P RO C E S S C O N T RO L A N D I N ST RU M E N TA I T O N

HEAT
Heat may be defined as transfer of energy from a high temperature object to a lower temperature object.

TEMPERATURE
It is a measure of the average translational kinetic energy associated with the disordered microscopic
motion of atoms and molecules.

DIFFERENCE BET WEEN HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

We have all noticed that when you heat up something, its temperature rises. Often we think that heat and
temperature are the same thing. However, this is not the case. Heat and temperature are related to each
other, but are different concepts.
Heat is the total energy of molecular motion in a substance while temperature is a measure of the
average energy of molecular motion in a substance. Heat energy depends on the speed of the particles,
the number of particles (the size or mass), and the type of particles in an object. Temperature does not
depend on the size or type of object. For example, the temperature of a small cup of water might be the
same as the temperature of a large tub of water, but the tub of water has more heat because it has more
water and thus more total thermal energy.It is heat that will increase or decrease the temperature. If we
add heat, the temperature will become higher. If we remove heat the temperature will become lower.
Higher temperatures mean that the molecules are moving, vibrating and rotating with more energy.
If we take two objects which have the same temperature and bring them into contact, there will be no
overall transfer of energy between them because the average energies of the particles in each object are
the same. But if the temperature of one object is higher than that of the other object, there will be a
transfer of energy from the hotter to the colder object until both objects reach the same temperature.
Temperature is not energy, but a measure of it. Heat is energy.

H OW D O E S H E AT T R AV E L ?
Heat can be transferred from one place to another by three methods:
1. Conduction in solids
2. Convection of fluids (liquids or gases)
3. Radiation through anything that will allow radiation to pass
The method used to transfer heat is usually the one that is the most efficient. If there is a temperature
difference in a system, heat will always move from higher to lower temperatures as described by the
second law of thermodynamics or the Clausius statement.

CONDUCTION
Conduction occurs when two object at different temperatures are in contact with each other. Heat flows
from the warmer to the cooler object until they are both at the same temperature. Conduction is the
movement of heat through a substance by the collision of molecules. At the place where the two object
touch, the faster-moving molecules of the warmer object collide with the slower moving
molecules of the cooler object. As they collide, the faster molecules give up some of their
energy to the slower molecules. The slower molecules gain more thermal energy and
collide with other molecules in the cooler object. This process continues until heat
energy from the warmer object spreads throughout the cooler object. Some substances
conduct heat more easily than others. Solids are better conductor than liquids and liquids
are better conductor than gases. Metals are very good conductors of heat, while air is
very poor conductor of heat. You experience heat transfer by conduction whenever you
touch something that is hotter or colder than your skin e.g. when you wash your hands in
warm or cold water.
Conduction takes place in all forms of matter, viz. solids, liquids, gases and plasmas, but does not
require any bulk motion of matter. In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in
a lattice or phonons with the energy transported by free electrons. In gases and liquids, conduction is due
to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their random motion Conductivity of gases
increases with temperature. Conductivity increases with increasing pressure from vacuum up to a critical
point that the density of the gas is such that molecules of the gas may be expected to collide with each
other before they transfer heat from one surface to another. After this point conductivity increases only
slightly with increasing pressure and density
The rate of conduction heat transfer is:

= heat transferred in time =

= thermal conductivity of the barrier
= temperature

Thermal conductivity k is defined as "the quantity of heat, Q, transmitted in time (t) through a thickness
(d), in a direction normal to a surface of area (A), due to a temperature difference (T) [...]." Thermal
conductivity is a material property that is primarily dependent on the medium's phase, temperature,
density, and molecular bonding.

Rearranging the above equation gives thermal conductivity

k=

Q 1 d
t A T

The SI unit of thermal conductivity is Wm1K1 and English unit is Btu/[hr.ft.0F].

Its dimension is MLT-3K-1
1 Btu/[hr.ft.0F] =

1.730735 Wm1K1

The law of Heat Conduction, also known as Fourier's law, states that the time rate of heat
transfer through a material is proportional to the negative gradient in the temperature and to the area, at
right angles to that gradient, through which the heat is flowing.
Alternatively it can be thought of as a flux of heat [energy per unit area per unit time] divided by a
temperature gradient [temperature per unit length]
The better the conductor, the more rapidly heat will transfer.
Good Conductors
Iron
Steel
Copper
Silver

Poor Conductors
Wood
Styrofoam
Paper
Air

Conduction may be steady-state or transient

STEADY-CONDUCTION
Steady state conduction is a form of conduction that happens when the temperature difference driving the
conduction is constant, so that after an equilibration time, the distribution of temperatures in the
conducting object does not change any further. In steady state conduction, the amount of heat entering a
section is equal to amount of heat coming out.
For example, a bar may be cold at one end and hot at the other, but after a state of steady state
conduction is reached, the special gradient of temperatures along the bar does not change any further, as
time proceeds. Instead, the temperature at any given section of the rod remains constant, and this
temperature varies linearly in space, along the direction of heat transfer.

TRANSIENT CONDUCTION
Transient conduction occurs when the temperature within an object changes as a function of time.
Analysis of transient systems is more complex and often calls for the application of approximation
theories or numerical analysis by computer.
Material

Thermal conductivity

W/(mK)
Silica Aerogel
0.004 - 0.04
Air
0.025

Hollow Fill Fibre InsulationPolartherm

0.04 - 0.4
Alcohols and oils
0.042

Polypropylene
0.1 - 0.21

Mineral oil
0.25

0.138

Rubber
0.16

LPG
0.23 - 0.26

Cement, Portland
0.29

Soil

Epoxy (silica-filled)

1.5

Concrete, stone

1.7

Ice

Sandstone

2.4

0.59

Stainless steel

12.11 ~ 45.0

Water (liquid)

Lead

35.3

0.6

Aluminium

237 (pure)

0.3
Epoxy (unfilled)

Thermal grease
0.7 - 3
Thermal epoxy
1 to 7

Glass

120180 (alloys)

Gold

318

Copper

401

Silver

429

Diamond

900 - 2320

Graphene

(4840440) (5300480)

1.1

This is a list of approximate values of thermal conductivity, k, for some common materials.

CONVECTION
In convection heat energy is transferred between a solid surface and the nearby moving fluids [gasses,
liquids] at different temperatures. Convection is the up and down movements of gasses and liquids
caused by heat transfer.
In reality this is a combination of diffusion and bulk motion of fluid molecules.
Near the solid surface the fluid velocity is low, and diffusion dominates. Away
from the surface, bulk motion of fluids increase the influence and dominates. As
the fluid motion goes more quickly the convective heat transfer increases.
As a gas or liquid is heated, it warms, expands and rises because it is less
dense. The presence of bulk motion of fluid enhances the heat transfer
between the solid surface and the fluid.

EXAMPLES OF CONVECTION

Warmer water at the surface of a lake or swimming pool

Wind currents

Hot air balloon

Lower floors of a building being cooler than the top floor

Convective heat transfer may take the form of either

Forced Or Assisted Convection

Natural Or Free Convection

FORCED OR ASSISTED CONVECTION

Forced convection occurs when a fluid flow is induced by an external force, such as a pump, fan or a
mixer.

NATURAL OR FREE CONVECTION

Natural convection is caused by buoyancy forces that result from the density variations due to differences
of temperature in the fluid. For instance in the absence of an external source, when the mass of the fluid
is in contact with a hot surface its molecules separate and scatter causing the mass of fluid to become
less dense. When this happens the fluid is displaced vertically or horizontally while the cooler fluid gets
denser and the fluid sinks. Thus the hotter volume transfers heat towards the cooler volume of that fluid.
This continues phenomenon is called free or natural convection.
Boiling or condensing processes are also referred as a convective heat transfer processes.
Internal or external flow can also classify convection. Internal flow occurs when the fluid is enclosed by a
solid boundary such as a flow through a pipe. An external flow occurs when the fluid extends indefinitely
without encountering a solid surface. Both these convections, either natural or forced, can be internal or
external as they are independent of each other.
The heat transfer per unit surface through convection was first described by Newton and the relation is
known as the Newton's Law of Cooling.
The equation for convection can be expressed as:

Q = h A dT
Where
Q = heat transferred per unit time
A = heat transfer area of the surface
h = convective heat transfer coefficient of the process
dT = temperature difference between the surface and the bulk fluid

CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS

The convection heat transfer coefficient - h - is dependent on the type of media, gas or liquid, the flow
properties such as velocity, viscosity and other flow and temperature dependent properties.
For laminar flows the heat transfer coefficient is rather low compared to the turbulent flows, this is due to
turbulent flows having a thinner stagnant fluid film layer on heat transfer surface.

In general the convective heat transfer coefficient for some common fluids is within the ranges:

Free Convection - Air : 5 - 25 (W/m2K)

Free Convection - Water: 20 - 100 (W/m2K)

Forced Convection - Air: 10 - 200 (W/m2K)

Forced Convection - Water: 50 - 10.000 (W/m2K)

Boiling Water : 3.000 - 100.000 (W/m2K)

Condensing Water Vapor: 5.000 - 100.000 (W/m2K)

Example
A fluid flows over a plane surface 1 m by 1 m with a bulk temperature of 50oC. The temperature of the surface
is 20oC. The convective heat transfer coefficient is 2,000 W/m2oC.
Solution:
Using formula
q = (2,000 W/m2oC) ((1 m) (1 m)) ((50oC) - (20oC))
= 60,000 (W)
= 60 (kW)

HEAT EXCHANGER

A heat exchanger is a specialized device that is built for efficient heat transfer from one fluid to the other.
In some cases, a solid wall may separate the fluids and prevent them from mixing. In other designs, the
fluids may be in direct contact with each other. In the most efficient heat exchangers, the surface area of
the wall between the fluids is maximized while simultaneously minimizing the fluid flow resistance. Fins or
corrugations are sometimes used with the wall in order to increase the surface area and to
induce turbulence.

APPLICATIONS
Heat exchangers are widely used in refrigeration, air conditioning, space heating, power generation, and
chemical processing. One common example of a heat exchanger is the radiator in a car, in which the hot
radiator fluid is cooled by the flow of air over the radiator surface.

FLUID FLOW ARRANGEMENTS IN HEAT EXCHANGER

There are three primary flow arrangements with heat exchangers:

Counter-Flow

Parallel-Flow

Cross-Flow

In the counter-flow heat exchanger, the fluids enter the exchanger from opposite sides. This is the most
efficient design because it transfers the greatest amount of heat. In the parallel-flow heat exchanger, the
fluids come in from the same end and move parallel to each other as they flow to the other side. The
cross-flow heat exchanger moves the fluids in a perpendicular fashion.

DESIGNS OF HEAT EXCHANGER

There are also four different designs of heat exchangers:

Shell And Tube

Plate,

Regenerative,

Intermediate Fluid Or Solid

The most typical type of heat exchanger is the shell and tube design. This heat exchanger has multiple
finned tubes. One of the fluids runs through the tubes while the other fluid runs over them, causing it to be
heated or cooled. In the plate heat exchanger, the fluid flows through baffles. This causes the fluids to be
separated by plates with a large surface area. This type of heat exchanger is typically more efficient than
the shell and tube design.
The regenerative heat exchanger takes advantage of the heat from a specific process in order to heat the
fluid used in the same process. These heat exchangers can be made with the shell and tube design or
the plate design. The intermediate fluid or solid heat exchanger uses the fluids or solids within it to
hold heat and move it to the other side in order to be released. This method is commonly used to cool
gases while removing impurities at the same time