number of height ranges. The wind loads acting in each
height range are calculated assuming that Kh elevated at the midpoint of the range applies
over the whole range. The wind forces acting on each height range are then summed up to
determine the total loads acting on the tank base.
With these approximations, the formulas for the wind base-shear force and wind baseoverturning moment can be readily calculated.
For wind base-shear force:
F w = ( Kh (hh hl )) DGCf qr
(Eqn. 3)
where:
Fw
Wind base-shear force, N (lb.).
Kh
Height-correction factor evaluated at the center of the height range,

(dimensionless).
hh
Highest point on the tank shell or roof within the height range, m (ft.).
42
Civil
API Storage Tank
hl
Lowest point on the tank shell or roof within the height range, m (ft.).
Effective diameter of the tank, m (ft.). If the tank is externally

insulated, use the outside diameter of the insulation jacketing.
Gust-response factor based on the maximum height of the tank

(dimensionless).
Cf
Wind drag coefficient (dimensionless), 0.5 for smooth tanks with H/D <
1.
qr
Wind pressure at reference elevation, 888 Pa (18.5 lb./ft.2) for Saudi

Aramco locations.
For wind base-overturning moment:
h + hl
DGCfqr
Mw = Kh (hh hl ) h
2
(Eqn. 4)
where:
Mw
Wind base-overturning moment, N-m (ft. - lb.)
Kh
Height-correction factor evaluated at the center of the height range

(dimensionless)
hh
Highest point on the tank shell or roof within the height range, m (ft.)
hl
Lowest point on the tank shell or roof within the height range, m (ft.)

Gust response factor based on the maximum height of the tank

(dimensionless).
Cf
Wind drag coefficient (dimensionless), 0.5 for smooth tanks with H/D <
1.
qr
Wind pressure at referenced elevation, 888 Pa (18.5 lb./ft.2) for Saudi

Aramco locations.
Work Aid 1D provides the procedures and databases needed to calculate the wind base-shear
force and wind base-overturning moment.
43
Civil
API Storage Tank
Wind Roof-Lift Loading

The wind tends to lift the roof of the tank and to lift the entire tank if the tank has a fixed roof.
ANSI/ASCE 7-88 indicates that for roofs with less than a 10 angle, a combined gust
response, G, and pressure (lift) coefficient, Cp, should be used with the value of G Cp = 1.2.
Therefore, for a flat or cone roof tank, the following formula can be used to calculate the wind
roof-lift force, Lw:
Lw = /4 d2Kh GCpqr (Eqn. 5)
where:
Lw
Wind roof-lift load, N (lb.)
Diameter of the tank, m (ft.)
Kh
Height-correction factor evaluated at the center of the tank roof

(dimensionless)
GxCp =
Combined gust and pressure (lift) coefficient, equal to 1.2 for shallow
roofs with less than 10 angle
qr
Wind pressure at the reference elevation, 888 Pa (18.5 lb./ft.2) for Saudi
Aramco locations.
Work Aid 1D provides the procedures and database for calculating the wind roof-lift load,
Lw.
Sample Problem 5: Determining Wind Loads
Calculate the wind base-shear force, Fw, the wind base-overturning moment, Mw, and the
wind roof-lift load, Lw, for a cone roof tank.
Given:
A cone roof tank that:
Is 100 ft. in diameter
Has a 48 ft. shell height
Has a cone roof whose peak is 5 ft. above the edge of the shell
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Civil
API Storage Tank
Solution:
Use Work Aid 1D.
In Step 1, calculate the wind base-shear force, Fw:
Fw =
{(0. 8 (16 0)) + (0. 92 (32 16))+ (1.06 (48 32))+ (1.12 (53 48))}
100 1. 22 0. 5 18. 5
F w = ~ 56, 500 lb.
In Step 2, calculate the wind base-overturning moment, Mw:
Mw =
{(0.8 (16 0 ) (16 + 0 ) / 2) + (0. 92 (32 16 ) (32 + 16 ) / 2 )+

(1.06 (48 32 )(48 + 32 ) / 2 )+ (1.12 (53 48 )(53 + 48 ) / 2 )}
100 1. 22 0. 5 18. 5
Mw =~ 1, 600, 000 ft .lb.
In Step 3, calculate the wind roof-lift load, Lw:
Lw
Lw
=
=
(/4) (100)2 (1.12) (1.2) (18.5)

~195,300 lb.
Answer:
The wind base-shear force is approximately 56,500 lb. The wind base-overturning moment is
approximately 1,600,000 ft.-lb. The lift-wind force is approximately 195,300 lb.
45
Civil
API Storage Tank
Earthquake Base-Overturning Moment

Background
The Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia is relatively safe from earthquakes. However, parts of
the western area of the Kingdom potentially may experience earthquakes. The design
engineer must make sure that tanks in these areas are designed to withstand certain earthquake
loads.
An earthquake can cause a tank to overturn, to slide, or to be deformed permanently. It can
also cause attached piping and appurtenances to rupture or tear off the tank. In an open-top
tank, an earthquake may cause the contents of a tank to slosh over the top. With petroleum
tanks, all these events pose a risk of fire.
When an engineer designs a tank to withstand earthquakes, he considers the following two
response modes of the tank and its contents:
A relatively high-frequency response to lateral ground motion of the following:

-
Tank shell
Roof
Portion of the liquid contents that moves in unison with the shell
A relatively low-frequency response of a portion of the liquid contents that

moves in the fundamental sloshing mode
Saudi Aramco Standards
SAES-D-100 and 32-SAMSS-005 require that the tank be designed for seismic loads in
accordance with API 650 Appendix E. The seismic zone should be indicated on the Tank
Data Sheet. The following procedure is based on the procedure in API 650, Appendix E.
Seismic Zones
Seismic zones are assigned whole numbers from 0 to 4. The number assigned to the seismic
zone represents the relative risk of earthquake damage and determines the amount of seismic
resistance required in structural design. Low numbers represent low risk; high numbers
represent high risk. Zone 0 requires no earthquake design. Zone 2 is the highest
classification for any Saudi Aramco location.
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Civil
API Storage Tank
Formulas
If we assume that the seismic zone is Zone 1 and the tank is at least 30 m (100 ft.) in diameter
and less than 15 m (50 ft.) in height, the API 650 Appendix E formula for the earthquake
base-overturning moment is as follows:
M E = ZI 0.24 W s H scg + 0.24 W r Ht + 0.24K w1W CK 1H L + K 3 2 K W2 W C K 2 HL

k d
(Eqn. 6)
where:
ME
Earthquake base-overturning moment, N-m (ft.-lb.)
Seismic zone coefficient, dimensionless. For zone 0, Z = 0. For zone 1,

Z = 0.1875. For zone 2, Z = 0.375.
Essential facilities factor, dimensionless. I = 1 for all petrochemical

tanks, unless otherwise specified by CSD.
Ws
Weight of the tank shell, N (lb.)
Hscg
Height from the base of the tank shell to the shells center of gravity, m
(ft.)
Wr
Weight of the tank roof(s) (fixed and/or floating), N (lb.)
Ht
Total height of the tank shell, m (ft.)
KW1
Weight coefficient, based on the ratio of the tank diameter, d, to the

maximum design liquid height, HL
Wc
Weight of the tank liquid contents, N (lb.) equal to the hydrostatic test
water weight, WH, multiplied by the liquid contents specific gravity, G.
K1
Height coefficient, based on the ratio of the diameter of the tank, d, to the
HL
Maximum design liquid level, m (ft.)
Site amplification factor
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Civil
API Storage Tank
Factor, based on the ratio of the diameter of the tank, d, to the design
maximum liquid height, HL
KW2
Weight coefficient, based on the ratio of the tank diameter, d, to the

K2
Height coefficient, based on the ratio of the tank diameter, d, to the

K3
Coefficient which is a function of the first sloshing mode of the tank equal
to 0.411 in SI units and 1.35 in US units.
SI Note:
All constants and coefficients are suitable for use in both US and SI units
except for K3.
The first term in the equation approximates the response of the tank shell to the lateral ground
motion. The second term in the equation approximates the response of the roof to the lateral
ground motion. The third term in the equation approximates the response of the liquid
contents that move in unison with the shell. The fourth term in the equation approximates the
response of the liquid contents that slosh.
Work Aid 1E provides the procedures and databases for calculating the earthquake baseoverturning moment, ME.
Sample Problem 6: Determining Earthquake Base-Overturning Moment
Determine the earthquake base-overturning moment for a floating roof tank.
Given:
A floating roof tank with a:
Diameter of 300 ft.
Height of 48 ft.
Design liquid storage height of 45 ft.
Weight of the stored liquid of 168,725,000 lb.
Tank shell weight of 1,500,000 lb.
48
Civil
API Storage Tank
Shell center of gravity of 17.75 ft.
Floating roof weight of 649,000 lb.
The tank is installed in seismic Zone 1.

The tank is located on soil of unknown seismic characteristics.
Solution:
Use Work Aid 1E.
In Step 1, calculate d/HL and determine factor K:
d/HL =
k
=
300/45 = 6.67
~0.83
In Step 2, determine factors Kw1 and Kw2:

Kw1
Kw2
=
=
~0.18
~0.78
In Step 3, determine factor S:

S
1.5
In Step 4, determine factors K1 and K2:

K1
K2
=
=
~0.38
~0.52
In Step 5, calculate the earthquake base-overturning moment, ME:

ME
(0.1875)(1.0)(0.24 1,500,000 17.75) + (0.24 649,000 48) +

(0.24 0.18 168,725,000 0.38 45) + {1.35 1.5/((0.83)2 300)
0.78 168,725,000 0.52 45})
ME
~31,625,000 ft.-lb.
Answer:
The earthquake base-overturning moment is approximately 31,625,000 ft.lb.
49
Civil
API Storage Tank
Appurtenances
When designing or modifying a tank or designing a foundation, the design engineer must
allow for the weight and the forces exerted by the appurtenances.
The primary loads contributed by tank appurtenances are their weight. In the absence of the
actual weight of the specific items involved, the weight of all tank appurtenances may be
estimated based on the total tank weight, excluding the weight of the contents. Depending on
the particular appurtenance involved and how it is attached to the tank, the weight of the
appurtenance may also impose a bending moment on the tank, which the design engineer may
need to consider. The design considerations for appurtenances will be highlighted in a later
section that covers tank attachments. Some appurtenances, such as stairs, ladders, and
platforms, will also have live loads that have to be taken into consideration in the design.
Work Aid 1F provides the formulas for calculating or estimating the live loads on
appurtenances.
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Civil
API Storage Tank
MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR ADDITIONS OR MODIFICATIONS TO

THE APPURTENANCES ON A STORAGE TANK
Background
This section discusses mechanical considerations for the appurtenances on a storage tank.
Attaching anything to a storage tank increases stresses in the shell. Local stresses produce the
greatest concern. Attachments cause the following local stresses:
Membrane stresses
Bending stresses
Peak stresses
Changes in dead weight
If excessive, these stresses can cause tearing, leaking, or fracturing of the storage tank. In
addition, attachments cause changes in the dead weight of the entire storage tank.
Membrane Stress
Local loads on a tank result in changes to the membrane stress within the tank shell. Usually,
the contribution of attachments to membrane stress is not a major concern with storage tanks.
However, the build-up of membrane stress should not be ignored, especially if a tank has an
unusually large number of heavy attachments in a relatively small area. High membrane
stresses can cause the tank to fail in an unexpected manner or in an unexpected area.
Bending Stress
Applying a localized load to any part of a tank causes that part to bend. The bending creates
stresses within the part. When the bending increases, the stress also increases. Normally, the
stresses are highest in the area of the applied load. Local bending stress in the material caused
by loads on the tank, adds to the membrane stress.
If a localized load is applied near a junction within the tank, the load may cause bending
stresses in the junction. For instance, if the shell is loaded by a ladder clip near the bottom of
the tank, the bending applies additional loads on the weld between the shell and the tank
bottom.
The addition of reinforcing plates or pads where attachments are made to the tank reduces the
bending stress. These plates or pads distribute the applied loads over a wider area of the tank
and reduce the localized stresses.
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Civil
API Storage Tank
Figure 17 shows bending stress.
Appurtenance
weight
Force
Pipe
Tank wall
Bending
moment
Force
Pipe
support
Exaggerated result
Figure 17. Bending Stress
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Civil
API Storage Tank
Peak Stresses
Peak stresses occur wherever a local area of material is subjected to significantly higher stress
than the material in the surrounding area. This peak stress typically occurs at stress
concentrations or at abrupt geometric discontinuities in the structure. Stress is concentrated at
storage tank attachment points. In general, stress concentration effects need to be considered
only when the loads are applied cyclically. If the combination of stress level and the number
of cycles is high enough, cyclic stresses could result in a fatigue crack of the tank material or
in failure of the tank.
Figure 18 shows stress concentration.
Force
Tank wall
Reference lines
Mounting plate
Force
Force
Force
Peak stresses
at corners
Result
Figure 18. Stress Concentration
53
Civil
API Storage Tank
Changes in Dead Weight

The changes in dead weight that result from attachments or modifications are cumulative.
When material is added to a storage tank, the weight of the structure is increased by the
weight of the added material. When material is removed from a storage tank, the weight of
the structure is decreased by the weight of the removed material.
Attachments
Some typical examples of attachments or modifications that are made to storage tanks are as
follows:
Ladders or stairways
Platforms
Accesses
Piping connections
Supports
The following discussions of these attachments and modifications illustrate the problems that
attachments and modifications may cause and the methods available for minimizing the
problems.
Ladders or Spiral Stairways
Ladders or spiral stairways are installed on a storage tank to gain access to the tank roof for
service and/or inspection.
Potential Problems - When a ladder or stairway is attached to a tank, each attachment point
becomes a source of bending stress and stress concentration. The attachments must be strong
enough to support the weight of the ladder or stairway, the personnel who use the ladder or
stairway, and the equipment that may be placed on or be brought up the ladder or stairway.
Because of the effects of thermal expansion/contraction, the ladder attachments must permit
some small relative movement between the ladder or stairway and the tank shell.
Methods of Minimizing - When a ladder or stairway is attached to a tank, the attachments
must not be made in areas of the tank that are already under higher stress, such as the joints
between shell courses, between the shell and the bottom, or between a fixed roof and the
shell. Also, the reinforcing pads or plates added at the attachment points must be large and
thick enough to distribute the applied loads adequately.
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Civil
API Storage Tank
Platforms
Platforms are installed on a storage tank to provide relatively safe and convenient areas for
inspection, maintenance, and/or equipment mounting. Typically, a platform is installed at the
top of the ladder or stairway and near the gauging/sampling nozzles and roof-access manway.
Potential Problems - When a platform is attached to a tank, each attachment point becomes a
source of bending stress and stress concentration. The attachments must be strong enough to
support the weight of the platform, the personnel who use the platform, and the equipment
that may be placed on the platform.
Methods of Minimizing - When platforms are attached to a tank, the attachments must not be
made in areas of the tank that are already under higher stress, such as the joints between shell
courses, between the shell and the bottom, or between a fixed roof and the shell.
Accesses
Accesses are installed in the tank shell and roof to enable inspection of the tank contents,
inspection of the tank interior, and/or maintenance of the tank interior.
Potential Problems - An access is a source of stress concentration. An access may be a
source of bending stress and/or a weak location in the tank.
Methods of Minimizing - Accesses must not be installed in areas of a tank that are already
under higher stress, if other locations are equally satisfactory. The area around the access
must be reinforced and the access must be as small as possible. The access cover must be
strong enough, but not excessively thick. The access must not be installed at the seam
between shell courses or plates. Design details specified in the appropriate API standard that
addresses these concerns must be used.
Limitations - The reasons for installing an access determine the accesss location. How the
access is to be used determines its minimum size.
Piping Connections
Piping connections are installed in a tank to allow material to be transferred into and out of
the tank, to facilitate cleaning and draining of the tank, and to provide connections for safety
valves.
Potential Problems - A piping connection is a source of stress concentration and bending
stress due to the applied loads from the connected piping system. A piping connection causes
a local weakening in the tank where the piping connection is installed.
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Civil
API Storage Tank
Methods of Minimizing - A piping connection must not be installed in an area of a tank that
is already under higher stress, if other locations are equally satisfactory. The area around the
piping connection must be reinforced. API Standard 650 specifies design details and an
evaluation procedure that should be followed to reduce local tank stresses. A piping
connection must not be installed at a seam between shell courses, at the seam between the
bottom and the shell of the tank, or at a seam between shell plates. The piping system must
be provided with adequate flexibility to adjust to tank settlement and to adjust to tank
expansion and contraction that results from both temperature changes and hydrostatic head.
Limitations - The reasons for installing a piping connection and the layout of the piping
system determine the location and size of a piping connection. Designing a piping system
that allows for tank settlement may be difficult and expensive for cases of significant
settlement, and the difficulty increases with the pipe diameter.
Supports
Supports are attached to certain types of tanks, such as spheres and spheroids, to support the
weight of the tank and its contents. The support connections along with their reinforcing pads
or plates must be designed to support the weight of the tank and its contents without
overstressing the tank. Flat (or conical) bottom tanks are continuously supported on a
foundation.
Potential Problems - Support connections are a source of stress concentration and bending
stress. The supports must adjust to the expansion and contraction of the tank. The supports
must be able to tolerate shifting loads that result from uneven settlement.
Methods of Minimizing - Supports must not be attached in areas of a tank that are already
under higher stress. The reinforcing pads or plates must be sufficiently strong. The possible
expansion and contraction of the tank during operation must be considered in the support
design. Properly designed and constructed foundations can minimize tilting that results from
foundation settlement.
Limitations - Designing and constructing supports that properly connect to a tank and that
tolerate tank expansion and contraction can be expensive. Better foundations are more
expensive to construct and may not be cost effective.
56
Civil
API Storage Tank
USES OF VARIOUS TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS FOR STORAGE TANKS

General
The foundation supports the tank and prevents it from settling or sinking into the ground. The
foundation under a tank should:
Provide a stable surface for supporting the tank
Limit total settlement to amounts that can be tolerated by the connecting pipes
Limit differential settlement around the tank circumference and across the
bottom to amounts that can be tolerated by the tank shell and bottom
Provide adequate drainage
An improperly designed or constructed foundation can cause a tank to:
Distort
Leak
Rupture
Break its connecting pipes
Have surface-water drainage problems
Corrode on the bottom
Appendix B of API 650 gives recommendations and SAES-D-100 presents the following
requirements for the design and construction of tank foundations:
The grade or surface on which the tank bottom rests should be at least 0.30 m
(1 ft.) above the surrounding ground surface. This grading provides drainage,
keeps the bottom of the tank dry, and compensates for minor settlement. The
elevation specified for the tank bottom surface should also consider the amount
of total settlement that is expected.
Unless the foundation is concrete, the top 75 - 100 mm (3 or 4 in.) of the

finished grade should consist of sand, gravel, or small crushed stone [not more
than 25 mm (1 in.) in diameter]. The finished grade may be oiled (or stabilized
in some other manner) preserve the contour during construction and to protect
the tank bottom from moisture that will cause it to corrode.
57
Civil
API Storage Tank
To facilitate drainage, the finished tank grade is usually sloped upward or

downward from the outer periphery to its center depending on whether an
upward cone or downward cone is specified for the tank bottom. SAES-D-100
requires that the underside of the tank's bottom be coned downward in services
where a water drawoff is required unless otherwise stated on the tank data
sheet. When high settlement is expected at the tank center the tank bottom
frequently is coned upward. The radial slope, upward or downward is, 1 in
120.
Pressurized tanks are anchored to their foundations. In the case of a flat-bottomed tank with
internal pressure, anchoring helps prevent the pressure from rounding the tanks bottom and
lifting the tank off its foundation when the liquid level is low. Rounding creates stresses
within the bottom of the shell and the outer edge of the bottom that could cause the tank to
fail.
Atmospheric storage tanks are not normally anchored, unless anchoring is needed for wind or
earthquake loading.
Soil
Before the foundation and tank are constructed, the design engineer must estimate how much
settlement will occur during the operating life of the tank. In some cases, it may be necessary
to prepare the soil to better support the loads that will be placed on the soil. Common soilpreparation techniques are as follows:
Preloading
Compaction
Excavation and backfill

Preloading
Preloading the soil is the preferred method of preparation. The soil is preloaded by placing
material on top of the ground that will be supporting the foundation and tank. The amount of
material piled on top usually equals or exceeds the weight of the tank and foundation when
the tank is filled. The material must be left in place long enough to allow the soil to compact
under the weight. This time period depends on the type of soil and the rate at which it
consolidates. The preload time could be six months or more.
Compaction
When there is insufficient time to preload the soil and the existing soil is to be maintained, the
soil may be stiffened by compaction. The soil is compacted by beating or pounding the
surface with equipment specially designed for this purpose.
58
Civil
API Storage Tank
Excavation and Backfill

When the existing soil does not provide the appropriate characteristics for the foundation, it
may be removed and replaced by a more satisfactory soil or engineered fill. The existing soil
must be removed to a depth sufficient to ensure proper support of the foundation and filled
tank. The new soil or engineered fill must then be properly compacted during placement and
before the foundation and tank are constructed.
Types of Foundations
The following sections discuss these types of foundations:
Compacted earth with oiled sand pad
Ringwalls
-
Crushed stone ringwall
Concrete ringwall
Concrete pad
Piled foundation
Compacted Earth with Oiled Sand Pad
The compacted earth with oiled sand pad foundation is the simplest and least expensive type
of foundation. This type of foundation is used for small flat-bottomed tanks constructed on
stable soil. Figure 19 shows the construction of the compacted earth and oiled sand pad
foundation.
Tank
Stable soil
Oiled sand layer
Stable soil
Compacted earth
Figure 19. Compacted Earth with Oiled Sand Pad
59
Civil
API Storage Tank
Ringwalls
A ringwall foundation consists of a ring of support material enclosing an area of compacted
fill.
Ringwalls are used for the following:
Larger tanks
Tanks with high shells
Tanks with skirts
Tanks built on soil that is likely to erode
Ringwalls help prevent shell distortion in floating roof tanks. When compared to an oiled
sand pad, ringwalls provide the following advantages:
Better distribution of the shell load
A level, solid starting plane for construction of the shell
Better means of leveling the tank grade
Preservation of the tank grade contour during construction
Retention of the fill under the tank bottom and prevention of material loss due
to erosion
Minimal moisture under the tank
The disadvantages of ringwalls are as follows:
A different material is used in the ringwall and the compacted fill. As a result,
the compacted fill can settle, creating stresses on the bottom of the tank at the
boundary between the ringwall and the compacted fill.
Ringwalls are more expensive to construct than compacted earth and oiled sand
pads.
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Civil
API Storage Tank
Crushed Stone Ringwall - Construction of the crushed stone ringwall is illustrated in Figure
20.
Tank
Crushed
stone
Crushed
stone
Stable soil
Stable soil
Compacted fill
Figure 20. Crushed Stone Ringwall
Concrete Ringwall - Construction of the concrete ringwall is illustrated in Figure 21.

When a tank needs to be anchored, the concrete ringwall provides a more convenient
anchoring than the crushed stone ringwall.
When compared to the crushed stone ringwall, the concrete ringwall is more likely to have
differential settlement between the ringwall and the fill inside the ringwall. Also, the concrete
ringwall is more expensive to construct than the crushed stone ringwall.
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Civil
API Storage Tank
Tank
Compacted fill
Grade
Reinforced
concrete
Figure 21. Concrete Ringwall
Concrete Pad
The concrete pad is used with tall, small-diameter tanks. The concrete pad is a solid,
reinforced-concrete slab placed directly on the soil. The concrete pad provides a means of
anchoring the tank. Figure 22 illustrates a concrete pad.
Tank
Soil
Concrete slab
Figure 22. Concrete Pad
62
Civil
API Storage Tank
Piled Foundation
A piled foundation for a tank consists of a concrete slab or pile cap on which the tank rests
and piles (columns) embedded into the soil below the slab.
The pile material may be either reinforced concrete, steel, or timber. The size, length, and
number of piles depends on soil conditions and on the size and weight of the tank. A
geotechnical specialist usually determines the pile requirements based on the results of a soil
investigation program.
A piled foundation is used where the following conditions exist:
Unstable soil
Tank weight may cause soil to push out from under the tank
Too much settlement may result from excessive compression of soil under the
tank
The advantages of a piled foundation are as follows:
It may be used with any size of tank
It provides convenient anchoring for the tank
Disadvantages are as follows:
It is the most difficult foundation to correct if problems occur
It is the most expensive foundation to construct
A piled foundation gets its supporting capacity from the piles driven into the ground. The two
sources of the vertical load supporting capacity for a pile are (1) the friction along the length
(sides) of the pile and (2) the bearing capacity at the bottom end of the pile. Figure 23
illustrates a piled foundation.
63
Civil
API Storage Tank
Figure 23. Piled Foundation with Concrete Slab
Saudi Aramco Requirements

The following Saudi Aramco standards apply to foundations:
32-SAMSS-006, Large, Low Pressure Storage Tanks
SAES-M-100, Saudi Aramco Building Code
SAES-Q-005, Concrete Foundations

32-SAMSS-005 provides the requirements for testing and inspecting welded steel tanks that
store oil, water, and chemicals at approximately atmospheric pressure. The standard applies
to newly constructed tanks during initial test and inspection.
64
Civil
API Storage Tank
32-SAMSS-005 requires the following of newly constructed tanks:
The tank foundation must be inspected prior to tank erection for compliance
with all design requirements.
Tank bottoms inspected must be as required in API Standard 650.
Tank welds must be inspected in accordance with the requirements in API

Standard 650.
Hydrostatic test water must meet the requirements of par. 5.3.6.
Cone roof tanks must be filled to 50 mm (2 in.) above the top angle.
Any settlement of cone roof tanks that exceeds one percent of the tank
diameter shall be referred to CSD for analysis.
Floating roof tanks must be filled to within 450 mm (18 in.) of the top
angle.
Any floating roof tank shall be considered for jacking when excessive
ovalization has occurred. Ovalization is generally excessive if the
difference between the maximum and minimum diameters at the top
reaches 300 mm (12 in.). Any such tank where uneven settlement
reaches 2.8 mm per meter (1 in. per 30 ft.) of circumference is to be
checked for shell-to-floating roof clearance.
The following additions or modifications to the testing apply to tanks with a

capacity over 800 cm3 (5,000 barrels):
-
Elevation measurements must be taken during the initial hydrostatic

test:
+ For this purpose, reference points equally spaced around the circumference shall be
established. The reference points shall be nuts or other similar items welded to the tanks
shell 100 mm (4 in.) above the bottom edge. One of the reference points must be placed
at the catch basin.
+ The reference points must be placed at approximately equal distances around the
circumference of the tank. The number of reference points for various tank diameters is
given in Figure 24.
65
Civil
API Storage Tank
Tank Diameter
15 m (50 ft.) and less
Over 15 m (50 ft.) and less than 45 m (150 ft.)
45 m (150 ft.) and over
No. of Reference Points

4
8
16
Figure 24. Required Number of Reference Points

+ The observed elevations must be referenced to a permanent benchmark. The instrument
making the measurements must be set up at a distance from the tank of at least 1-1/2 times
the tank diameter.
+ Six sets of settlement readings must be taken. (See Figure 25.)
Reading
1
2
3
4
5
6
When To Be Taken
Before the start of the hydrostatic test
With the tank 1/4 full 0.60 m (2 ft.)
With the water level at or above the maximum working filling
height (32-SAMSS-005, par. 5.5.6 gives additional time
conditions for this step for special tanks)
After the tank has been emptied of test water
Figure 25. Required Settlement Readings
+ Any differential settlement greater than 1.5 mm per meter (1/2 in. per 30 ft.) of tank
circumference or uniform settlement greater than 50 mm (2 in.) must be reported to the
Chief Engineer.
+ A record of elevation observations shall be filed in the Plant Inspection Record Book by
the Buyer's Inspector.
-
The tank must be continually inspected as it is filled to note any leaks or other signs of
weakness in the tank, its roof, and its foundation.
66
Civil
API Storage Tank
32-SAMSS-006, Large, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks

This standard contains similar requirements for the design, inspection, testing and monitoring
of foundations as API 650 and 32-SAMSS-005.
SAES-D-108 covers additions and exceptions to the requirements of API 653 governing the
structural integrity of welded-steel storage tanks constructed to API 650 or to API 12C. This
SAES applies to existing tanks during Test and Inspections (T&Is) and not to tanks during
initial construction.
SAES-D-108 requires the following of existing tanks:
They be inspected using the standards established in the API Standard 653,
Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration and Reconstruction.
They be inspected and tested after any repair or modification that might affect
the strength or safety of the tank.
They have periodic inspections as required by the Equipment Inspection

Schedule.
SAES-M-100, Saudi Aramco Building Code
All construction must meet the requirements of the Saudi Arabian Uniform Building Code as
modified by SAES-M-100.
SAES-Q-005, Concrete Foundations
SAES-Q-005 specifies that the foundations for atmospheric storage tanks be constructed in
accordance with the instructions in API Standard 650. In addition, the standard provides
requirements for soil analysis, foundations, concrete ringwalls, and anchor bolts.
SAES-Q-005 requires that the soil analysis include the following soil-related characteristics:
Stratigraphy of subsurface materials
Maximum allowable soil-bearing pressure
Recommended depth of the bottom of the foundation
Unit soil weight
Internal friction angles
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Civil
API Storage Tank
Soil-shearing capacity
Groundwater location, chemistry, and fluctuation
For pile-type foundations, data that establishes the minimum pile group spacing
based on the type of pile and load-carrying capacity
SAES-Q-005 requires the following of foundations:
They be founded on undisturbed soil at least 600 mm (2 ft.) below the existing
or finished grade surface.
If subject to water pressure, they be designed to resist a uniformly distributed

uplift equal to the full hydrostatic pressure.
The top of the concrete be at least 150 mm (6 in.) above the finished grade.
They have the safety factors as shown in Figure 26.
SITUATION/CONDITION
SAFETY FACTOR
Overturning during construction or erection

Sliding
For compression piles, ultimate capacity
For tension piles, ultimate capacity
All other conditions
1.5
1.5
2.0
3.0
2.0
Figure 26. Safety Factors for Foundations

SAES-Q-005 requires that concrete ringwalls meet the requirements of foundations and that
they meet the following requirements:
They have a minimum width of 300 mm (12 in.)
They have an average unit soil loading under the ringwall equal to the soil
pressure under the confined earth at the same depth.
They be designed to resist horizontal active earth pressure.
They have a concrete compression strength of at least 27,600 kPa (4,000 psi)
after 28 days.
68
Civil
API Storage Tank
SAES-Q-005 requires the following when anchor bolts are used:
The distance from the anchor bolts or anchor-bolt sleeves to the outer edge of
the concrete be at least 75 mm (3 in.)
The anchor bolts that are subject to uplift or vibration be equipped with a nut
that locks the anchor bolt.
69
Civil
API Storage Tank
Effects of types of Settlement on storage tanks

Background
The excessive settling of a tank can cause serious tank operating problems and lead to tank
failure. Therefore, a key step in tank design is estimating the amount of settlement the tanks
shell will undergo in its lifetime. The desired maximum lifetime settlement is usually less
than
0.3
m
(1 ft.). When settlement exceeds 0.3 m (1 ft.), there may be serious problems with the storage
tanks, shell, annular plate or bottom.
Types of Settlement
The settling of a tank is classified by the type of shell settlement and the type of bottom
settlement.
When a tank shell settles, the settlement can be classified as uniform, planar tilt, or deviation
from planar tilt. When a tank bottom settles, the settlement can be classified as center-to-edge
or local shell and bottom.
The following sections discuss these types of settlement:
Uniform
Planar tilt
Deviation from planar tilt
Center-to-edge
Local shell or bottom

Uniform
When the tank shell remains level as the tank settles, uniform settlement has occurred.
Uniform settlement does not cause significant stresses or distortions in the tank. This type of
settlement requires correction only when the foundation or piping connections develop
problems. Figure 27 illustrates uniform settlement.
70
Civil
API Storage Tank
Shell settles but remains level
Drainage problem
Potential
for overstress
of piping
nozzle
Figure 27. Uniform Settlement
Uniform settlement can cause the following:
Overstressing of the connecting piping and associated tank nozzle.
Blockage of surface water drainage from the tank pad, which could cause
corrosion of the tank shell or bottom
Planar Tilt
When the tanks shell tilts as the tank settles and the bottom of the shell remains in a single
plane, planar tilt settlement has occurred. The bottom plane does not distort; it only tilts.
Figure 28 illustrates planar tilt.
71
Civil
API Storage Tank
Shell settles and tilts
Figure 28. Planar Tilt Settlement

As the shell tilts, stresses are introduced that change the shape of the shell. As a result of
these stresses, the top of the tank becomes elliptical.
Planar tilt settlement can cause the following:
Malfunction of floating roof seals
Binding of a floating roof
Problems with connecting pipes
Problems with surface water drainage from the tank pad
Buckling in flanges or webs of wind girders
72
Civil
API Storage Tank
Deviation from Planar Tilt

When the shell does not remain in a plane as it settles, deviation from planar tilt or differential
settlement has occurred. Figure 29 illustrates deviation from planar tilt.
Shell may
buckle
Differential settlement around shell
Figure 29. Deviation From Planar Tilt Settlement
Deviation from planar tilt settlement can cause the following:
Malfunction of floating roof seals
Binding of a floating roof
Problems with connecting pipes
Problems with surface water drainage from the tank pad
Buckling in flanges or webs of wind girders
Shell buckling
Overstress of the shell or bottom plates
73
Civil
API Storage Tank
Center-to-Edge
When the support under the bottom of the tank settles more than the support under the shell of
the tank, center-to-edge settlement has occurred. Figure 30 illustrates center-to-edge
settlement.
Figure 30. Center-To-Edge Settlement

Excessive center-to-edge settlement is most likely to cause the following:
In tanks under 45 m (150 ft.) in diameter, buckling of the bottom shell course
In tanks over 45 m (150 ft.) in diameter, failure in the bottom plates
Inaccuracies in tank gauging
74
Civil
API Storage Tank
Local Shell or Bottom

When the shell and bottom do not settle together or if local areas of the bottom settle
differently from the rest of the bottom, local shell or bottom settlement has occurred. Figure
31 illustrates local shell or bottom settlement.
Local bottom
settlement
Shell settles more

than tank bottom
Figure 31. Local Shell or Bottom Settlement

In local shell or bottom settlement, significant stress may develop in the bottom plates, their
attachment welds, the bottom-to-shell junction weld, or the lower section of the shell. This
stress can cause the bottom of the tank to fail.
75
Civil
API Storage Tank
Evaluation of Tank Settlement

API 653, Appendix B presents criteria for determining if the settlement around the tank shell
or the tank bottom is excessive. If the settlement is excessive, then repairs to the tank and/or
foundation may be required. Since repairs to a tank foundation, although possible, are very
expensive and time consuming, the criteria in API 653 are often used as an initial screening
criterion to determine whether a more sophisticated analysis using computer modeling of the
tank settlement problem is required.
If the tank settlement is too large, various types of repairs to the foundations can be made. If
the ringwall has suffered local differential settlement, a portion of a ringwall that has settled
too much may be replaced. Releveling of the entire ringwall by using an epoxy grout is
sometimes done to correct for excessive tilt. Replacing/recompacting and/or releveling the
entire tank pad is sometimes done if tank bottom settlement is excessive. In most cases, these
repairs are made when the tank is out-of-service at a scheduled Test & Inspection interval. In
some cases, the foundation repairs are made along with repairs that are required for the tank
bottom, the annular plate or to the shell and that are caused by excessive corrosion, distortion,
or cracking of the steel.
Since repairs to the tanks foundation may be carried out along with repairs to the tank steel
components, the work must be properly coordinated. If the job is to be done in an economical
fashion, the civil and mechanical engineers assigned to the job must work together during the
assessment of settlement, the evaluation of various repair alternatives and during the ultimate
repair.
76
Civil
API Storage Tank
CALCULATING TANK SETTLEMENT

Settling of tanks must be measured and analyzed during the life of the tanks. Work Aid 2
provides a procedure for determining the amount and kind of settlement.
Sample Problem 7: Calculate Tank Settlement
Calculate the amount and kinds of tank settlement.
Given:
A tank is 35 m in diameter. The initial readings and current readings in Figure 32 have been
taken on this tank.
Answer:
The instructor will lead the Participants through the solution of this problem during class.
77
Civil
API Storage Tank
READING
NUMBER
ORIGINAL
ELEVATION (cm)
CURRENT
ELEVATION (cm)
205.65
151.27
205.65
149.97
205.65
151.23
205.65
153.74
205.65
152.48
205.66
153.76
205.66
162.44
205.66
165.03
205.66
163.77
10
205.66
157.62
11
205.65
157.48
12
205.65
153.72
Figure 32. Current and Initial Tank Elevation Readings
78
Civil
API Storage Tank
Work Aid 1:
Procedures and Databases for Calculating CIVIL/

MECHANICAL Loads for Atmospheric Storage Tanks
Work Aid 1A: Procedure for Calculating Weight Loads

1.
Calculate the hydrostatic test water weight using the following formula:
WH =
where:
WH
d
HL
w
=
=
=
=
2
d HL w
4
(Eqn. 7)
Hydrostatic test water weight, N (lb.)

Design maximum height of liquid in the tank, m (ft.)
Weight density of water 9.81 kN/m3 (62.4 lb./ft.3)
2.
If not already known, calculate the weight of the tank bottom using the following
formula:
Wb = 4 d2tbst
(Eqn. 8)
where:
Wb = Weight of the tank bottom, N (lb.)
d
= Diameter of the tank, m (ft.)
tb
= Thickness of the tank bottom, in meters (ft.)
st = Weight density of steel, 77 kN/m3 (490 lb./ft.3)
3.
If not already known, calculate the weight of the tank shell using the following formula:
Ws = dtavgh st
(Eqn. 9)
where:
Ws = Weight of a tank shell, N (lb.)
d
tavg = Average thickness of the tank shell, in meters (feet)
h
= Height of the tank, m (ft.)
st = Weight density of steel, 77 kN/m3 (490 lb./ft.3)
4.
If not already known, estimate the weight of the tank roof(s) using the appropriate
formula(s) from the following:
For a flat roof:
Wr = 4 d2tr st x D.F.
(Eqn. 10a)
79
Civil
API Storage Tank
where:
Wr
d
tr
st
D.F.
=
=
=
=
=
Weight of the roof, N (lb.)

Thickness of the roof, in meters (in feet)
Weight density of steel, 77 kN/m3 (490 lb./ft.3)
Design factor to account for the additional weight of the roof
support structure. If not specified assume this design factor is equal
to 1.20.
For a cone roof:

d2
W r = dtr st
+ h 2r
4
2
1/2
D.F.
(Eqn. 10b)
where:
Wr
d
tr
hr
st
D.F.
5.
=
=
=
=
=
=
Weight of the cone roof, N (lb.)

Thickness of the roof, in meters (in feet)
Height of the peak of the roof above the tank shell, m (ft.)
Weight density of steel, 77 kN/m3 (490 lb./ft.3)
Design factor to account for the additional weight of the roof
support structure. If not specified assume this design factor is equal
to 1.20.
If not already known, estimate the weight of the appurtenances.

Wa = (Ws + Wb + Wr) x D.F.
Ws
Wb
Wr
Wa
D.F.
=
=
=
=
=
(Eqn. 11)

Weight of the tank bottom, N (lb.)
Weight of the tank roof(s), N (lb.)
Weight of the appurtenances, N (lb.)
Design factor to account for the additional weight of appurtenances.
If not specified assume this design factor is equal to 0.02.
80
Civil
API Storage Tank
6.
Using the following formula, calculate the tank dead weight empty.
W D = Ws + Wb + Wr + Wa + Wi
(Eqn. 12)
where:
WD
Ws
Wb
Wr
Wa
Wi
7.
=
=
=
=
=
=
Tank dead weight empty, N (lb.)

Weight of the tank bottom, N (lb.)
Weight of the tank roof(s), N (lb.)
Weight of the appurtenances, N (lb.)
Weight of insulation, if any, N (lb.)
Using the following formula, calculate the total hydrostatic test weight.
W T = WH + WD
(Eqn. 13)
where:
WT = Total hydrostatic test weight
WH = Hydrostatic test water weight
WD = Tank dead weight empty
81
Civil
API Storage Tank
Work Aid 1B: Procedure for Calculating Total Pressure

1.
Using the following formula, calculate the hydrostatic pressure.

PH = h x C.F.
2.
where:
PH
=
=
h
C.F.
=
=
(Eqn. 14)
Hydrostatic pressure, kPa (psi)

Specific weight of the liquid, kN/m3 (lb./ft.3). For water, the specific
weight is 9.81 kN/m3 (62.4 lb./ft.3). For other liquids multiply the
specific weight of water by the specific gravity, G, of the liquid.
Height of the liquid above the point being considered, m (ft.)
Conversion factor equal to 1 kPa/1 kN/m2 (1 psi/144 lb./ft.2)
Using the following formula, calculate the total pressure.

P T = PH + PV
(Eqn. 15)
where:
PT
PH
PV
3.
=
=
=
Total pressure, kPa (psi)

Hydrostatic pressure, kPa (psi)
Vapor pressure, if not specified, assume 0 kPa (psi)
Using the following formula, calculate the equivalent liquid height.

Heq = (PT x C.F.)/
(Eqn. 16)
where:
PT
C.F.
=
=
=
Total pressure, kPa (psi)

Specific weight of the liquid as defined above, kN/m3 (lb/ft3)
Conversion factor equal to 1 kN/m2/1 kPa (144 lb/ft2/psi)
82
Civil
API Storage Tank
Work Aid 1C: Procedure for Calculating Roof Live Load

Calculate the roof live load based on the specified or minimum roof live loading and the
horizontal projected area of the roof using the following formula:
LRLL = 4 d2 RL
where:
(Eqn. 17)
LRLL = Roof live load, lb.

d
= Diameter of the roof, ft.
RL
= Roof live loading, 1.2 kN/m2 (25 lb./ft.2)
83
Civil
API Storage Tank
Work Aid 1D: Procedure and Database for Calculating Wind Loads
1.
Using the following formula, calculate the wind base-shear force.

F w = ( Kh (hh hl )) DGCf qr
where:
(Eqn. 3)
Fw = Wind base-shear force, N (lb.)

Kh = Height correction factor evaluated at the center of the height range
from Figure 39
hh = Highest point on the tank shell or roof within the height range, m (ft.)
hl
= Lowest point on the tank shell or roof within the height range, m (ft.)
= Effective diameter of the tank, m (ft.). If the tank is externally

= Gust response factor for maximum height of the tank (dimensionless)

from Figure 39.
Cf = Wind-drag coefficient, (dimensionless), 0.5 for smooth tanks with

H/D < 1.
qr
= Wind pressure at the reference elevation, 888 Pa (18.5 lb./ft.2) for

Saudi Aramco locations.
Height above grade in
meters (ft.)
Kh
(evaluated at
midpoint of range)
G
(Evaluated at top of
range)
0-5 (0-16)
.8
1.32
5-10 (16-32)
.92
1.26
10-15 (32-48)
1.06
1.23
15-20 (48-64)
1.17
1.20
20-25 (64-80)
1.25
1.18
SI Note: Kh and G is the same for both SI and US customary units

Figure 39. Height-Correction and Gust Response Factors
84
Civil
API Storage Tank
2.
Using the following formula, calculate the wind base-overturning moment.
h + hl
DGCfqr
Mw = Kh (hh hl ) h
2
where:
3.
(Eqn. 4)
Mw =
Wind base-overturning moment, N-m (ft.-lb.)
Kh =
Height correction factor evaluated at the center of the height range

(dimensionless), from Figure 39
hh =
Highest point on the tank shell or roof within the height range, m (ft.)
hl
Lowest point on the tank shell or roof within the height range, m (ft.)

Gust response factor for maximum height of the tank (dimensionless)

from Figure 39.
Cf =
Wind-drag coefficient, (dimensionless) 0.5 for smooth tanks with

H/D < 1.
qr
Wind pressure at reference elevation, 888 Pa (18.5 lb./ft.2) for Saudi

Aramco locations.
Using the following formula, calculate the wind roof-lift load.

Lw = /4 d2 Kh GCpqr
(Eqn. 5)
where:
Lw
d
Kh
GxCp
qr
= Wind roof-lift load, N (lb.)

= Height correction factor evaluated at the mid-point of the roof
(dimensionless) from Figure 39
= Combined gust and pressure lift coefficient (dimensionless) equal to
1.2 for shallow roofs with less than 10 angle.
= Wind pressure at the reference elevation, 888 Pa (18.5 lb./ft.2) for
Saudi Aramco locations.
85
Civil
API Storage Tank
Work Aid 1E: Procedure and Databases for Calculating Earthquake Base-Overturning
Moment
1.
Calculate the value of d/HL (d = diameter of the tank, HL = the design maximum height
of the liquid contents) and determine the value for factor k from Figure 40.
1.0
0.8
k
0.6
0.5
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
d/H L
Source:
Based on ANSI/API Standard 650, Ninth Edition, Washington, D.C., American Petroleum Institute, July 1993,
Fig. E-4.
Figure 40. Factor k
86
Civil
API Storage Tank
2.
Determine the values for the weight coefficients Kw1 and Kw2 from Figure 41.
1.0
Kw 1
0.8
0.6
0.4
Kw 2
0.2
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
d/HL
Source:
Fig. E-2.
Figure 41. Weight Coefficients
87
Civil
API Storage Tank
3.
Determine the value for the site amplification factor S from Figure 42.
Soil Profile Type

Soil
Profile
Code
Soil Characteristics
S1
Either:
Site
Amplification
Factor
S
1.0
Rock of any characteristic, whether shale-like or

crystalline in nature, characterized by a shear-wave
velocity greater than 2,500 ft/s
or
Stiff soil less than 200 ft. deep in which the soil that
overlies rock consists of stable deposits of sands, gravels,
or stiff clays
S2
Deep cohesionless or stiff clay, including soil that is more

than 200 ft. deep in which the soil that overlies rock
consists of stable deposits of sands, gravels, or stiff clays
1.2
S3
Soft to medium-stiff clays and sands characterized by 30

ft. or more of soft to medium-stiff clay with or without
intervening layers of sand or other cohesionless soils
1.5
S4
A soil profile containing more than 40 ft. of soft clay
2.0
When the soil profile is not known in sufficient detail to

determine the soil profile type, assume soil profile S 3
1.5
Unknown
Source:
Table E-3.
SI Note: The site amplification factor is dimensionless. To convert feet to meters multiply 1 m/ 3.28 ft.
Figure 42. Site Amplification Factor
88
Civil
API Storage Tank
4.
Determine the value for the height coefficients K1 and K2 from Figure 43.
or K
1.0
0.8
K2
0.6
K1
0.4
0.2
0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
d/HL
Source:
Fig. E-3.
Figure 43. Height Coefficients
89
Civil
API Storage Tank
5.
Using the following formula, calculate the earthquake base-overturning moment.

S
2
ME = ZI (0.24WsHscg + 0.24WrHt + 0.24Kw1WcK1HL + K3 k d KW2WcK2HL)
where:
ME = Earthquake base-overturning moment, N-m (ft.-lb.)
(Eqn. 6)
= Seismic zone coefficient, dimensionless. For zone 0, Z = 0. For zone 1, Z =

0.1875. For zone 2, Z= 0.375.
= Essential facilities factor, dimensionless.

unless otherwise specified by CSD.
I = 1 for all petrochemical tanks,
Ws = Weight of the tank shell, N (lb.)

Hscg = Height from the base of the tank shell to the shells center of gravity, m (ft.)
Wr
= Weight of the tank roof(s) (fixed and/or floating), N (lb.)
Ht
= Total height of the tank shell, m (ft.)
KW1 = Weight coefficient, based on the ratio of the tank diameter, d, to the maximum
design liquid height, HL, from Figure 41
Wc = Weight of the tank liquid contents equal to the hydrostatic test water weight,
WH, multiplied by the specific gravity of the tank contents, N (lb.)
K1
= Height coefficient, based on the ratio of the diameter of the tank, d, to the
maximum design liquid height, HL, from Figure 43
HL
= Maximum design liquid level, m (ft.)
= Site amplification factor from Figure 42
= Factor, based on the ratio of the diameter of the tank, d, to the design maximum
liquid height, HL, from Figure 40
KW2 = Weight coefficient, based on the ratio of the tank diameter, d, to the maximum
K2
= Height coefficient, based on the ratio of the tank diameter, d, to the maximum
K3
= Coefficient which is a function of the first sloshing mode of the tank and equal
to 0.411 in SI units and 1.35 in US units.
SI Note:
All constants and coefficients are suitable for use in either SI or US units except
for K3.
90
Civil
API Storage Tank
Work Aid 1F: Procedure for Calculating Live Loads for Appurtenances
Platforms, ladders and their attachments to the tank should be designed to support their own
weight plus a live load equal to the greater of 4450 N (1,000 lb.) or 2.4 kPa (50 lb./ft.2) on the
floor and tread areas, A, unless otherwise specified.
when A < 1.85 m2 (20 ft.2):
LLL = 4450 N (1,000 lb.)
(Eqn. 18)
LLL = A x 2.4 kPa in SI units
(Eqn. 19)
when A > 1.85 m2 (20 ft.2):

or LLL = A x 50 lb./ft.2 in US units
where:
LLL = Live load on appurtenances, N (lb.)
A = Total floor and tread area, m2 (ft.2)
91
Civil
API Storage Tank
Work Aid 2:
Procedure for Calculating Tank Settlement
1.
Obtain the data on the original elevation readings of the tank shell.
2.
Subtract the actual settlement readings from the corresponding original elevation
readings.
3.
The minimum difference between an original elevation reading and the corresponding
actual settlement reading is the amount of uniform settlement.
4.
Subtract the uniform settlement from the maximum difference between the original
elevation reading and the corresponding actual settlement reading. The result is the
amount of planar tilt settlement.
5.
Plot the actual settlement readings around the circumferences of the tank starting with
the highest point at 0. Figure 44 provides a graph that can be used for plotting the data.
Elevation
Angle
Figure 44. Graph for Plotting Data
92
Civil
API Storage Tank
6.
Plot a cosine curve that most closely matches the actual settlement readings. Figure 45
shows an example of a plot of data.
Actual settlement readings

High point 0
Planar tilt
Elevation
Deviation from
planar tilt
30
60
90 120 150 180 210 240 290 300 330 360

(0)
Angle
Figure 45. Example of a Plot

7.
The vertical difference between the best-fit cosine curve and the plot of actual settlement
readings is the deviation from planar tilt and represents the differential circumferential
settlement.
93
Civil
API Storage Tank
GLOSSARY
ANSI
American National Standards Institute
API
American Petroleum Institute
ASCE
American Society of Civil Engineers
ASTM
American Society for Testing and Materials
crown
A rise in soil elevation toward the center of an area.
CSA
Canadian Standards Association
design metal
temperature
For tankage, the design metal temperature is usually set at 8C

(15F) above the lowest one-day mean. The design metal
temperature is not the maximum temperature but the minimum
temperature for tankage. It is used to select material with
adequate toughness to prevent brittle fracture.
frangible joint
Weak welded joint at the top of a tank that fails if the tank is
overpressured.
ISO
International Organization for Standardization
km/h
Kilometers per hour
ksi
1,000 pounds per square inch
maximum operating
temperature
For tankage, is the maximum temperature at which the contents

of the tank is stored. If above 93C (200F) then additional
considerations are required in the design.
mph
Miles per hour
periphery
The outer edge of an area
psi
Pounds per square inch
slosh
The movement of a liquid that is not synchronous with the

movement of the container storing the liquid.
Specific Gravity
The ratio of the weight density of a liquid to the weight density

of water (dimensionless).
small tank
Tank with a diameter of 15.25 m (50 ft.) or less.
94

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

API Storage Tank

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TYPES, COMPONENTS, AND USES OF STORAGE TANKS.............................. 1

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

TYPES, MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, AND ALLOWABLE STRESSES

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Wind Roof-Lift Loading................................................................................. 44

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco Requirements.......................................................................... 64

Procedure for Calculating Weight Loads .............................. 79

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Cone Roof Tank .................................................................................................. 2

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

TYPES, COMPONENTS, AND USES OF STORAGE TANKS

API Atmospheric Storage Tanks

Conical steel bottom resting directly on the ground or on a prepared foundation

Vertical, cylindrical steel shell

Supported cone roof

Self-supporting fixed roof

Fixed roof with internal floating roof

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Supported Cone Roof Tank

Figure 1. Cone Roof Tank

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Self-Supporting Fixed Roof Tank

Center dome vent

Figure 2. Geodesic Dome Fixed Roof Tank

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Floating Roof Tank

Figure 3. Floating Roof Tank

Fixed Roof with Internal Floating Roof Tank

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Peripheral roof vent

Column negotiating device

Figure 4. Fixed Cone Roof with Internal Floating Roof Tank

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

API Low-Pressure Storage Tanks

Liquids that require a small amount of pressurization

Liquids that require containment of the vapor as well as the liquid

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Single-Walled, Low-Pressure Tank

Pressure safety valve/

3/4 Page Graphic

Figure 5. Single-Walled, Low-Pressure Tank

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Double-Walled, Low-Pressure Tank

Figure 6. Double-Walled, Low-Pressure Tank

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Spheroidal Low-Pressure Tank

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 7. Spheroidal Low-Pressure Tanks

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Spherical Low-Pressure Tank

Figure 8. Spherical Low-Pressure Tank

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Other Storage Tanks

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

APPLICABLE CODES AND STANDARDS FOR SELECTED STORAGE TANKS

API Standard 650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage

API Standard 653, Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration and Reconstruction

SAES-A-004, Pressure Testing