POLICE SCIENCE

AND

BORDER POLICEOLOGY

BY
SPYRIDON M. KYRIAKAKIS

INTERNATIONAL EXPERT
IN POLICE SCIENCE, SECURITY MANAGEMENT INTEGRATED
BORDER MANAGEMENT & IN
THE STRATEGIC COMMAND COURSE

ATHINA SEPTEMBER 2005

TIRANA OCTOBER 2005

EFFECTIVE WINDOW OF CONTENTS

PART I or
PREFATORY FORUM:

It consists the first Part of the present

work.In this part: The analytic table of
contents, the list of abbreviations, the
Preface which is the hard core of the
philosophical

bas of this work, the

acknowledgement, the tutorial note, the

draft terminology list the scope/main effort
the objectives the introduction along with
the

systematisation

and

the

syllabus/method of study, are included.

PART II or
METHODOLOGY:

The part II includes everything according

the

scientific

approach,

of

policing

intreching the new science, police science

or policeology, the focusing on its specific
field, the Border Policeology is done at the
Part III.

PART III or
FUNDAMENTAL
POLICE SCIENCE
POLICEOLOGY:

It includes Police science matters applying to

Border Police too, as the Historical Perspective,
the Police (and Border Police) role, the police
styling, the code of Police Ethics, the principles
of organisation, the Police/Security management
and the Integrated Border Management.

PART IV or
FUNCTIONAL POLICE
SCIENCE AND BORDER
POLICEOLOGY:

It is the bridge leads the studious reader from the

theory to the practical field. Matters as E4
provisions for state border control and the main
points of the implementation of this control, the
strategy of omnipresence, patrol management and
managing and Border Surveillance, are illustrated
in this part along With many other related issues
as armed crime, the approach of a scene of crime,
the matter of reporting/establishing the facts, the

security plan of the Airport and Port facilities, the

Police community relations and the Border Police
as the face of the State.
PART V:

This part is focused on how a senior Police (Border

Police) Officer could be an effective trainer. The field of
the flexible education in Police (Border Police) and
security matters. Moreover guides on how the trainer
will create flexible educational material.

PART VI:

It is the last part. In this the general bibliography

(sustaining scientifically every issue of the present
work, is reported and it is followed by the Epilogue.

TABLE of CONTENTS
Description
PART I PREDATORY FORUM
List of Abbreviations
Preface
Acknowledgement
Tutorial Note
Draft terminology list
Scope And Main Effort (Aim)
Objectives
Introduction
Systematization
Syllabus
Method of Study
PART II METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER 1
Police science as a science
INTRODUCTION
THE RISE OF THE SCIENCES
SYMPOSIAL RELATIONSHIP
Legal sciences
Criminology
Sociology
Psychology
Forensic sciences
Public administration
Political sciences and strategic studies
POLICE SCIENCE
Definition
Key concepts
Field of study
RESEARCH
Theory
Empirical phenomena
Methodology
The research process
Research procedures
Research techniques
SUMMARY
PART III Fundamental police science

Page

CHAPTER1
Historical perspective
INTRODUCTION
THE UNPOLICED SOCIETY
Moral consensus
Codification of rules of conduct
Community involvement
Lack of continuity
Military attributes
Diversity of services
Individual rights
Parochial nature
THE POLICED SOCIETY
CHAPTER 2
The police role
INTRODUCTION
THE CONCEPT OF A "ROLE"
ROLE DIVISION
ROLE CONTENT
ROLE FULFILMENT
Police force versus police service
Styles of policing
Discretion
ROLE RESTRICTIONS
Authority and power
Individual rights
THE ROLE ENVIRONMENT
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 3
The Code of Police Ethics
CHAPTER 4
Principles of Organization
CHAPTER 5
The Concept of Management
CHAPTER 6
The Concept of IBM in E. U.
RISK ANALYSIS
Specific tasks of Border Control
Schooling and Training
Risk Analysis

PART IV FUNCTIONAL POLICE SCIENCE-FUNCTIONAL BORDER

POLICEOLOGY
CHAPTER 1
Proactive policing
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
CRIME PREVENTION - AN OVERVIEW
PUNITIVE PREVENTION
CORRECTIVE PREVENTION
CREATIVE PREVENTION
MECHANICAL PREVENTION
PREVENTION UNIT
CHAPTER 2
State border control/European general provisions
CHAPTER 3
Main Points on the Implementation it state border Control according the
European Standards
CHAPTER 4
The principle strategy of Omnipresence
CHAPTER 5
Patrol
PATROL METHODS ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES
CHAPTER 6
Border Surveillance
BORDER POLICE PATROL
ADDITIONAL MATTERS
CRIME IN PROGRESS
THE SCENE OF CRIME AS SOURCE OF INFORMATION
ESTABLISHING THE FACTS
CHAPTER 7
Airports and Ports facilities security plans
CHAPTER 8
Police Community Relations
INTRODUCTIONS
DEFINITIONS
PROGRAMME ACTIVITIES
DIVISION CHARGED WITH RELATIONAL PROBLEMS
ADVANTAGES OF SOUND POLICE-COMMUNITY RELATIONS
ATTITUDES
CONCLUDING
BORDER POLICE THE FACE OF THE STATE
PART V The police and the Border Police trainers standard guidelines for a
flexible training
Scope
Objectives
CHAPTER 1
The need of education
The learning
The trainees in the post initial education
Introductory notes

CHAPTER 2
Section 1-4
CHAPTER 3
Section 5-9
Section of Annexes
Evaluation. The stereotype figure
Table of an axis evaluation attached by a list of variables
Epilogue of the PART V
PART VI
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EPILOGUE OF THE WORK

PART I PREDATORY FORUM

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

BCP

Border Crossing Point

BP

Border Police

BR

Bibliographical Report

CARDS

Community Assistance for Reconstruction, Development and

Stabilisation

EU

European Union

IBM

Integrated Border Management

PAMECA

Police Assistance Mission of the European Community to

Albania

PREFACE

In our word all the professions are related by one or the other way with the
life itself. But in three of them this connection is prominently distinguished,
by a first glance. These three professions are: The doctors, The police
professionals and the managers. The matter is of a deep philoshophical
analysis and it is proved by physics. (Chaos Theory). Life is a
revolutionary power resists to the lows which governs the universe.
These lows function by such way that everything is leaded to a
thermodynamical equilibrium or in a situation of positive entropia. That it
means to disorder and Chaos and to the life loss. Consequently in order the
life be preserved it must be fed with negative entropia. Negative entropia
is contrary to positive one (Chaos). That is order. For the medical science it
is illuminately obvious. The main task of policing is the maintaining of
order and the same task concerns managers, who have the role to create the
future. For their organisation or business, with other words to feed them
(organisation or business) with life.
Based on the afore mentioned philoshophical base we see that doctors and
managers are roofed under their own science. All of us having the
experience of policing, understand fully the necessity of a policing own
roof. And this is the target of the present work. To contribute the

10

development of the new science. That is the policeology or police Science.

As every science has its own branches, the main branch of Policeology is
the Border Policeology. It is proved and underlined by the following
philosophical allegory.
"The most beautiful harmony comes out by the differences and disputes"
("Heraclitus and the cosmic fragments" by G.S. KIRK-university press,
Cambridge 1954).
"The nowadays philosophy follows the thoughts of Heraclitus and Aristotle
(Karl Marx 14 July 1842).
The real art and the real attainment have to do with the achievement of the
equilibrium among al the components of the matter we are interested for.
The question is "how we can achieve it"? The answer is given by
Heraclitus: "we have to mimic the nature and especially the human been".
Examining the human existence medically we observe the next:
The human skin and the mucous membrane of the external cavities (e.g.
mouth), are the boundary barriers of the human corp. They dispose a lot of
organs of sense (alarms). The more important the below (internal) organ the
most the density of the alarms on the upset surface of the skin and the
mucous membrane. If an "intruder", in spite of these alarms, achieves to
infiltrate, then an immediate operation by histamine, takes place. Histamine
reacts and encircles the intruder.

11

In more serious instances there is the lymphatic system which is parallel to

the blood circulation system. The lymphatic system is the vigilante of the
venous blood. Every threat (e.g. virus) is localized, it is detected,
investigated and detained. Then the lymphatic system acts as the
enforcement authorities (many times arrests the intruder and imprisons it
inside the lymphatic glands).
Now, you are requested to compare all the above mentioned with our
policing reality. The boundary barriers of the corp, the alarms and the
histamine correspond to Border Police. The lymphatic system corresponds
to all the other police authorities (e. g. security (of Albania, Schengen area)
intelligence, patrol, service etc.) inside the state (e. g. Albania and of course
inside the Schengen area). Of course all the functions (of the human body)
corresponds to functions of the state operation with Border Police and the
international cooperation (bi/multi) (Schengen area states and others) for
the maintaining the order. It means cooperation interagencies and
internationally.
The necessity of the development of the police science (policeology) with
the primary task of the development simultaneously the policeology branch
of borderpoliceology doesnt need any other comments, at the moment.
All the rest of the present work, underline the answers to the why.

12

Which is the primary task of a science. Moreover the present work, goes
further, because it is focused on the how as it is demanded from an
applied science as the police science (and border policeology) are.
So I personally followed the path having in mind all the scientific
methodological issues along with the principles of the European highest
education.(Bologna declaration 1999 and the notices of Prague-2001,
Berlin 2003 and Bergen of Norvege 2005, as you find in the introduction of
the present.
The present work is dedicated to all border policemen and to European
colleagues who lost their lives or suffered during their task, protecting
people from crme.
By the present I address an open invitation to readers to contact me through
PAMECA with regard to errors, omissions and limitations that need to be
attended to.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The real motif of the present effort was excavated during the
CARDS/Twinning Project Development of the Albanian Border
Management Strategy, in which I participated during 2005 in Tirana and
in Shkoder. As soon as I arrived in Tirana, It was a great pleasant surprise
for me, to meet an excellent colleague and friend from the past, with

13

whom, be had served, together, 30 years before, in Migration police

Department of Rhodes island of Greece and who now is a very prominent
cadre of PAMECA. He is the international adviser in Integrated Border
Management and Senior officer of the Hellenic Police, mr. Nikos HATZIS.
Mr. Nikos HATZIS, urged by ides about Police Science and its branch of
Border Policeology and he made many useful arrangement. Among them
the acquaintances, between me and very important officials of PAMECA,
as with Mr. Klaus SCHMIDT the head of the Mission and Mr. Sigurd
WERNER, with whom I had for a long period similar tasks.
Consequently I acknowledge and express my gratitude for the many helpful
comments and directions made by Mr. Klaus SCHMIDT and Mr. Nikos
HATZIS.
Moreover I add sincere thanks to Mr. Klaus SCHMIDT and Mr. Nikos
HATZIS, for their constant encouragement, support and understanding.
I express also my sincere thanks to Mr. Constantine MATZOUKAS
Resident Twinning Advisor of CARDS/Twinning Project, to komisar
Mr,Besnik BAKIN head of IBM and Training of Directorate of Border and
Migration Police of Albania and to Mrs Dolores ALIPYRGOU because due
the discussions with them, my idea about Policeology was developed.
I wish also to express gratitude for Mr. Douglas ADAMS Deputy Head of
PAMECA-Operations Manager Mr. Bornt ERZEN Border management

14

expert and Mrs. Denisa FECOLLARI PAMECA Language Assistant for

their excellent support and their understanding.

15

TUTORIAL NOTE

The present has two purposes: First to contribute to the development of the
new science this of police science and its branch of Border Policeology
which refers to integrated Border Management, providing a scientific base.
Second to assist the hopeful police strategic cadres. This last one, means
that the present dissertation is applying to adults having maturity
personalities. Consequently the specific psychological elements of this
facet of the age have been taken under consideration and an active way of
language has been used for this presentation.
Subsequently all the principles of the updated flexible education
(combination of traditional and alternative) have been kept in order this
handbook be able to be in interaction with you, personally.
The way that it has been built, with a modular system of units, permits to
do future amendments and to sail freely according your wish in the
extent of this assignment so to avoid boredom and fatigue.
I welcome you in the world of Border Policeology as the Police Science
and its Border Policing Application has been introduced, (by the author of
the present dissertation), to be named.
First of all a discretion must be done between the academic and
administrative aspects of the Border Policeology study.

16

The administrative aspects have to do with the organization of study while

on the other hand the methodology of the study, the further research the self
evaluation or an experimental assignment are academic matters.
Consequently some general study heights of postgraduate nature have to be
followed ( Border Policeology is laid on the postgraduate level of the
Police Science or of the Police and security studies). The above mentioned
heights are:

Study at postgraduate level requires high standards and demands

self-discipline

The traditional study problems must be overcome

The success will largely depend on the ability the distinguish

between the important during your relevant surveys

Communication (with tutors, libraries, colleagues organizations) is

the key to success.

17

DRAFT TERMINOLOGY LIST

Border check

It includes the carried out and

according the regulations:
(i)

checks at authorized

Border Crossing Points to ensure

that persons, their vehicles and the
objects in their possession maybe
authorized to enter or leave the
territory of a state or the Schengen
Member States
(ii)

Surveillance of borders

and in an internal zone of 10 km in

order to maintain the order by
individuals or group to enter or to
leave the aforementioned on (i ),
territory illegally.
(B. R. No 12, 10)

18

Border Crossing Point(BCP)

It concerns land, sea and air having

to do with external borders, been
authorized

by

the

competent

authorities for crossing external

borders.

Border Police Guard(BPG)

(B. R. No 12, 10)

Border
Police

Operational

Personnel at land, maritime air

borders

authorized

to

transact

checks or surveillance at external

borders

or

to

participate

in

prevention measures according the

regulation in order to maintain the
order inside the state and the order
for the common borders countries
(B. R. No 12, 10)
Management of (external) Borders.

It is the general management refers

to the task of leading which is
performed at all levels of Albania
Border
(General

Police
Police

management
Directorate,

19

Regional

Police

Directorates/Border

Police

Subsections

and

Basic

Border

Units/BCP, Border Posts, Border

Vessel

Stations). This

function

consists of the 4 basic management

functions (Planning, Organizing,
Leading, Controlling) and the 6
additional functions inserting to the
previous

4,

(Decision

Communication,
Coordinating,

making,

Motivation,
Delegation

and

Discipline) in order to achieving

goals having to do with:
-

Effective

transaction

of checks and surveillance at

external border (for Schengen area
it is provided by articles 5 and 6 of
Schengen convention).
exchanging

Gathering
and

analyzing
managing

20

intelligence

(strategical

and

operational)

according

the

regulations for inter corp purposes,

interagency

and

international

cooperation purposes
-

Anticipating

any

logistic need
-

Managing

effectively

and intended (criminal) deed or non

intended

deed

(natural,

technological disaster.
(B. R. No 12, 10)
Managing of (external ) Borders

Managing is the operational art of

(Albanian)

Border

Police

operational staff based on the

Management of (external) Borders
and according the best practices
(e.g Schengen Catalogues)
Risk Analysis

(B. R. No 12, 10)

It is an evaluation about the
probability of an unexpected crisis

21

or to anticipate the results in all

fields before preparing an action or
after the action
Safety

(B. R. No 10, 12, 17)

It has to do with unsafe conditions
during the Border Police service,
risks and harards not intended

Security

(B. R. No 21)
It has to do with the prevents of
crime. Crime is the result of two
categories of factors which are
reacted among them. These are the
group of predisposing factors and
the group of the precipitating
factors

Surveillance

(B. R. No 21)
All activities and operations carried
out by (Albanian) Border Police
Personnel

at

external

band,

maritime and air borders to prevent

illegal crossing and criminality.
Vulnerability

(B. R. No 10, 12, 16)

The formula of vulnerability is

22

V=S. B/C where V=Vulnerability,

S=Security threats, B=Backlog in
Security,C=Security Consciousness
(B. R. No 14)

23

DISCUSSION OF KEY CONCEPTS IN POLICE SCIENCE

Partnership policing
The privotal principle underlying this concept is that the police and the
public are inseparable. The police are essentially an instrument of the
public through which civil order is maintained. The public collectively
delegate power and authority to the police to enable them to:

maintain civil order

ensure public safety with due regard for the rights of individuals

the police as an active partner therefore function on virtue of mandate

received from the public to carry out general public duties relating to civil
order, and they are accountable to the public. The public as the passive
partner are not exempt from their primary and basic obligations in this
regard, which comprise:
Individual civil and law-abiding behaviour
The individuals assumption of responsibility for his own safety
Thus the two partners and accountable to each other in the following
matters:

Safeguarding individual rights and liberty

Wholehearted cooperation, support and mutual assistance

24

By means in this partnership the policing principle is embodied in a closely

integrated structure. The active partner, however, is expected to create an
environment within which the passive partner can become involved in
combating the crime problem.

Crime hypothesis
This concept caused confusion even among officers because it is
susceptible to two different interpretations. Most police cadres linked the
concept to the investigation hypothesis, which relates to criminal
investigation,

but

it

can

also

prevention/causation hypothesis.

be

associated

with

the

crime

(B. R. No 28)

Investigation hypothesis
The formulation of an investigation hypothesis emanates from active
policing in terms of which violations are cleared up by means of criminal
investigation.
In accordance with the hypothesis the crime investigator approaches the
perpetration situation objectively, applying his knowledge, experience and
the scientific aids at his disposal to prove his bona fide assumption that a
crime has in fact been committed. The perpetration situation is evaluated in

25

accordance with certain identification criteria in an effort to identify and

prove facts. (B. R. No 28)

The identification arrived at have a cumulative effect that leads to

individualization, with the result that the hypothesis as an accepted but
unproven assertion acquires legitimacy as it is borne out by
incontrovertible evidence.

Policing
In terms of the traditional perspective policing hinges decisively on the
maintenance of civil order, with the emphasis on prevention. Where
preventive methods fail, however, a violation must be resolved by reactive
means entailing the enforcement and administration of law.
The law is not merely a means of keeping human behaviour in check,
however, but also serves as a force both for order and for the protection of
individual constitutional claims against possible violations. Accordingly the
emphasis on prevention is described by law as a force for order.
The above principles are telescoped that policing is the personalization of
order and a guarantee that the constitutional claims of each individual,
regardless of his social standing or group affiliations, will be protected
within the dispensation that society institutionalizes, or purposes to

26

institutionalize, as order at a given them by means of a delegated

authoritative structure.

(B. R. No2)

Social order
Social order is the most fundamental concept underlying police science
since it represents the overall goal to be achieved by the policing function.
Bear in mind that a definition of social order can never be simplistic.
Because of divergent expectations and needs, consensus has not been
reached on the implications of social order.
In this complex situation the law serves as a regulating force which
controls human behaviour and safeguards individual rights against potential
violations. Crime prevention is the fundamental objective of the policing
function. If preventative (proactive) methods fail, a violation is resolved by
repressive (reactive) means entailing enforcement and the administration of
the law.
These two facets, namely protection (prevention/maintenance of law and
order/implementation of the law)and coercive control (law enforcement),
are related but nonidentical policing aims. Protection and coercive control
are two extremes, but both involve the achievement of the ideal of social
order.

(B. R. No 2)

27

Styles of policing
Policing entails the maintenance of social order with prevention (service
style) as the chief object. When preventive (proactive) methods fail, the
violated situation has to be restored by means of reactive methods, and this
entails the execution and enforcement of law (war style).
The general nature of service largely determines whether the emphasis is
on the police power (coercive/law enforcement) or police service
(execution of law). This dynamic service function gives rise to styles of
policing who are, in fact, methods of pursuing aims and rendering service:
in other words, outward-directed policy.
Two recognizable policing styles are Hopkins controversial war style and
Wilsons watchman, legalistic and service styles. The service style is a
synthesis of the watchman and legalistic styles, which indicates that service
is seldom a rigid, closed style but is significantly affected by the
aforementioned factors.

Primary security measures

According to Botha et al (1989:153), the interaction of predisposing and
precipitating factor is a basic premise in security. Security is concerned
with the elimination of one or both types of factors.

28

Security includes two aspects that are basic to the policing function;
partnership and proactive policing. The eliminations of predisposing factors
refer to such thins as voluntarily observance of the law by the public and
special emphasis on the necessity of looking after ones own and other
peoples interests. Security also means to eliminate the opportunities for
crime by convincing the prospective offender that he would

experience serious problems committing his crime owing to the

presence of obstacles

be faced with purposeful and speedy counteraction even should he

succeed.
Security does not relate exclusively to defense against crime: it also implies
protection against eventualities such as natural disasters. That is why we
prefer to refer to risks.

The Locard principle

The Locard principle, also known as the contact theory, concerns reactive
policing. According to this, the violated order of the community is restored
by resolving the situation (of crime perpetration) by means of criminal
investigation.
The philosophical principle behind the contact theory is the continuous
latent presence of clues (objective traces) at the scene of the crime, and on

29

the offender, the victim and other objects. This means that, while a crime is
being committed, there is a reciprocal transfer of traces are referred to as
latent since they are frequently hidden and have to be traced by the criminal
using his knowledge and experience, a positive approach and all possible
means at his disposal.
These objective traces may take a wide variety of forms and may be
organic or inorganic. They may be perceived and classified through the
senses, macroscopically (with the naked eye) or microscopically (by
chemical analysis and so on), and in conjunction with one another, they
make individualization possible.

9. Identification and individualization

Identification and individualization are two keys concepts in criminalistics
as the study of scientific crime investigation. Crime investigation relates
the repressive policing which implies the restoration of the violated social
order. The positive resolution of a crime situation of the criminal act and
the persons involved.
Identification is based on the theory that everything in the universe is
unique and has specific individual and class characteristics. Consequently,
identifying an object for what it really is constitutes the basis of criminal
investigation. This process of identification, which in itself consists simply

30

of the identification of a fingerprint, blood and so on (class characteristics),

has limited value. However, these identifications are exploited and
expanded via a series of additional identifications and comparisons, thus
pursuing individualization.
The process of identification usually entails a series of identifications and
the comparison of an identified disputed sample with other authentic
samples of known origin in order to prove its unique individuality. As a
result, the involvement of the objects or person from which the comparable
standard has been obtained is regarded as conclusive evidence of the
criminal deed. These identifications have a cumulative (increasing through
successive additions) effect which leads to individualization (uniqueness
and origin).

CRIME PREVENTION (REACTIVE POLICING)

Crime prevention represents a general consensus among experts in the field
and is useful as a guiding philosophy for the crime prevention practitioner.
Crime prevention is cost effective and needs active cooperation; it gives
quality to life in communities and the workplace alike. Crime prevention
has a broad scope and is everyones business and duty. It must be tailored
to specific needs and is central to policing work.

31

Crime prevention is a responsibility of government and management at all

levels. Crime prevention is forward-thinking and need a visionary
approach.
It goes beneath the surface and addresses the root causes of crime.

ORDER / DISORDER
Although the term order is in itself an elusive concept, it amounts to social
order where every person must live up to certain expectations and accept
certain obligations. To ensure order, we may also demand certain rights
from other people.
If the abovementioned state of being implies order, then certainly the term
disorder implies order , then certainly the term disorder implies a collapse
of order , a state of disorganization and the disrupted society.

32

SCOPE AND MAIN EFFORT

(AIM)

The open fully the gate of the home of the new science, this of the Police
Science and of its Branch the Border Policeology. More over to build a
bridge between theory and practice of policing taking in mind all the
relevant policies and practices of Europe we can say that...
The aim of the book and of the relevant module is to familiarize
participants with the BU polices and practices on Border Management as
well as with the concept of the Integrated Border management in order to
improve the knowledge, skills, educations and professionalism and be
consider as scientists senior officers and not only practitioners.
More over the future demands a new model of police officer. The staff
cadre of the first line This is a new style, and we make the present effort
aimed to this direction as you see in Chapter 2 of the Part III (Police
Role/styles of Policing).

OBJECTIVES

After studying or using periodically this workbook or at the end of this

module, the participants should:

33

1.

Know and understand the benefits of the present specialized training

and how it can contribute to improving the professionalism and quality of

service the Police provides to the state. By this way every one participant
will prepare the road of his promotions.
2.

I have studied the E.U. Border Management And Integrated Border

Management concepts and other necessary best practices and procedures

required for carrying out tasks of a senior (Border Police) Officer (job
administration, planning and managing border policing related activities
and operations).
3.

Be capable of monitoring international and regional developments in

the area of Border Management.

4.

Be able to command Border Police officers in different kind of

operational situations and to correspond to the demanded new model of

Police officer The staff cadre of the first line.
5.

Be able to take strategical and operational measures in order to

eliminate the precipitating Factors minimising by the way the opportunities

of crime commitment and to develop their relationship with the passive
partner against the crime that is the community.
6.

Be able to train officers and basic level staff in all the above

mentioned and to supply them with written material.

34

7.

Discuss about the philosophical base of Police in general and

understand every police matter by a strategical point of view.

INTRODUCTION

The present study concerns an effort to show the new horizons in police
matters which are changing rapidly trough out the world.
New terms like police science, security management, integrated border
management. Have been introduced in policing along with understanding
that nothing exists in a vacuum. Till now everything was considered in its
home without seeing that all these apartments, were joined in their
backside. This interaction open the till now horizon and helps to solve
problems and to develop our knowledge and skills. So it is necessary the so
called multiattack (term which is in use in flexible education). This
means that all the providings have to reflect to three domains the cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domain (according the system of Benjamin
BLOOM). In order the reported aim and objectives be achieved the present
work has try to cover everything concerns the demands for a contemporary
strategic police cadre (and border police officer) ready to react to the future
challenges of policing. The whole work has been divided in five parts, as
you have already seen in the pages of effective window of contents. The

35

Part II mainly and the Part III partly are reported to Police Science because
it is the base for Border Policeology. Many titles and subtitles are used in
order to facilitate the studious readers. For scientific purposes in some
chapters an additional specific bibliography is used reported by the end of
these chapters. The significant points are underline other putting them in
frames or using bold letters and the so called difficult points are explained.
The whole work (educationally) is in fully accordance with the new steps
of the European Pedagogy as they are included in Bologna Charta (1999)
and in the announcements and Resolution of Prague (2001), Berlin (2003)
AND Bergen of Norway (2005) and taking in mind the No.
1,3,4,6,8,9,10,12,13,18,24,27,31 Bibliographical sources which concern the
integrated Border Management.

36

SYSTEMATIZATION

The data of this workbook have been arranged scientifically.

The essential points of the workbook, the acknowledge sources
(listed either in the general bibliography or in the specific bibliography of a
chapter, alphabetically), are indicated with the reference technique of
modified Harvard system. Concerning the last one, the references in the
text of the essay are abbreviated by using between brackets, the superscript
Arabical numerals indicating the position of the particular source in the list
of the bibliography. In some units chapters the previous reported system is
used, accompanied by authors name. This last is used every when, the
circumstances demand more details.

SYLLABUS
Police science is about the task of maintaining order in society, which is
delegated to the police, and with the powers and limitations, the methods
and techniques and the relationship issues in the external and internal
occupational environment that affect the carrying out of this task. Naturally
the subject includes many topics which have to be subdivided for
systematic study. Policing as a process always involves all the various
topics. Although we present police science in a compartmentalized way, all

37

the subsections are continuous and overlapping in the total police task- the
maintenance of order. The syllabus is therefore designed to guide you
progressively towards understanding the full implications of the subject.

38

METHOD OF STUDY
Study is an intellectual activity requiring effort. It is an undertaken largely
by the studious reader, and interaction between him and lecturer is
inevitable. The authors task is to guide the studious readers within the
framework of a particular field of study, and they are expected to study
purposefully. This means to look carefully and constantly for new facts;
and analyze them critically, assimilating them. This is the only route to
independent though and a personal view of the truth contained in the reality
around us.

39

PART II METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER 1
POLICE SCIENCE AS A SCIENCE AND BORDER POLICEOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
THE RISE OF THE SCIENCES
SYMPOSIAL RELATIONSHIP
Legal sciences
Criminology
Sociology
Psychology
Forensic sciences
Public administration
Political sciences and strategic studies
POLICE SCIENCE
Definition
Key concepts
Field of study
RESEARCH
Theory
Empirical phenomena

40

Methodology
The research process
Research procedures
Research techniques
SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION
The aim of this chapter is to clarify the general meaning of the concept of
science-the abstract theory of various sciences or systems of knowledge,
and their interdependence.
When scientific study is described as theoretical-philosophical, this does
not mean that the particular sphere of knowledge of the various sciences
exists in a vacuum, independently of social reality. In earlier times there
was a desire for knowledge for the shake of knowledge, irrespective of
any applicability to the social context, but this has been replaced by a
demand that knowledge should be socially relevant. This does not mean
that science is functionally oriented; in other words, it is not concerned
with how practitioners should behave in practice, but concentrates rather on
the whys, that is on a thorough examination of problems, so that they can
be understood and explained. Scientific theorizing arising mainly from
social reality, so that the knowledge acquired can be applied in practice.

41

Depending on the sphere of interest, some sciences are regarded as

applied sciences; in other words, the scientifically-based knowledge can be
applied by practitioners.
The application of sciences is, however, not science, but the practical
application of scientific information. Since police science is concerned with
a particular social function, policing, it is classed as an applied science.
This does not mean that it deals exclusively with functional procedures.
The theoretical relevance (another requirement for a science) of police
science is in the exploration of those factors that affect the functional
activities of the police, so that, through abstract theory, practitioners
can contrast a frame of reference for evaluating the implications of
police behaviour. Policing and an orderly society can never be separated.
When we explore all the factors influencing functional policing in this
interactional process a rich field emerges which provides policing with a
distinctive scientific basis. No occupation can acquire the status of a true
profession without this kind of scientific reflection. The discussion in this
chapter should make it clear that police science has a distinctive field of
interest and that, in its overall aim, it has a place alongside the other
sciences, this aim being to create a pleasant and orderly way of life.

42

ORIGIN OF KNOWLEDGE
The four main approaches to the origin of knowledge:
Empiricism. The view that all knowledge comes from sense
perception or sensory observation
Rationalism. The view that knowledge comes from both empirical
observation and the intellect, but that only the intellect can produce
true knowledge.
Criticism. Immanuel Kants view that both sensory observation and
intellect contribute to knowledge. Without the contribution of the
senses (sense perception) intellect is empty, whereas the senses are
blind unless intellect gives form to their perceptions. The senses and
the intellect together form a whole and the one cannot function
without the other.
Skepticism. This is the view that no real knowledge or truth is
possible. The following reason are given:
- Human ignorance
- Weakness of our research
- Doubtfulness of research results and findings
- The many errors that are made, and so forth

43

THE RISE OF THE SCIENCES

The word science is derived from the Latin word scientia, meaning
knowledge. A science is the aggregate of knowledge about a subject. This
implies that every science has its own orderly system of knowledge that
centres on its own field, and that there are specific methods of broadening
that knowledge.
Knowledge, or systems of knowledge, are related to particular facets of
the world of phenomena around us. Therefore all sciences, no matter how
abstract their content may appear, are relevant to society- that is, the
theoretical thinking is related to some facet of human existence.
Of course the widely diverse phenomena of human existence cannot all
be studied by a single science. Conversely, in most sciences directly
concerned with human behaviour, it is difficult to study any one facet
without overlapping with the fields of other sciences. Indeed, most of the
younger sciences, such as criminology and police science, have been
spawned by other sciences as these expanded their fields. The breaking
away or emancipation of criminology from sociology, and of police science
from criminology, for example, is the consequence of increasingly,
intensified, refined and detailed expansion of knowledge along ideographic
guidelines, that is, the expansion of knowledge into specialized and unique
fields of study. Nor does this knowledge expands in a vacuum, since it

works reciprocally towards the nomothetic or established, comprehensive

universe of a great variety of sciences; in other words, sciences derive
knowledge from one another, and they make knowledge available to one
another, contributing to the clarification of facets of individual fields.
Derivative or supplementary knowledge cannot, however, from a basic
system of knowledge for the recipient science. It has always to be
assimilated into a given system of knowledge, where its only purpose is t
provide clarity in the particular field of specialization.

SYMPOSIAL RELATIONSHIP
The fact that one science springs from another does not mean that the new
science is dependent only on the knowledge of the mother science.
In fact, derivation is only of academic interest, in the sense that that the
derived science obtains the status of an academic discipline through the
mother science. Before its breakaway, in the development of its own
specialized field, the expansion of knowledge is symposial rather than
unilateral. In other words, the new system of knowledge is related not only
to the mother science (unilateral) but also to various other sciences
(symbosial derives from the symposium of the great philosopher Plato.
(Alltogether around a dinner table where the participants contribute to a
serious discussion in a base of equality of rights)

The specialized field of police science is the policing of social order.

Police science is concerned with a special and radical social function which
embraces all aspects of human interaction. Its relationship with various
other sciences is also very important, and the most important of these are
discussed below.

Legal sciences
Policing, as the executive authority of the state, is indissolubly bound to the
complex set of legal rules controlling human behaviour. Order, which the
police have to maintain, could not exist without these. Furthermore, order
cannot be achieved through the mere existence of a set of legal rules if their
content is not enforced. Thus maintenance of order, the fundamental task of
the police and the special field of police science, requires, firstly, the
existence of special rules and customs, and, secondly, their execution, that
is the enforcement of the legal rules to ensure order.
The various legal sciences and especially concerned with the juridical
principles, and with the elements and powers underlying various legal
regulations, whereas police science is concerned with the nature and extend
of police authority and power created by the legal rules, and with their
fundamental significance in the maintenance of order.

The power and authority of the police are certainly not unlimited. Their
authority, that is, the right to act in certain circumstances, is determined by
the rules that forbid certain acts or omissions on pain of punishment.
Interference in human conduct, and actions against people, are justified
only if their conduct is in conflict with regulations, which determine
authority, are found in the provisions of common law and statutory law.

SYMPOSIAL RELATIONSHIP
The fact that one science springs from another does not mean that the new
science is dependent only on the knowledge of the mother science.
In fact, derivation is only of academic interest, in the sense that the derived
science obtains the status of an academic discipline through the mother
science. Before its breakaway, in the development of its own specialised
field, the expansion of knowledge is symposial rather than unilateral. In
other words, the new system of knowledge is related not only to the mother
science (unilateral) but also to various other sciences (symposial).
The specialised field of police science is the policing of social order. Police
science is concerned with a special and radical social function which
embraces all aspects of human interaction. Its relationships with various
other sciences are also very important, and the most important of these are
discussed below.

Legal sciences.
Policing, as the executive authority of the state, is indissolubly bound to the
complex set of legal rules controlling human behaviour. Order, which the
police have to maintain, could not exist without these. Furthermore, order
cannot be achieved through the mere existence of a set of legal rules if their
content is not enforced. Thus maintenance of order, the fundamental task of

the police and the special field of police science, requires, firstly, the
existence of special rules and customs, and, secondly, their execution, that
is the enforcement of the legal rules to ensure order.
The various legal sciences are especially concerned with the juridical
principles, and with the elements and powers underlying various legal
regulations, whereas police science is concerned with the nature and extent
of police authority and power created by the legal rules, and with their
fundamental significance in the maintenance of order.
The power and authority of the police are certainly not unlimited. Their
authority, that is, the right to act in certain circumstances, is determined by
the rules that forbid certain acts or omissions on pain of punishment.
Interference in human conduct, and actions against people, are justified
only if their conduct is in conflict with regulation and customs. These
regulations, which determine authority, are found in the provisions of
common law and statutory law.
Common law refers to the habits and customs that have crystallised over
the centuries for guiding and regulating interactions and relationships in the
interests of social order. This set of legal norms, which are also known as
primary or universal rules of living is transmitted from one generation to
the next. In contrast, statutory law is a permanent system of rules made by
a legislative body, and written down in a formal document. These are

alternative rules of life, by which new situations in a dynamic society are

controlled by regulations. It consists of written and promulgated decrees,
proclamations and regulations by the legislative authority and other
authorised subordinate bodies, such as provincial and local governments.
The word "law" which originates in this and which is usually associated
with the, decrees of Parliament (i.e. the government legislature) refers to a
separate rule or a complex of rules. It does not include the entire body of
legal rules, as the word "justice" implies. Note also that the concept of
crime is usually associated with serious breaches of the law (i.e. common
law and certain statutes that radically affect the survival of society), while
the terms offence and contravention relate to less serious statutory breaches
of law. These last are frequently referred to as convenience norms (i.e.
norms not essential for an orderly society, but in helping everything to run
smoothly). It is in the enforcement of these convenience norms that
tolerance or discretionary action is justified.
In addition to these legal rules pertaining to the behaviour, acts and
omissions of ordinary citizens, which indicate the ordinary sphere of police
authority, the actions of the judiciary subsystem are controlled by
procedural law. This permits the police to perform certain actions to
restrain infringement of the law, and in fact lays down how these actions
must be carried out.

The total set of legal rules is designed to maintain order in society in such a
way that the constitutional rights of each individual will be upheld.
Whereas the aim of substantive law is to protect the rights of individuals
against the actions of others, the aim of procedural law is to protect
individual rights in the process of the enforcement of penal law.
This underlying philosophy of protection and ordering makes the law less
impersonal than is sometimes assumed. It is a language that speaks to
everyone through the letter and the spirit of the law. The law is a form of
communication between the legislature and the common man. This form of
communication is not merely a matter of words (i.e. the letter), but it
conveys a particular message or significance (the spirit of the law). It is of
the utmost importance that the communicator (legislator) and the recipient
(the public and especially the police who are charged with its
implementation) should clearly understand the message of a law. For the
legal executive it is of prime importance to understand laws and to interpret
them so that the legislator's intention can be clearly identified. Briefly, the
general rules applicable are:
(1)

The golden rule is that words in an act should be interpreted as

having their usual grammatical meaning, unless the words have acquired a
special meaning in legal terminology or the purport of the words or the
content of the act make it clear that they have acquired a special meaning.

(2)

The meanings of words should be interpreted within their historical

or common context.
(3)

The meanings of words may not be changed by addition or omission.

The legislator's meaning must be established by interpreting the actual

words in the act in such a way that they are consistent with the content of
the sections of the act and with the act as a whole. The legislator's intention
should be considered and ambiguity or literal meaning should not be
allowed to reduce the act to absurdity.
(4)

Some words may possibly have a limited meaning when they are

interpreted literally. When this is so, the words are given their broader
meaning, so that effect can be given to the legislator's intention. The same
rule applies when certain words do not appear in a given section, but where
it is reasonable to expect that words need to be added, as they are used
elsewhere in the act.
(5)

The spirit of the law is not apparent from single words, but the

legislator's intention is reflected in the act as a whole. When we speak of

the act in its entirety, this does not mean only the sections contained in the
act. The legislator's intention may be indicated in the preamble to the act, in
its title, in headings to chapters and sections, in marginal notes, in its
division into paragraphs and through punctuation, in sections defining
words, and in annexures.

(6)

When obscurity and ambiguity occur, the law of presumption is

applied to determine the intention of the legislator. The most important

presumptions are the following:

The legislator does not envisage the over-stringent, the unjust or the

unreasonable.

Provisions in statutory law must be interpreted so that there is

minimal interference in individual rights.

All persons affected by an act ought to be treated in the same way.

The legislator does not intend the absurd.

The legislator has something effective in mind, and does not make

ineffectual or purposeless laws.

Although laws aim at the least possible encroachment on private

rights, the interests of the public at large (society) take precedence over
those of the individual if the law is ambiguous.

Laws are oriented to the future and not to the past.

Police science is concerned neither with the content nor with the
interpretation of legal rules. The preceding discussion however makes it
clear that the police, as the executive authority of the state, constitute an
essential part of the judicial system, the existence of which is justified in
the law. The concern of police science is the method of implementing' the
content and philosophical background of the law.

Criminology
In contrast to the legal sciences, which are concerned with the principles
and theories underlying laws, criminology deals with crime as a
phenomenon related to law. The juridical description of crime is too narrow
for criminology, and this subject therefore also embraces other antisocial
behaviour which, though not punishable by law, is prejudicial to the
stability of society. The phenomenon of crime in this broad sense is the
main system of knowledge, and arising from it are studies of the criminal,
the victim, and the criminal judicature as subsystems of knowledge.
Criminology is very closely related to sociology, at the point at which it
broke away as an independent science from criminal sociology, although its
development is directly related to penal law and the penological approach
to the punishment of offenders. The classical or traditional penal law was
preponderantly juridical- dogmatic, and punishment was meted out without
any consideration for the individual in the situation. Studies of the causes,
consequences and combating (prevention) of crime has gradually
crystallised into criminology.
This suggests that the objective of the criminological study is to give due
consideration to all the related factors in the phenomenon of crime, and so,
through greater understanding, to combat crime effectively or prevent it
(B. R. No 2, 14, 21- BONGER).

This subject has various subdivisions.

(1)

Symptomatology, consists of the descriptions of the phenomenon of

crime on the basis of its complexity.

(2)

The aetiology of crime is the explanation of causes of the

phenomenon individual human and environmental factors.

(3)

Control is the prevention and combating of the problem, using

penology and police science. These two fields of specialisation, which are
practical, have become independent subjects.
Sociology
Sociology is concerned with the study of man in his social or group
contexts. Thus it deals with the interaction between people and the
relationships stemming from this interaction. Among the points stressed are
the nature, structure, origin, form, activities, life, organisation, change and
development, of sociology. In this respect occupational sociology or the
sociology of occupations is in the forefront. The sociologist expresses
occupations in terms of the social relationships which are formed. The
occupations are viewed as a collection of roles which individuals interpret
and which are defined by the nature of the work performed by these
individuals. In those instances where the police are studied from this point
of view, the subject of police science acquires interesting and new
dimensions (Caplan 1954 B. R. No 2).

A knowledge of military sociology is of particular significance in police

science, where we are concerned with accommodation and turnover of
individuals, group cohesion, supervision and leadership (Janowitz & Little
B. R. No 2).
Most of the literature relating to the police is based on sociology.
Relationship patterns created by traffic law enforcement, the particular
method of law enforcement, police attitudes, police organisations and
training, and protection, are a fruitful field of study, showing that there is a
meaningful relationship between sociology and police science.
Psychology
Psychology is about the expression of man's psyche, that is, his personality,
temperament, and emotional life. Policing can never be dissociated from
these individual human traits, since the law is created by people for the
control of people by people. It is sometimes said that the human
environment is the product of the human psyche, and sometimes that the
human psyche is the product of its environment. This shows the inevitable
interaction between man's psyche and his environment. The effect of this
interaction is of the utmost importance for police science, in its study of
factors that beneficially or adversely affect the maintenance of order.
Forensic sciences

Crime investigation, or repressive policing, relies heavily on the findings

and approaches of the forensic sciences through criminalistics. The forensic
sciences are specialised branches or schools of chemistry, medicine,
physics, pharmacology, physiology, biology, entomology, odontology,
geology, botany, and metallurgy, where the knowledge of the different
sciences is used in the solving of legal problems. )
Forensic medicine is a specialised branch of medical science which
correlates medical knowledge, and applies it to legal questions (B. R. No 2,
14, 21-Taylor). It is of particular importance to police science and
criminalistics, in that it plays a major role in the compilation and
interpretation of facts revealed by post-mortem examinations of the human
body. Crime investigation and the evidence that follows cannot make any
progress without the help of these sciences.
Public administration
Administrative design and the fundamental principles underlying
organisation and administration are the subject matter of public
administration.
Since policing is always carried out in an organisational context, these
general principles are always specifically related to the special nature of
police institutions. General management and integrated border management
are components of this b.g.section.

Political science and strategic studies

Political science is the study of political theories, dynamics and science,
forms of government, government norms, systems of government,
government policy and the implementation of such policy. The lastmentioned topic is of special importance to police science.
Strategic studies: deal with warfare, military power, armament,
disarmament, nonmilitary forms of conflict and internal warfare
(insurgency, civil or guerrilla warfare). Strategy is the first and foremost
topic especially in Police cooperation issues.
POLICE SCIENCE
It has been noticed that, when discussing the other sciences, we referred
time and again to those aspects related to police science. This illustrates the
overlapping and interdependent complexity of people, and the wide variety
of sciences related to man and his social world, that intersect at many
points, and that derive knowledge from each other. This applies equally to
police science. Admittedly knowledge is borrowed, but it does not
constitute the basis of our system of knowledge. This exchange of
knowledge does not vitiate the distinctive field of police science; here, as in
the development of most sciences, borrowed knowledge is applied
selectively to supplement the distinctive system of knowledge. Policing is
in fact a social function involving almost all facets of human existence, and

it is, by implication, related in some way to many other sciences. You

should not regard police science as a conglomeration of parts of other
sciences it is a distinctive field, and the borrowed knowledge is
processed within the framework of this field.
Definition
Police science is the system of knowledge related to the policing of social
order. It concerns particularly powers and limitations, methods and
techniques, and relationship issues influencing the realisation of the
delegated task of the police. This definition includes far more than general
definitions such as scientific criminology and scientific crime detection.
Police science is indeed concerned with the control and suppression of
crime, as the definition implies. This is especially clear when the key
concepts of policing and social order are considered.
KEY CONCEPTS
Social order: Note that social order cannot exist unless interrelationships
are acceptably expressed. The individual as a gregarious creature always
has a particular relationship with others, their property, and with the state
(or society). When interaction shows signs of conflict it is essential that
disruptive behaviour be expressly forbidden and suppressed. Because of
this conflict in relationships, legal regulations are in force. Thus whereas
the letter of the law aims at a specific act or omission, the spirit of the law

lies in its underlying goal, which is to stabilise relationships in society in

such a way as to preserve the constitutional rights of every citizen and the
harmonious coexistence of all. Respect for the rights of others is ensured by
informal and formal control.
Informal control is effected through formal and informal instruction. In this
process of socialisation, or teaching, by primary groups such as the family,
the school, the church, and the neighbourhood, accepted behaviour and
norms are inculcated into the individual. By this means he becomes selfcontrolling in that he internalises expectations and norms (i.e. makes them
his own) thus achieving internal .control. This means that any other form of
control is Superfluous because the individual himself now directs his own
behaviour in accordance with the accepted norms. We have referred to the
role of "primary groups", that is, those people or social institutions that
especially influence the young in their formative years. The people cannot
hold themselves aloof from this process of socialisation: their ways of
respecting the laws of the country and their ways of dealing with juveniles
are invaluable in socialisation.
Formal control becomes necessary when informal control fails to keep
behaviour at an accepted level. When informal control fails, conflicts set in,
and these need to be controlled by formal regulations. Legal regulations,
despite their formal nature, have a value in socialisation, because they aim

at observance of the law. Essentially they make for order in that voluntary
observance of the law makes further processes of control superfluous.
Because the mere existence of laws cannot control behaviour, society,
through the government, provides for their implementation.
Policing
Policing is defined as that exercise of power in the formal structure of
social control by which internal order is maintained in accordance with the
principles of legal competence and individual constitutional rights.
This definition includes far more than merely the enforcement of the law,
which is traditionally regarded as the only function of the police. Enforcing
the law, which in fact means collection of evidence that a law has been
contravened, and the arrest of the offender, emphasises the reactional (i.e.
action after the deed) nature of policing. The term "maintenance of order"
embraces far more.
"Maintenance" implies that a specific state of affairs should be preserved in
the first place by preventing its disruption. This proactive or preventive
character of policing derives from the historic evolution of the concept of
policing. The status quo or existing state of affairs is protected by
preventive methods until an unbalanced state of affairs needs to be restored
to the status quo or improved by repressive methods.

We can draw a clear distinction between the terms "execution" and

"enforcement" of the law. Enforcement of the law centres on the negative
form of social control through prosecution, while execution of the law
relates to its positive aspects. The law per se is not intended merely to
restrain people's behaviour; it acts in addition to maintaining order, as
protection against the conduct of others. This protective attitude on the part
of government lies in the constitutional acceptance of the delegated task of
protecting the rights of every citizen against unlawful interference by
others. The maintenance and protective aspects of the law, are implicit in
the police role, which centres on activities intended to eliminate or
minimise latent threats to society and on the informal resolution of conflict
in relationships.
Field of study
The field of study of a science is its delimited specialised sphere of interest;
but in studying the particular sphere of interest, you need to take into
account that its philosophical basis automatically includes certain
fundamental issues such as its origins and development.
Preventive policing
Preventive policing aims at society's positive control of crime. This
requires preventive activities such as patrol, traffic control, security, the
education of society, the consolidation of the partnership in policing, (i.e.

the stimulation of the public's cooperation), the handling of juveniles, and

any other measure or aid for eliminating or minimising the opportunity or
predisposition of individuals to commit a crime.
Repressive policing
Enforcement of the law is equated with repressive policing. This means the
use by the police of specific powers, such as arrest, searching, entering
premises, and detention, to restore an orderly situation which has been
violated. These assertions of power are part of the process of administering
justice whereby the police collect evidence or information which can be
used to individualise positively the involvement of a person or persons. To
effect individualisation (which in police science has the special meaning of
positive proof of the guilt or innocence of a suspect or an accused), the
police use every possible accepted method to collect evidence or facts. This
includes all criminalistic procedures such as dactyloscopy, reference to
ballistics, forensic medicine, forensic chemistry, the investigation of
disputed documents, techniques for personal identification, interrogation,
surveillance and observation.
Role environment
Because policing is very closely related to human interaction we can expect
it to be influenced by the environment in which and through which it is
fulfilled. Here we distinguish between the internal and external

occupational environments. The external occupational environment refers

to the field in which the real role of the police is fulfilled. It consists of the
physical environment (i.e. the ecological or spatial distribution of people
and the social processes that cause it) and the psychological environment
(i.e. the inner psychological processes that influence human interactions).
This is not the task of the police scientist to study in depth all these
sociological and psychological problems. They merely form part of the
knowledge borrowed by police science from other sciences to illuminate
the problems facing policing.
The internal occupational environment relates to the organisational
structure of police institutions. For this we study the influence of formal
structure (rank and post hierarchy), administration, personnel management
(recruitment, selection, training, motivation, discipline), and control, on the
actualisation of the primary goal.
The role of the individual policeman is defined for him by the external and
internal occupational environment (prescriptive role definition) and by
himself (i.e. subjective role definition). The satisfactory performance of his
function depends on the degree to which he succeeds in reconciling these
definitions (Clinard 1968- B. R. No 2).
Study this brief account in conjunction with your textbooks and make sure
that you will be able to answer a full question on the field of police science.

RESEARCH
We have already defined a science as an orderly system of knowledge
about a specific field, in which certain methods are employed to broaden
that knowledge. These methods constitute the methodology or rules
applicable to scientific work. In this sense research is a fertile breeding
ground for methodology.
Research can therefore be defined as "...the manner in which we attempt to
solve problems in a systematic effort to push back the frontiers of human
ignorance or to confirm the validity of solutions others have presumably
solved" (Leedy- B. R. No 2, 14, 21).
There are three main elements in research: theory, methodology and data
(empirical or observable phenomena). These elements are continually and
consciously manipulated by the researcher, and this interaction may be
described as research designed to expand and deepen the systematised
knowledge that is science.
Thus science is an open system of knowledge in which there is always a
possibility of dramatic new insight into a specific problem or phenomenon.
Theories are not absolute and can be modified at any time if this is proved
necessary by empirically observed facts (reality).
In your study of police science you will encounter various theories of
policing in general. Ideally these theories should be studied by comparing

them with real situations and evaluating their relevance and validity.
Testing a theory should stimulate further research, since theories do not
always fully describe or explain the phenomena in question. It is therefore
necessary to relate theory to practice to achieve congruence between theory
and practice in a specific science. We will now discuss theory in general, as
well as its methodological implications.
Theory
Although the diversity of sciences makes it difficult to describe theory as a
general concept, Hughes's definition (1981- B. R. No 2, 19), albeit broad, is
adequate for the purposes of police science. He defines theory as specific,
interrelated concepts within a theoretical structure which claim to explain
certain aspects of empirical reality.
Theories differ in the number and size of their concepts, in the complexity
of the relationships between these concepts, and in their focus the
empirical problems which they address themselves to (Goldstein 1969- B.
R. No 19). It thus appears that theories explain specific phenomena (which
constitute their empirical focus).
Theories are also useful in that they organise and condense knowledge.
Skidmore (1979- B. R. No 2, 19) puts it thus:
In general, the strength of theory is its ability to bring a great deal of
organized thought and information to bear on a specific problem, and

thereby go beyond unsystematic thought in detail and precision. Theories

work out and hold ideas ready to be used at a moment's notice.
Theories do not all have the same explanatory or predictive value. One can
distinguish three levels:
(1)

Low-level or ad hoc theories have only a few concepts of limited

meaning. The crime hypothesis is a typical example of such a theory. It has

only two concepts (predisposing and precipitating factors).
(2)

Middle-range theories have more limited explanatory and predictive

value and also use fewer concepts than general theories. Examples include
Sutherland's differential association theory and Reckless's control theory.
(3)

General theories appear or profess to describe and explain

phenomena exhaustively. An example is Merton's anomie theory,

particularly because the theoretical interaction between key concepts
(innovation, rebellion, etc.) is not clearly spelled out. Thus, according to the
theory, the concepts can apply to almost any relevant situation. It is
questionable whether theories can be generalised to any great extent,
although certain empirical (real-life) situations may be amenable to
generalisation.
An eclectic approach is preferable to the theories discussed above because
theories with a similar focus and similar problem-solving abilities (known
as "unit theories") may all be capable of describing and explaining a given

situation. Wagner maintains that "... theories may be said to be related

because they share a problem focus or a base of relevant observations; that
is, the predictions of theories may apply in similar empirical
circumstances" (Wagner 1984- B. R. No 19).
Common sense may also suggest a variety of theories capable of describing
a given situation. Note, however, that when a number of theories are
applied to the same situation one will usually be more apposite than the
rest. In a sense all these theories are part factors in a causal system, but one
theory (the one that describes that situation most accurately) will tend to be
the dominant one. The dominant one will be the progressive one within that
particular causal system, whereas the less applicable ones will be
regressive.
If a researcher formulates a theory which appears to explain a certain
empirical (observable) situation, other researchers will want to test it.
Wagner (1984- B. R. No 19) describes this process as follows:
(1)

The researcher derives empirical statements from the theoretical

structure by analysing concepts within it (that is, he compares theoretical

concepts with reality or the world of phenomena).
(2)

He performs one or more empirical investigations to test the validity

of the explanation offered by the theory.

(3)

The researcher then assesses the credibility of the theory.

Not all theories are equally amenable to empirical verification. We will not
discuss this, however. A theory is sometimes regarded as "proven" once it
has been tested in empirical reality. Scientists prefer, however, to regard a
theory as relatively "true" rather than absolute (Goldstein 1969- B. R. No
19). According to Goldstein (1969- B. R. No 19) theoretical concepts are
subject to the following standards:
(1)

Empirical import: Theoretical concepts should enable the student or

researcher to identify the empirical phenomena they purport to describe or

explain. Theoretical concepts are abstract and should suggest their
empirical counterparts.
(2)

Fruitfulness: Theories should reduce or condense complex empirical

situations or phenomena to a number of possible explanations. These

should permit a large number of connections between theoretical concepts.
Above all, theories should offer several explanations rather than a
simplistic description.
(3)

Internal consistency: The theoretical concepts used in a particular

explanatory or descriptive model should be consistent and should not

contradict one another.
(4)

Mathematisation of expression: It should be possible to express

theoretical concepts in mathematical terms. In the crime hypothesis, for

example, the predisposing factor may be represented by the symbol P1 and

the precipitating factor by the symbol P2.
An interesting and complex situation arises when theories profess to
describe or explain the same phenomenon. The researcher then has to
choose the theory best suited to his purposes. He may also subject the
theories to further empirical verification. Theories may be competitive,
particularly since they often share the same theoretical territory. Empirical
research may lead the researcher to modify theories in order to describe or
explain empirical or practical situations more fully. Such modification
increases the relative "truth" and value of a theory. Theories may grow or
expand from within, and two or more theories that are similar in structure
may be integrated. This enhances their focus, their problem-solving ability
and their value.
Theory growth is an evolutionary process subject to empirical verification.
Empirical verification is not the only way in which theories grow, however.
Reflection on the implications of theories is another:
If theory growth were to depend on increasing observational (empirical)
support, no new ideas or theories would be possible ... Yes, data are
informative for theory, but they do not tell us everything. Data constitutes
[sic] only one input to knowledge; theoretical creativity, often ignored,
constitutes the other (Wagner 1984- B. R. No 19).

Careful analysis of theories used in police science shows that they are
closely related to the internal occupational environment (role environment).
The above is merely a summary of the pertinence of theory to science. A
second element to be considered is empirical phenomena (reality).
Empirical phenomena
The police scientist is interested in the internal and external occupational or
role environment of the policeman. The external occupational environment
consists of the physical and the psychological environments. The
mechanisms of spatial and social mobility greatly influence human
activities in general and policing in particular. They also determine
relations between the police and the public. If one considers the complexity
of the policeman's internal occupational (or organisational) environment as
well as the ever changing external environment, one can appreciate the
problematic and dynamic nature of his task. All factors pertaining to the
internal

and

external

occupational

environments

are

empirically

observable. The policeman is a visible, observable symbol, as are police

stations and vehicles, members of the public, their homes in the suburbs
and the interaction between public and police. It is important, however, to
distinguish between objective and subjective reality. We all have subjective
impressions of the world in which we live, and researchers are not immune.
There is also an objective reality which researchers attempt to describe and

explain, but their objectivity is impaired by imperfect sensory and cognitive

processes (Goldstein 1969- B. R. No 19).
In view of this, researchers will always attempt to verify any theory which
is in fact an abstraction of the objective reality it professes to explain.
When their verificatory observations confirm those of the original theorist,
they can be said to have reached consensus on their subjective impressions
of objective reality. This consensus cannot, however, guarantee absolute
correctness (Goldstein 1969- B. R. No 19), for various reasons. The
researcher may make methodological errors (mistranslation of theoretical
concepts into empirical concepts, incorrect observational techniques or
misinterpretation of findings). Research must therefore always be tested for
reliability and validity. In particular researchers should constantly ask
themselves whether the most obvious explanations for their findings are
necessarily the only ones. This is known in methodology as looking for
"alternative plausible hypotheses" (Binder & Geis 1983- B. R. No 2).
Objective reality therefore provides a data base from which theories are
generated and according to which they are evaluated, although theories are
not the only way in which reality may be described and explained.
Descriptions and explanations conducted at a nontheoretical level are
sometimes called empirical studies and empirical findings. However, a
theoretical basis is essential in any science. You will remember that theories

at the various levels are not always empirically verified. Yet empirical
verification is often presented as a foolproof test of the (relative) truth of a
theory. Goldstein (1969- B. R. No 19) comments pertinently:
The recognition that a theory itself is not properly "true" or "false" but that
it is only a guide to making certain observations, can help the practitioner
to use theory as a guide and to recognize that connections between
observations that are implied by the theory may not always be found in
practice.
We have now discussed theory and empirical reality. Methodology, which
may be regarded as the link between the two, is the subject of the next
section.
Methodology
Methodology has been described as the "science of methods" (Van der Walt
et al. 1977- B. R. No 2, 21). We have already pointed out that methodology
is the set of rules used to test scientific theories. When verifying theories
one should be aware of the need to verify the scientific methods and
techniques used by the researcher who postulated a particular theory.
Mouton et al. (1985- B. R. No 2) point out that methodology is the logic
underlying the use of scientific methods in the study of reality. As such it is
the essence of research.

Phenomena may be researched at an exploratory, descriptive or explanatory

(applied) level. Different methodological rules apply to each of the three
levels, and these make up different research strategies.
Descriptive studies may merely describe specific phenomena, or they may
indicate statistical correlations between variables, and in the process may
explain them. Hence such studies may be quantitative or qualitative
(Mouton et al. 1985- B. R. No 2).
The aim of explanatory studies is to demonstrate causal relations between
events or variables. An explanatory (or applied) study may therefore enable
the researcher to make certain predictions about the relation between
specific variables (Mouton et al. 1985- B. R. No 2).
Exploratory studies make use of theories and could entail the modification
or creation of theoretical concepts and the extension of the domain (or
applicability) of a theory. New or expanded theories may then serve to
generate new hypotheses (tentative explanations). We need to ask ourselves
whether an exploratory study, especially a theoretical one, can be both
descriptive and explanatory. The theoretical relation between concepts and
the generation of hypotheses (tentative answers or explanations) implies
causality in the sense of a specific correlation between concepts (variables).
The various sciences have specific preferences as regards research methods
and techniques. The researcher's choice of method or technique will depend

on the degree of control he wishes to exercise over his research. He may

use one of two methods: either case analysis or mass observation (whether
direct or through the study of statistics).
The two methods are combined in the analytical method, which is used at
all levels of criminological and police science research whether descriptive
or explanatory (applied, predictive). You may therefore come across studies
in which both case analysis and mass-observational (statistical) methods
are used. Specific techniques are associated with each of these methods.
Statistical mass observation makes use of sampling techniques and
frequency distribution tables, whereas in case analyses questionnaires and
various other methods of observation (including experiments) are used.
Mass observation may be used in a descriptive study to survey a
phenomenon quantitatively (statistically), for instance by establishing its
nature and extent by means of frequency distribution tables. After selecting
cases from a group (population) by means of some sampling technique
(part of the method of mass observation), the researcher can study them
using interviews or questionnaires (part of the method of case analysis). As
associations between variables emerge they can be isolated as elements of
the problem under investigation. The association (or causal relationship)
can then be expressed statistically and specific correlations between
variables given in the explanation (Van der Westhuizen 1977- B. R. No 28).

It appears from the literature that researchers disagree about the relative
value of certain research techniques. It is generally assumed that some
techniques do not provide sufficient control in the research situation.
Questionnaires and interviews, for example, are regarded as unreliable
measures, resulting in risky assumptions especially as regards validity.
Binder and Geis (1983:123) write:
Fieldwork in the manner of anthropologists and ethologists is generally
called naturalistic observation. At the other end of the continuum, where
we have the true experiment, the researcher enjoys full control of the
investigative context. Between these two extreme points on the spectrum
there are many situations where the researcher can exercise some, much, or
a good deal of control over the subject matter, though, of cause, less than
the full control made possible by laboratory conditions. Important advances
of knowledge occur at all points along the continuum, from naturalistic
observations through partial control to full control.
Consequently, empirical studies, particularly those in which certain
techniques are used, are sometimes disputed. This complicates the testing
of theories because of the difficulty of relating theoretical implications
(interpretation of concepts) to empirical phenomena (concepts). Subsequent
testing of the empirical presuppositions of a given theory by means of

specific techniques also presents problems. The researcher must therefore

be alert to potential pitfalls.
The above is a brief summary of methodology in general, but there are
numerous sources which you could consult. We will now discuss the
research process.
The research process
Our discussion of theory, empirical reality and methodology has been fairly
brief. Research (and scientific practice) is, however, a complex process and
human scientists have differing opinions on the nature of social reality. The
subject of the human sciences is man in all his diversity. Because
researchers approach social reality and human actions from different
angles, we speak of research communities which operate on certain
premises (paradigms). These assumptions may be regarded as social
perspectives

or

ontological

premises,

which

have

far-reaching

methodological consequences and affect the choice of methods and

techniques.
In science a primary distinction is made between positivism and humanism.
Positivism emphasises the quantification of concepts, the attendant
formalisation of concepts and theories, the use of objective methods and
techniques, and the necessity of verifying theories through empirical

observation. Positivism is based on the methods of the natural sciences,

especially the quantification of data, and objectivity.
Hughes (198- B. R. No 2) notes that in positivism "the scientist is invoked
[sic] to rid himself of personal prejudices and biases which may stand in
the way of the dispassionate and objective verification or falsification of his
theories. He must stand outside the phenomena he studies". From a critical
positivist point of view, only directly observable, objectively measurable
phenomena are acceptable as scientific data.
The subject of humanism, on the other hand, is man and his many
activities. Humanists emphasise that "human beings are not 'things' to be
studied in the way one studies arts, plants, or rocks, but are valuing,
meaning-attributing beings to be understood as subjects and known as
subjects The phenomena of everyday life must be studied in its [sic] own
terms by methods that retain the integrity of that [sic] phenomena, not
phenomena created by experimental situations or other positivistic
methods" (Hughes 1981- B. R. No 2). An important humanist tenet is that
the researcher, in his full humanity, is subjectively involved in the research
situation.
Research paradigms (or social perspectives) can be either positivist or
humanist, and this will affect a researcher's view of social reality. A
sociologist, for example, may adopt the systems approach to social reality.

He identifies various subsystems within the system and logically integrates

these. It is, furthermore, accepted that equilibrium is maintained through
the mechanisms of adaptation, integration and goal achievement (Wagner
1984- B. R. No 19). Another paradigm or social perspective is Karl Marx's
conflict theory with its highly distinctive suppositions about the nature of
society. Marxian theory assesses the structure of society and social
interaction in terms of dialectical (historical) materialism and the class
struggle.
It is important for you to understand that these different assumptions
(system and conflict approaches) are simply frames of reference which the
researcher may use in his study of social reality. They are neither true nor
false but they orient research and theorisation. Let us consider the essential
nature of research and scientific assumptions. Wagner writes:
They are statements about values, not statements about facts. They tell us
how we ought to study the social world, not what is true or false about the
world such prescriptive arguments are largely nonempirical. Conflicts
between them are generally unresolvable by either fact or reason.
Irrespective of his chosen paradigm and approach, the researcher's aim is to
generate valid findings (Mouton et al. 1985- B. R. No 2). The thing to
remember, however, is that neither the positivist nor the humanist
approach, with the associated paradigms, produces absolute truth.

Researchers often adopt an approach midway between positivism and

humanism. Quantitative research is generally associated with positivism
(structured questionnaires and interviews), whereas qualitative research is
associated with humanism (participant observation).
Both approaches may be acceptable in terms of a specific social perspective
(ontological premise). In police science, conflict arising from a given
spatial and social mobility may involve both qualitative (humanist) and
quantitative (positivist) research.
Group formation depending on mobility (decentralisation) may be
explained in terms of the systems approach, whereas stratification as a
result of social mobility may be explained in terms of the conflict approach
(or the class struggle).
As pointed out above, paradigms are not necessarily exclusive: they may
overlap, and the researcher may make use of a combination of positivism
and humanism. This seems to be the best approach for police science. By
combining the two, the researcher can postulate empirically relevant
theories which may be verified or falsified on the basis of practical
observation. The conflict perspective, for example, can be used to explain
why police relations with a specific community is marked by physical
violence. Using systems theory, which assigns specific roles (functions) to
specific subsystems (e.g. policing), an empirically substantiated theory

about the police subculture can be developed. In your third year you will be
introduced to such a theory relating to subcultures, when you study
Niederhoffer's theory of cynicism. Remember, however, that empirical
verification or falsification' is not the only stimulant for theory growth. As
opposed to the positivist emphasis on empirical investigation, intellectual
exploration which integrates and modifies theories (without necessarily
subjecting them to empirical verification or falsification) is also important.
The usual phases in the research process will now be explained. Remember
that the sequence may differ according to the researcher's paradigm and
orientation.
Research usually involves the following steps:
(1)definition of the problem
(2)formulation of hypothesis
(3)orientation
(4)collection of data
(5)classification and analysis
(6)interpretation of data
(1)----------presentation of findings and conclusion in a research repot
(2)________________application of the results (usually not part of the
researcher's activities).

Bear in mind that these steps do not have to be carried out in this order.
They often overlap. However, this arrangement of steps makes the research
process easier and ensures that nothing important is left out. Since we are
interested mainly in the way in which research is carried out, we will
emphasise the practical questions.
Description of the phenomenon
In selecting the phenomenon to be researched, the following must be
considered:
(1) Is the issue worth researching?
(2)Can the research be concluded meaningfully and is sufficient
information available?
(3)Is it feasible in the sense that sufficient time and funds are available?
(4)Is the researcher sufficiently interested to spend the necessary energy,
time and money on the project?
Once the advantages, disadvantages and problems have been properly
considered, one can proceed with the research. The following steps must be
tackled carefully.
(a) Definition
The issue to be researched must be defined precisely and comprehensively.
There should be no doubt about the key concepts in the formulation of the

issue. This directs the researcher, but at the same time limits the contents of
research.
(b) Spatial or qualitative delimitation
The geographic area where the research is to be conducted and the category
of people or objects studied must be clearly described.
(c) Quantitative delimitation
Here the researcher must decide whether he will study the universum (i.e.
all, e.g. all policemen) or a group (i.e. only part of the universum). If he
decides on the latter, he must draw a sample by using certain techniques, so
that the sample can be regarded as statistically representative of the
universum.
(d) Planning and research programme
Planning and the compilation of a particular programme are essential to
ensure that only relevant data will be collected, that the study will be
conducted within the given period, that ideas will be organised
systematically and that the researcher will be fully conversant with the
problem. The research programme must make provision for
(1)definition of the issue and terminology
(2)delimitation of research
(3)orientation and literature study
(4)the selection technique that will be used

(5)the way in which field work will be conducted

(6)determination of research procedures and techniques
(7)training of field workers (if necessary)
(8)editing of the work of field workers
(9)processing (computer, etc.) and tabulation of data.
Formulation of the hypothesis
The hypothesis is a preliminary supposition which explains the relationship
between facts and which is accepted as true, but which has not yet been
proved. This supposition gives direction to the research, since the empirical
facts (which are obtained from the research) verify or disprove the
assumption.
Orientation
No research can be conducted without full information. Profound
knowledge is sometimes needed even before the research is planned. The
researcher must be familiar with the general problem area so that he can
weigh the meaning and relationship of the particular research focus against
the whole.
Collection of data
The general nature of the study will determine the general nature of the
data required. The data could consist of published sources, unpublished
sources, reports, memoranda, interviews, questionnaires, visits to subjects,

et cetera. The kinds of data will also determine whether or not field workers
will be used.
Classification and analysis
The collected data must be edited, classified and tabulated. Nowadays there
are various computer programs which facilitate the researcher's task in this
respect considerably, providing that the research has been planned in such a
way from the beginning that it can be computerised. It is usually necessary
to take a certain computer program into account when compiling a
questionnaire.
Interpretation
The processed data are now related meaningfully to the set hypothesis.
Research report
The impact of a research project often depends on the general quality of the
report. Important factors here are linguistic accuracy, systematisation,
technical presentation and substantiated statements. Bear in mind that the
research report is actually a summary of the research and should largely
follow the steps in the research.
RESEARCH PROCEDURES
For our purpose the survey procedure is most important. It is often equated
with the case study method, that is, the research method where an intensive
and thorough study is made of a certain "case" (whether an individual, a

group which can be regarded as a unit, or an episode from history) to relate

it to certain phenomena. It is used very commonly in surveys examining the
attitudes of groups or certain categories of people (the case study) to certain
issues, for example, the attitude of the public towards the police or vice
versa. The survey procedure can be defined as a scientific attempt to
determine the incidence, scope and distribution of a certain phenomenon
(in our case a phenomenon relating to police science). It is the collection
and analysis of data about society as a whole or about a specific aspect of it
(Fairchild 1970: 313). The survey is designed to collect quantitative data
about one or more aspects of the world with a view to describing and
explaining the phenomenon in order to identify the problem and hence plan
more effectively. The survey procedure is applicable particularly to the
following:
(1)the social environment (economic conditions such as income, housing,
residential areas)
(2)human activities such as occupation, use of leisure time, and travelling
habits
(1)opinions on and attitudes towards issues of social importance
Some researchers are not partial to this procedure, particularly because it
amounts to a kind of census where, in most cases, only parts of the whole
are involved. This, in conjunction with possible prejudices, creates doubts

about the reliability of eventual findings. The survey does, however, have
definite advantages, since certain attitudes can be quantified numerically
and can at least indicate general trends. This procedure is examined in more
detail in Course III in the light of previously completed research.
Research techniques
Research techniques are the methods of collecting data. Here we shall
concentrate mainly on questionnaires and interviews. The schedule is very
similar to the questionnaire except that it is a set of questions which directs
the researcher or field worker in his interview and which he has to
complete himself. In any case the term "questionnaire" is used virtually
throughout for any list consisting of a number of formal questions.
The questionnaire
A questionnaire is a form consisting of a number of clearly formulated
questions requiring answers. The term includes structured questionnaires
containing definite, concrete and preplanned questions, and unstructured
questionnaires which are sometimes referred to as interview guides. These
are compiled in such a way as to gain information about attitudes, opinions
and relationships which might escape attention in mechanical interviewing.
Unstructured questionnaires are used for intensive studies where only a few
study cases are examined. The questions in unstructured questionnaires are
either closed, that is, are placed in certain definite categories, or open, that

is, they give subjects the opportunity to express themselves freely and
openly. Closed questions have the advantage that the previously
categorised questions are easier to incorporate on punch cards for
processing by a computer. The main requirements for questionnaires are
briefly the following:
(a) Formulation
The content and language of questions are clear and unambiguous; the
categories set are sufficient to obtain the information for testing the
hypothesis as objectively as possible; questions are framed in such a way
that the results are quantifiable; and the general presentation of the
questionnaire is neat and tasteful.
(b)Preliminary test
An important requirement in drawing up a questionnaire is that there
should be a preliminary test before general distribution, whether personal
by means of field workers, or by post. This is essential for the final
polishing of questions or items and for eliminating inherent weaknesses
and ambiguities.
(c) Distribution
Questionnaires are distributed to the study group (i.e. people selected by
the sampling technique) within a limited period. Personal delivery and

collection are desirable, since postal distribution usually produces a low

percentage of responses.
(d) Editing and processing
All completed questionnaires are properly edited and numbered, so that
duplicated responses or other defects can be identified early on. Incomplete
questionnaires with obvious defects are rejected and not taken into account.
The accepted questionnaires can then be quantified, preferably in a form
which can be processed by a computer. Although the questionnaire has
disadvantages and limitations, particularly since different people do not
interpret the questions in the same way and one can never be sure whether
the questions were answered correctly and honestly, it is one of the most
commonly used research techniques. It has the following advantages:
(1)It provides a fixed form of recording observations obtained directly
from statements.
(2)A mass of information can be collected and processed simply, so that a
clear idea of the problem or phenomenon can be obtained.
(3)Data are obtained in a scientifically accepted way which facilitates the
making of generalisations and comparisons.
(4)The results obtained can later be checked and monitored by researchers
in a uniform way.
(5)Subjective evaluation is confined to a minimum and the influencing of

subjects is largely eliminated.

The interview
The interview is a conversation between the researcher (field worker) and
the subject. It is a form of communication, but it differs from an everyday
conversation between two people. Kalm and Connell (1959- B. R. No 2)
define an interview as follows:"
We use the term "interview" to refer to a specialized pattern of verbal
interaction initiated for a specific purpose, and focused on some specific
content area, with consequent elimination of extraneous material.
Moreover, the interview is a pattern of interaction in which the role
relationship of interviewer and respondent is highly specialised, its specific
characteristics depending somewhat on the purpose and character of the
interview.
The interview has mainly two functions, namely, to create an opportunity
for direct observation of a limited kind of the subject's behaviour during the
interview, and of his powers of speech, use of language, attitude and
behaviour towards a stranger.
There are three types of interviews. (1) Non-directed or unstructured
interview. Here the contribution of the interviewer is confined to the
minimum; in other words, he plays the role of an objective observer.
(2)Directed or focused interview. The interviewer still refrains from

guiding the subject, although he keeps returning the conversation to the

particular question being studied.
(3)Formal, structured interview. This is no more than an oral questionnaire.
The same questions are put to all subjects in the same way and in the same
sequence. The choices which the subjects make in this way enable one to
make a comparative analysis of individuals and groups.
As always, thorough preparation precedes the interview. For example,
attention must be paid to the following:
(1)thorough background knowledge of the subject matter, subject and
interview situation
(2)intensive planning and careful choice and formulation of questions
(3)scientific definition of concepts
(4)clear research objective
(5) standardisation of questions and recording techniques
(6)confidentiality of information
(7)practical problems (communication, etc.)
(8)introduction to subjects.
The main disadvantages of the interview are that the interviewer can
consciously or unconsciously influence the subject's answers or the subject
can deliberately provide incomplete or untrue information. It is, however, a
recognised research technique which provides the researcher with intimate

and personal knowledge of his study object. The answers are not the only
relevant matters; gestures, attitudes and reactions are significant and can be
indications of an entirely new train of thought.
SUMMARY
Police science involves all facets of a particular social function, and
therefore it can be regarded as a practical or applied science which
emphasises the social relevance of this science.
This does not mean that it is not also theoretically and operationally
(methodologically) relevant. The systematised knowledge, which is
extended by recognised research methods, processes and techniques, is
built up on a theoretical and philosophical basis by means of which and
because of which functional issues are studied. Police science is not
concerned with the actual application of knowledge in practice; but it
provides knowledge in which other related knowledge like this of Border
Police ( e.g. Integrated Border Management) could be based and which
permits to practitioners of the profession by means of which functional
operations can be placed in theoretical-philosophical perspective. (B. R. No
2, 14, 21)

PART III
CHAPTER 1
Fundamental police science
Historical Perspective

INTRODUCTION
Policing is a relatively young profession in human history, although it is
related to social control, which is a very ancient function in the world
(Strecher, 1971: 10).
This close link with social control, the changing perspectives with regard to
social control, and the role of the police, have always been the principal
factors in determining the answer to the controversial question of what the
police force's function really is. Traditionalists believe that the police are
concerned solely with the criminal element: that it is their job simply to
protect life and property and to keep the peace, and that this is done by
investigating crimes, making arrests and giving assistance during trials.
Other policemen believe that this traditional approach is inadequate, that
aggressive patrolling and thorough investigation of crimes are certainly a
part of the policeman's task but by no means the whole of it. These people

believe that, for optimal success, cooperation with the public is

indispensable. Traditionalists appear to believe that the idea of helping
people in trouble is a new one, and they fear that this "new" function will
turn the policeman into a social worker rather than a law enforcer. This is
not true, and it has no basis in fact. Through the centuries the police have
been closely involved in the smooth functioning of society, which entails
more than mere law enforcement. Traditionalists appear to be unaware of
the facts of the historical development of policing (Cohn & Viano 1976:
108). Existing uncertainties, and the numerous problems confronting
present-day police administrators, may well be due to a failure to learn the
lessons of history.
Edward Gibbons, in his work Decline and fall of the Roman Empire, states
that "safety, plenty and cleanliness" were the basic objectives of policing
until the end of the eighteenth century (Stead 1977: 1). This requirement
agrees closely with the role assigned to policing by Plato and Aristotle, and
the Greek and Roman Empires. It was simply a form of internal
administration of a community, whether city or state, to ensure security, a
sufficiency of food and a healthy environment.
In terms of this definition we are of course "policed" by a wide range of
internal organizations that collect taxes, and That clean and light streets,
fight fires, regulate water sup plies, prescribe where we may drive or park

in our cars, set standards for what we eat and drink, register births, deaths
and marriages, supply water, remove garbage and sewage, deliver mail and
aid and restrain us in various other ways. Since the beginning of the
nineteenth century these functions, formerly identified with the concept of
policing, have been assigned to other departments and the police functions
have been limited to the maintenance of order and the application of laws.
This historic shift in functions means that policing has become an
increasingly specialised activity associated with the general structure and
internal order of a state (Stead 1977: 2). History teaches us that policing
has taken many forms and has performed a variety of functions. The
important point is that whatever form it has taken and whatever functions it
has performed or is performing have been the natural outflow of the social
structure and control processes. If we merely trace the origins of policing to
its earliest forms and to the first human laws, and simply study its
development, we deny the fact that, historically, policing is a service by the
community and for the community, through which social order and control
are achieved.
It is generally accepted that Sir Robert Peel is the father of organised
policing (Lee 1971: 247), although Kelly (Killinger & Cromwell 1975: 3)
assigns this position to the Roman emperor Augustus Caesar who, as early
as 27 B.C., made a distinction between the military and police functions.

Unlike the praetorian guard and the cohorts, who were a part of the ' regular
army, and were charged with the personal safety of Caesar, the vigiles
(night watchmen) were given the exclusive charge of fighting fires and
preserving order in the cities. These "little bucket men" (Stead 1977: 15)
disappeared after the fall of the Roman Empire and had little impact on the
development of policing. Peel's contribution, on the other hand, had
worldwide repercussions to such an extent that a number of police
forces still operate on the pattern and principles laid down by him.
For our purpose we need to make a distinction between two phases
unpoliced and policed societies. Unpoliced society came to an end at the
beginning of the nineteenth century, when a police force was established on
a firm legal and organisational basis by Peel and others. These two phases
will not be described chronologically, but by highlighting salient features.
The chronological course of events is described in your prescribed text
book and in the other works quoted in this chapter. It is up to you to study
these. What you need to bear in mind is that we are concerned not so much
with any particular police unit at any particular time no matter how
interesting the situation might have been but with the true role of the
police in society.

THE UNPOLICED SOCIETY

We have noted that social control is an important and ancient function of

society. The development of policing is part of the change that control has
undergone as the concept of social order has increased in complexity. At
first, control was simple, because groups were homogeneous and group
interaction was uncomplicated. Effective control could be exercised, at first
by the strict paterfamilias, later by the family patriarch and subsequently by
the tribal chief (Strecher 1971: 8). Organised policing was not necessary.
But as the groups grew and social problems multiplied, it became necessary
for the groups themselves to exercise a police function with regard to
conduct. As the need grew, new perspectives on social control and therefore
on policing culminated in fixed principles for the police control of society.
We shall now discuss the principal features of this era.

Moral consensus
Customs and codes of conduct, whether formal or informal, were in the
nature of a personal agreement on the part of each group member to accept
restrictions on his conduct in exchange for personal freedom. The greatest
threats to survival were external from competing families and tribes, and
wild animals. There was competition for scarce commodities such as food,
clothing and shelter; and external threats were aggravated and sometimes
became overwhelming when internal control collapsed (Strecher 1971: 8).
Each individual therefore kept to the internal control measures and to
external customs, since a misdemeanour would bring reprisals against the
group. Each person's conduct was therefore subject to constant moral
judgment to keep it within the accepted limits.
This moral consensus on right and wrong was not totally destroyed when
formal laws came to be made. These laws formulated by a few trained
persons rather than by a strong group leader or by the community as a
whole in fact created a double system of conduct control: There was a
new rationalised system, stating relationships clearly in terms of legal
obligations and expectations, and the old moral evaluations that were the
moral codes that had long been accepted and followed. Inevitably some
people rejected the new laws on grounds of individual moral convictions,
so that the claims of others were threatened, and this meant that there was

an even greater need to control the conduct of individuals in the interests of

the common welfare. This moral evaluation is still an element in our
modern society.

Codification of rules of conduct

At first social order was achieved through the enforcement of customs and
codes of conduct based on moral consensus; later this was done through
external control by means of rules and regulations. Rules of conduct came
to be codified as early, as 2000 B.C., when rulers such as Lipitishtar and
Eshnunna standardised descriptions of transgressions. The code of
Hammurabi (2100 B.C.) is the first written legal code known to us, and this
clearly stipulated not only the offences but also the punishments. It
preceded even the, Ten Commandments (1800 B.C.) (Strecher 1971: 6).
Obedience to the rules was still the responsibility of each individual, and
legal action and prosecution took place in a group context. The existence of
the laws, and the cruel punishments attached to them, were considered
quite sufficient for the control of conduct.
In 1116 Henry I of England made a distinction between crimes and
misdemeanours. Arson, robbery, murder, the counterfeiting of money and
crimes of violence were designated threats to the public peace of the state,
the "King's peace", as it was called. All other offences were regarded as

misdemeanours, since they affected only individual peace (Radelet 1977:

106; Eldefonso et al. 1968: 43). This radical change involved profound
changes in the procedures of arrest, trial and evidence. The custom by
which punishment had been administered by individuals themselves fell
into disuse, and this now devolved on the king (Sullivan 1971: 5). Officers
of the peace and citizens could make arrests without a warrant, but in the
case of a misdemeanour a warrant was needed (More 1975: 106). In terms
of the trial procedures, crime investigators were appointed to uncover the
truth and submit the facts to the court (Sullivan 1971: 6). They relied
mainly on evidence by witnesses evidence that was extracted by ordeal,
or with magic, suspicion, was confirmed by what were called confessions
that could be extracted by torture, and the two classic witnesses. This state
of affairs was due to an invincible faith in the trustworthiness of people and
a lack of scientific resources to supplement subjective evidence. Only
towards the end of the nineteenth century, when criminalistics was given a
firm basis by Hans Gross (1893), were these methods supplemented and in
fact largely replaced by the use of scientific methods for proof. (Later you
will have to make a thorough study of the historic development of
criminalistics.)

Community involvement
Throughout the centuries, members of society were closely involved in the
policing process at both preventive and repressive levels.
Apart from the extremely high value given to obedience to customs and
codes of conduct, each individual used to be obliged to superintend certain
groups on a voluntary basis and to perform guard duties. The system of
collective responsibility, in terms of which each individual is responsible
for the conduct of his neighbour and the group for each individual (Devlin
1966: 2) has been in force since the earliest times, but it was not until the
Anglo-Saxon period (600 to 1066) that it became firmly established. In
return for good conduct, King Alfred guaranteed a condition of peace and
security (the "King's peace") (Lee 1971: 3). This system had its
shortcomings: it became less effective as the population increased and
criminals could be concealed to avoid restitution against the group. But the
principle has remained, even to our own times.
We find an echo of the Anglo-Saxon approach that each ablebodied
citizen is a police officer in Peel's assertion that the public is the police
and the police the public (Radelet 1977: 4). This conviction was at the base
of the idea of the integral unity of police and public and of the assumption
that police services had to be carried out voluntarily and without
compensation.

Because of the rigorous demands of police duties, the wealthy began to

evade it by hiring others to do it for them.
Even in the Anglo-Saxon period the "tithingman", the head man over a
"hundred", hired others to perform his duties; and by 1285 the guards who
had to do compulsory unpaid guard and patrol duties in rotation, in terms of
Edward I's Statute of Winchester, hired others to do it (Eldefonso et al.
1968: 42; van Heerden 1976: 22). The idea of paying for police services
was in fact started in the eleventh century by merchants associated with the
Hanseatic League, and by private property owners (Radelet 1977: 5). The
River Thames Police, Merchant Police and the Thieftakers of Thomas de
Veil (Hewitt 1965: 11) were separate police forces functioning in London.
These mercenaries were usually old and incompetent drunkards. This
probably gave rise to the troublesome conviction that persists into our own
time that policing is an inferior type of work that does not necessarily
make high demands on an individual's abilities and therefore does not
justify much pay. It is a great pity that this obsolete idea did not disappear
as the role of the police grew in importance. However, a new tradition was
established: henceforth, police service was paid work. In 1737 King George
II levied taxes to be used for salaries. King George III went further in 1777
by prescribing salaries and equipment (Eldefonso et al. 1968: 42). The

same principles applied at the Cape between 1652 and 1689 in other
words, at first duty was unpaid, and later salaries were paid out of taxes.
Another instance of community involvement is the "hue and cry" system
(alarm system). The rattle guards (the rattle was the precursor of the police
whistle) had to raise the alarm by means of their rattles, not only to frighten
away suspected offenders but also to activate the populace. Anyone who
failed to respond instantly was guilty of an offence; in fact, all powers of
arrest initially belonged to the citizenry. When powers of arrest were
delegated to police officers, it was done on the basis that "the Sheriffs,
Bailifes, Constables and other of the King's Officers may arrest and
imprison offenders in all cases where a private person may" (Radelet 1977:
5).
Direct public involvement has gradually disappeared, al though our
criminal procedure act has retained the obligations with regard to assistance
and arrest. Sullivan (1971: 4) considers that the relatively low crime rate in
England is due to the deeply rooted custom of protecting one's own
interests in the first place.

Lack of continuity
It is clear from the number of police units under separate names that police
services during the era of unpoliced society were performed in a very

unorganised way. Units were created and dissolved sporadically, seemingly

affected by changes of government, by specific non-recurring conditions,
and by specific services to be rendered. In many cases these units had a
very brief existence and made no significant contribution to the general
principles and nomenclature of modern policing. A few terms and usages
have persisted, such as the term "sheriff", which is found in the USA
particularly and which dates back to the Anglo-Saxon period. The reeve in
control of a shire (a group of hundreds) gradually came to be known as the
shirereeve, later abbreviated to sheriff. The constable (derived from the
Latin comes stabuli, master of the horse), originally engaged in the
maintenance of the army, became the main officer of the peace in the early
fourteenth century. The "judicial supervision" of police activities, which
has prevailed throughout the centuries, and which was later reflected in the
tripartite division of criminal justice, can be traced to the era of the justice
of the peace, an office established in 1361 by Edward III (Van Heerden
1976: 24; Hewitt 1965: 10; Patrick 1972: 33; Radelet 1977: 5).
Note, too, that separate units were created to serve in urban and rural areas.
In our own history, urban (town) units included the Ratelwag (1652-1780),
the Burgerwag (1780) and the Cape Constabulary (1840) in Cape Town, the
Pretoria Rifle Corps (1865), the Schutters Corps (1872) in Rustenburg, the
Transvaal

Town

Police

(1901)

in

Pretoria,

Johannesburg

and

on the Witwatersrand, and the Borough Police (1854) in Durban. A few

examples of rural units are
(1)Field Cornets, Cape Regiment (1806), Frontier Armed and Mounted
Police (1855) and Cape Mounted Police Force in the Cape;
(2)Border Police (1862) and the Orange River Colony Police (1902) in
the Orange Free State;
(3)Nongquai (1883) and Natal Mounted Police (1804) in Natal;
(4)Zuid-Afrikaansche

Republiek

Politie

(1895),

South

African

Constabulary (Die Zuid-Afrikaansche Konstabelwacht) 1900 and

Transvaal Police (1908) in the Transvaal (Van Heerden 1976: 27-34).

Military attributes
As we have seen, the greatest enemies of mankind were external.
Protection was therefore achieved mainly by legions and military forces.
Their police duties were generally of a secondary nature and were
performed only in times of peace. This combination of military and police
duties is probably the reason for the relatively awkward development of
policing. The generally cumbersome organisational structures of police
institutions, rank designations (especially in South Africa), the repressive
way, in which duties were carried out, and cruel and unapproachable
attitudes may be ascribed above all to the military influence.

Police duties and military duties were separated as early as 27 B.C. by

Augustus Caesar, with his appointment of the Vigiles (the first non-military
urban police), although the link is clearly perceptible during this early
period. The division of the populace into tithings and hundreds, eventually
headed by the Sheriff, was based on the military custom of fighting in
groups of ten and a hundred. The constable himself was at first closely
involved in the military function. Despite the watch systems maintained in
towns and cities by the non-military citizenry, military forces were always
called in to control civil unrest and riots.
The military nature of police units was even more conspicuous in South
Africa. In 1652, when Jan van Riebeeck come ashore in Cape Town,
maintenance of order was entrusted to the garrison. The police units that
were established, mainly in rural areas, were mainly geared to the military
function: policing was a secondary function carried out only in times of
relative peace. (Van Heerden 1976: 32).

Diversity of services
Services were rendered that made a real contribution to the internal
regulation of a prosperous and contented community. Apart from the
predominant emphasis on the prevention and suppression of crime, it also
included the following services: personal body guard duties, guarding

homes, fire fighting, supervision of water supplies, control of cleanliness in

patrol areas, settlement of domestic disputes, registration of births,
marriages and deaths, prosecution and trial of offenders, regulation of
traffic, supervision of strangers, collection of taxes, taking the census and
acting as postmasters, poundmasters and stock inspectors. One of the
functions of the rattle guard, for instance, was to call out the time loudly at
intervals during the night, so that the sleepless and the sufferers from
rheumatism could get an indication of how much of the night was still left.
The vigiles, for instance who may be regarded as the first urban police
were primarily charged with fire-fighting, and the constable, with the
justice of the peace, undertook the trial of offenders arrested by the
citizenry.
These diverse services were performed in a haphazard way, partly because
the services themselves were not organised in any specialised way; there
were no organised groups to per form them; the police were available and
accessible at all times and possibly the most important factor of all
the police were a service from and for society, and it was their duty to
watch over the calm, peace and general prosperity of the community. The
services were therefore geared not so much to suppression but to the
prevention of anything that might hamper these objectives. This preventive
function suffered in 1066 with the Norman conquest of England (Lee 1971:

20) and the capricious behaviour of the new rulers (Van Heerden 1976: 23).
The emphasis then shifted to the prosecution of offenders, and harsh
punishments were introduced.

Individual rights
Freedom, security and privacy are precious individual rights. Claims to
these were related to the custom whereby individuals safeguarded their
own interests and to the later guarantee (particularly the "frank pledge"
Clift 1956: 1) that the rights to these claims could be upheld in exchange
for the surrender of certain powers to the State. The protection of these
rights was in fact the principal factor in the resistance to organised policing.
Maladministration by rulers and the haphazard ways in which police
services were performed, and evidence was given and punishment
administered, threatened these rights as far as offenders were concerned,
and also in respect of the citizenry. As a result, in 1215, a number of
rebellious barons, forced King John of England to draw up clear
specifications for the arrest, trial and punishment of offenders. These
specifications were contained in the Magna Carta, and this was later (1689)
refined in the Bill of Rights (Hewitt 1965: 70). The principles contained in
these two documents are reflected in our own criminal procedure.

Parochial nature
Please note that policing in all its forms, in England as well as in South
Africa, was performed on a parochial or regional basis. This approach was
in line with the concept of upholding democratic rights and the idea that
each community could best police itself.
The literature contains many examples of this. Study these and integrate
them with this passage.
We summarise by saying that policing in unpoliced society was
individually centred and unorganised; services were unspecified, but they
were mainly preventive and geared to the maintenance of order.

THE POLICED SOCIETY

The era of "professional police", is characterised by organisation,
specialisation, coordination, cooperation and standardised police practices.
The system was introduced at the end of the eighteenth and the beginning
of the nineteenth centuries by police philosophers such as Fielding,
Colquhoun (pronounced Cohoon) and Peel.
There were popular objections that organised policing was
undemocratic, because groups were given powers that constituted a serious
threat to individual claims to privacy, freedom and safety, and that the
existing laws and punishments were quite sufficient for the maintenance of

order (Berkley 1969: 5). Nevertheless changes were made. The change
from an unpoliced to a policed society was marked by particular events and
conditions.
(1)

The various police units had been controlled by different

authorities, and their action was uncoordinated.

(2)

Crime, especially robbery and murder, had increased sharply

(3)

The industrial revolution (1760) had resulted in profound social

and economic changes. Communities became more complex as a result of

urbanisation. Slums and poverty resulted. Competition for essential
foodstuffs became keen.
(4)

The public had been confused by the boisterous action of military

forces in suppressing labour unrest, riots and looting.

(5)

All this disorder had made the public uneasy and there was a

general fear that the social order was on the point of collapsing (Lee 1971:
217).
(6)

Because of these adverse conditions, the ideas and zeal of certain

philosophers finally had a favourable reception.

(7)

There was a simultaneous movement towards humanistic penal

and prison reform (Lee 1971: 247).

Henry and John Fielding were not the first to advocate organised police
services, but they stressed that meaningful policing was compatible with

the maintenance of individual rights. When Henry Fielding became a Bow

Street Magistrate in 1748, he at once set to work to train a number of
handpicked constables in crime investigation and general legal principles.
The Bow Street Runners as this unit was known were very successful
in prevention and patrol work, and the rehabilitation of the young made a
strong impression on the public, so that antagonism faded. After the death
of Henry in 1754 and of John in 1780, this work was abandoned, and
conditions reverted to what they had been when Henry wrote in 1751, in
his An enquiry into the causes of the late increase of robbers; "... the streets
of this town, and the roads leading to it, will shortly be impassable without
the 'utmost hazard" (Stead 1977: 33; Folley 1973: 50; Hewitt 1965: 17).
The architect of modern policing, Patrick Colquhoun, was appointed as a
justice of the peace in 1792 in terms of Sir William Pitt's Police Bill (which
also provided for the first time for salaries for constables and justices of the
peace). Colquhoun, as an experienced magistrate, showed a consistent
concern for the welfare of the poor, for orderliness in society, and for
irreproachable behaviour in constables. His sober and logical reasoning
impressed both the government and the public. To grasp the crux of his
philosophy one needs to note his definition of police: "By the term police
we are to understand all those regulations in a country which apply to the
comfort, convenience and safety of the inhabitants" (Stead 1977: 51). He

goes on to write, in his A treatise on the police of the metropolis (1795):

"Police is an improved state of society .... Next to the blessings which a
nation derives from an excellent constitution and system of general laws,
are those advantages which result from a well-regulated and energetic plan
of police, conducted and enforced with purity, activity, vigilance and
discretion" (Stead 1977: 86).
His philosophical thinking, which convinced him that a well-organised
police force was the only guarantee against disorder and the violation of
individual rights, is built around his conviction that police constitute "a new
science" of which the basic principles reside not so much in judicial power
as in the prevention and investigation of crime and other functions
associated with the regulation of a contented community (Stead 1977: 52).
He was fortunate enough to be able to apply these principles in the Marine
Police (1798), with which he was directly involved. The successes achieved
by this unit, which eventually overcame public resistance, were due to their
working philosophy "General prevention mild in its operations,
effective in its results, having justice and humanity for its basis, and the
general security of the State and individuals for its ultimate object" (Stead,
1977: 60).
The contributions made by the Fielding brothers and by Colquhoun formed
the philosophical basis for the work of Robert Peel. This basis, and Peel's

personal conviction that urgent reform of the haphazard police system was
essential, did not make an impression on the authorities or on the
supporters of the "democratic maintenance of individual rights" until the
Peterloo bloodbath in 1819. This incident was a clash between soldiers and
a group demonstrating against the cruel and inhuman suppression of labour
unrest and crime by the army. The initial results were even more rigorous
legislation and greater infringements upon liberty in an effort to control the
lower classes. Gradually, however, Peel's representations came to be heard,
and people who had preferred to endure the harrowing conditions rather
than experiment with an organised group that might threaten individual
rights, began to be convinced.
However, Peel faced two problems: one was a matter of principle and the
other a pragmatic problem. The question of principle had to do with the
protection of individual rights. The Utilitarians reasoned that the greatest
good of the greatest number could not be achieved by a system that
curtailed individual freedom. They feared that a centralised police system
would have the same results as in France and Prussia, where state police
ignored the liberties of citizens. The pragmatic problem had to do with
salaries. The wealthy classes in particular were antagonistic, fearing that
they might have to foot the bill (Stead 1977: 85).
Peel made several counter-arguments.

(1)

Laws provide for the maintenance of order, but they also stipulate

how, where, when and by whom this will be done.

(2)

Organised policing, based on specific principles and purposeful

training, would guarantee the protection of individual rights.

(3)

Police control should be divided, and each community should

establish its own police force, that is, there should be parochial or
decentralised rather than centralised control.
(4)

The police should be paid by the authorities.

(5)

Prevention, rather than prosecution and punishment, should be their

primary task.
(6)

Organised policing should be seen as a conversion from a process of

law enforcement by brute physical force to an orderly pattern of living

through activating the public to acceptance and appreciation of the personal
and corporate advantages of social order.
(7)

Policing is a civil and not a military function (Stead 1977:82-95; Van

Heerden 1976:26; Sullivan 1971:11; Eldefonso et al. 1968: 43). (For that
reason the European line is that Border Policing is a police and not a
military function.)
These representations finally led to the establishment of the first organised,
centrally controlled police force, in terms of the Metropolitan Police Act of
1829. Its foundations were derived from history, and its terms had an

influence on policing all over the world, particularly in countries under

British government. Folley (1973: 51) considers that many police forces are
inefficient because they failed to learn the lessons of history. Peel stood for
two sets of principles, one concerned with formal organisation and the
other with methods of performance. Both are fully discussed by Van
Heerden (1976: 26 and 79). Study this with great care. We shall do no more
here than note the salient features.
Organisationally speaking, certain requirements pertained.
(1)

The police were to have a military character yet act as civil officials.

(2)

The system was to be decentralised and under government control.

(3)

The police were to be readily accessible; in other words, police

stations should be carefully located.

(4)

Members should be neat in appearance and act in a restrained

manner so as to win the esteem and support of the public.

(5)

Officers should keep proper records of their activities.

The way in which police services were to be rendered was subject to

certain conditions.
(1)

The primary object was prevention.

(2)

The support and cooperation of the public should be obtained.

(3)

Physical violence was to be minimised.

(4)

Questionable methods might not be used to obtain information.

(5)

Individual rights were to be respected at all times through impartial

and lawful conduct.

(6)

Good public relations should be maintained at all times through the

application of the principle that police and public are an inseparable unity.

The aforementioned are consisted a general historical perspective Border

Police too, because of its substance (policing). For historical purposes the
next are mentioned.
The first border events throughout the world at Hermioni (Greek ancient
city-state of Peloponneese) were occurred, around the 9th century before
Christ.
During that time pirates used to challenge border events, in order to exploit
purples from which the income of Hermionis inhabitants was coming
from. It is alleged that the ancient god Apollo saved the Hermionis
borders. Consequently Apollo was called Borderish, by the Hermionis
inhabitants (Encyclopedia of Eleftheroudakis Volume 5th page 147 and
volume 10th, pages 853-854.
In ancient Athina (of Greece) we find the relationship between BorderPolicing and Patrol. In Athina State as it has been mentioned by
Aristotle (384-322 before Christ) and in his work about the State of
Athenians as patrols the mounted citizens having an age between 18-20

years old, were called. Their task was to patrol at the borders of the state,
on horseback.
Even since the 19th century different corps about border policing had been
established in various Countries, but they had had a short life. The Border
responsibility has been passed to the army and borders have been
characterized as defense area.
During last decades the borders became the task-are of Police. One of the
pioneers, Germany is. New concepts like Integrated Border Management
and Coastal Zone Management have been introduced. European Unity
makes extraordinary progressive steps with the CARDS programme
(Community

Assistance

for

Reconstruction,

Development

and

Stabilization) and the role of Police Assistance Missions like PAMEGA are
of excellently prominent value.
SUMMARY
It should be clear that policing is not a static entity isolated from the
assumptions and changes of society. The constant changes of the past
resulted from altered perspectives and conditions in society itself. It is
logical to assume that it will continue to produce changes and shifts in
emphasis. How ever, despite changes in organisation and function, the
principles laid down by Peel continue to be historically valid, for police
generally and for Border Police specially.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Berkley, G.E. 1969. The democratic policeman. Boston: Beacon.
Clift, R.E. 1956. A guide to modern police thinking. Cincinnati: Anderson.
Cohn, A.V. & Viano, E.C. (ed.) 1976. Police community relations.
Philadelphia: Lippineott.
Devlin, J.D. 1966. Police procedure, administration and organisation.
London: Butterworths.
Eldefonso, E., Coffey, A. & Grace, R.C. 1968. Principles of law
enforcement. New York: Wiley.
Folley, V.L. 1973. American law enforcement. Oxford, Ma: Hollbrook
Research Institute.
Hewitt, W.H. 1965. British police administration. Springfield: Charles
Thomas.
Killinger G.E.E. & Cromwell P.F. (eds) 1975. Issues in law enforcement.
Oxford, Ma: Hollbrook.
Lee, M. 1971. A history of police in England. Montclair, NJ: Patterson
Smith.
More, H.W. 1975. Principles and procedures in the administration of
justice. New York: Wiley.
Patrick, C.H. 1972. The police, crime and society. Springfield: Charles
Thomas.

Radelet, L.A. 1977. The police and the community. California: Glencoe.
Stead, P.J. (ed.) 1977. Pioneers in policing. Berkshire: McGraw-Hill.
Strecher, V.G. 1971. The environment of law enforcement. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Sullivan, J.L. 1971. Introduction to police science. New York: McGrawHill.
Van Heerden, T.J. 1976. Introduction to police science. Pretoria: University
of South Africa.

CHAPTER 2

The police role

INTRODUCTION
Our historical review has shown that policing is about the maintenance of
social order with the emphasis on prevention. It has also become clear that
a great many services directed at peaceful coexistence have come to be
regarded as police functions functions initially performed by the
citizenry. These extremely important services, which in fact were and still
are the duty of every member of society, were in time delegated to
specialists policemen. Therefore policemen are in essence the delegates
of the people (Strecher 1971: 15).The delegation of this function means
that its content is determined by the community (particularly as it has taken
shape in history), that it is subject to specific authority and power limits,
and that its execution is subject to specific obligations and expectations.
We, as students of police science, cannot dissociate ourselves from these
facts indeed, only when their meaning has been properly identified can
meaningful organisation be undertaken so that the service can be performed
in such a way that expectations are fulfilled.

THE CONCEPT OF A "ROLE"

Geary (1975: 45) defines a role as something done by a person in a given
position. Caldwell (1972: 6) sees it as a pattern of behaviour expected or
required of a person in a specific social situation. These definitions are
largely concerned with the function of individuals. Yinger takes it further.
To him role is "a unit of culture referring to the rights and duties, or
normatively approved patterns of behaviour for the occupants of a given
position" (Killinger & Cromwell 1975: 212). According to this definition,
role refers to
(1)

an aggregation of associated obligations and rights forming a distinct

cultural unit within the total cultural framework separate but not isolated
from other cultural units
(2)

normative prescriptions for the fulfilment of the role

(3)

a general behaviour pattern of individuals representing the collective

role of the distinct group.

The individual policeman is not in fact an isolated practitioner of the police
role. Because of the continuous nature of his authority position and action
patterns, as determined by the police institution, he is always a
representative of the institution and authority structure within which he acts
(Van Heerden 1976: 41).

According to Sterling (Geary 1975: 47) the role concept may also be
defined as "a set of expectations, held by individuals or groups of
individuals, regarding the behaviour and attributes of a role incumbent".
Whereas the previous definitions are mainly concerned with the objective
or actual role content associated with the delegated objective, Sterling's
definition has an evaluative or subjective connotation. Hence, while the
objective role concept is concerned with the purely historical-philosophical
meaning of the role content, the subjective role content is more concerned
with the individual expectations and needs of the clientele. Bearing in mind
the heterogeneity of the public, that is, the diversity of populations and
social classes, it becomes clear that many different conceptions of the role
could arise, and some of these might be in total conflict with what the
police role is supposed to be.
Evaluations of the police role usually stem from personal experiences,
which in general are concerned with only certain aspects of the total police
task. We must remember that the individual policeman's behaviour stems
from the normative functional pattern of the institution. If the experience of
the evaluator (role allocator) is distorted, this will mean that his
expectations are also distorted, and this may be because the institution's
own perspectives are unbalanced. If expectations are unrealistic whether
this results from experience, prejudice, negative attitudes or whatever

the general role concept too will be unrealistic. Here are some experiences
that result in a subjective role concept (Van Heerden 1976: 47-49)
(1)

The incidence of crime and the absence of visible police protection

services create the impression that prosecution and repression take

precedence over the protection of persons and property.
(2)

A negative attitude or unsuccessful investigation of a serious crime

gives the impression that the police are more interested in applying norms
of convenience or mere harassment than in enforcing the penal code.
(3)

Indifference and failure to heed to appeals for help make the police

appear incompetent to meet society's needs.

(4)Misuse of discretion bordering on discrimination gives the impression
that the police are only concerned with the interests of certain groups.
The subjective concept of the police role cannot be ignored but it must
never replace the objective concept. To uncover the true function in a
purposeful and orderly way, the subjective concept must of necessity be
noted from time to time so that operational role activities can be revised in
an attempt to establish the true meaning of the role in the mind of the role
allocator.

ROLE DIVISION
Harmonious survival and coexistence, the ideal of society, is built upon a
network of roles. This variety of roles is determined by and rooted in the
social structure (Horton & Hunt 1964: 146). None of these roles can be
fulfilled in isolation. Constant interaction is essential to ensure the smooth
operation of the social system. It is logical, then, that for each role there are
specific obligations, and that the role allocator (society) will require these
obligations to be fulfilled in such a way that a positive contribution is made
to the actualisation of the overall objective order.
Our present concern is not to review all the roles in society. You need only
note that the police are among many role-fulfillers; they are part of the total
role pattern and cannot exist in isolation.
What is more to the point at present is role division in the administration of
justice. The judicial function (or police function) of the State is a collective
one delegated by the citizenry to consolidate and maintain order in
accordance with the constitutional claims of individuals. More (1975: 14)
describes this function as "the prevention, detection, discovery, and
suppression of crime; the identification, apprehension, and prosecution of
persons accused as criminals; and the incarceration, supervision, and
reform and rehabilitation of convicted offenders". There is also the overall
task of indicating, by legislation and the behavioural expectations it

comprises, what is regarded or envisaged as formal order at any point in

time.
As we saw in the previous chapter, this extensive function used to be
undertaken by a single person or body. This implied a serious threat to
individual claims to freedom and safety. Impelled by the despotism and
malpractices of the time, the baron De Montesquieu (1689-1755) published
his tenet, the trias politia (tripartite doctrine), which cleared the way for the
division of this far-reaching task of government into three separate bodies
the legislative, executive and judicative subsystems (Van Heerden 1976:
46). Each subsystem is charged with a specific facet of the judiciary
function, to prevent an overconcentration of power in one organ which
might lead to the denial of individual claims (Wessels 1962: 22).

ROLE CONTENT
There is considerable uncertainty among authors and among certain
policemen about the true content of the police role. This uncertainty is
mainly due to the historical tradition by which the police have carried out a
variety of services throughout the centuries, and the concept of policing in
its theoretical context has never been properly defined.
It must be remembered that policing is very closely concerned with the
concepts of social control and order. Social order is a pattern of harmonious

coexistence in which diverse interests are recognised, and in which

relationships are not violated, Rules for the protection of these interests are
formally laid down in a compact network of behavioural rules precepts for
the smooth functioning of relationships (Van Heerden 1976: 8-16).
Theoretical deliberation about police involvement in social control brings
us to the object of policing: the maintenance of social order in a manner
compatible with the constitutional rights of every individual (Van Heerden
1976: 42). "Maintenance" requires that the state of order will be protected
in the interests both of society and of the individual. Germann, Day and
Galatti, as quoted by Ward (Killinger & Cromwell 1975: 211) see the two
main objects of policing as
(1)

"The prevention of crime and disorder and the preservation of peace

(for community security).

(2)

The protection of life and property and personal liberty (for

individual security)".
It stands to reason that maintenance of order includes law enforcement
(Skolnick 1968: 10). Myren (Radelet 1977: 46), Blanchard (1975: 140),
Wilson (1968: 4) and the average policeman see law enforcement as the
main content of the police role. Wilson (1968: (2): 408) defines this
function as the application of legal sanctions, generally by way of arrest
and the gathering of evidence for submission to the judicative authority (i.e.

crime investigation). The maintenance of order entails protection by

prevention and persuasive control and repression by coercive control (law
enforcement); law enforcement is therefore not a sole aim, but merely the
means and methods or techniques for restoration of the violated order (Van
Heerden 1976: 45). Law enforcement is in fact a secondary goal of the law.
The law is not impersonal, as it is sometimes made out to be. It lays down
appropriate conduct. When people are obedient they avoid the negative
aspects such as arrest and prosecution. The task of the police is to carry out
this meaning of the law. If this is done, then violation of the law will be
prevented; the persons and property of citizens will be protected, and
individual rights will be upheld in the process. All the police objectives are
subject to the maintenance of social order by carrying out the law, and they
arise from the need to do so.
Blanchard's view (1975: 136) that the maintenance of order is the same
thing as preserving the peace, is closely associated with the above point of
view. In this context such matters as controlling crowds, settling domestic
disputes, regulating and controlling traffic and dealing with other minor
disputes are only relevant to behaviour that contains a latent threat to law
and order. In addition, most of the policeman's time (especially that of the
line functionary) is spent giving advice and meeting needs, and on other
duties that do not relate directly to any threat or violation of the law, yet

that help to create a contented society. With a sympathetic attitude the

police have a far more positive image as a service-oriented institution than
an over-emphasis of the enforcement function could ever have.
these two approaches cannot exist in isolation, but the position of police
institutions on the continuum is determined by the extent to which each is
emphasised at the expense of the other (Van Heerden 1976: 49-51).
The general nature of an institution is very largely determined by the place
where the emphasis falls: on law enforcement (police force) or law
execution (police service). We can summarise the difference between the
two approaches as follows (Van Heerden 1976: 42-46):
When the police task (content) is described as the investigation and
prevention of crime, and the maintenance of law and order and of internal
security, this is mainly of function al and organisational significance
belonging as it does to the overall role content, which is the maintenance of
social order. You need to be thoroughly familiar with this aspect.

ROLE FULFILMENT
There are clear functional guidelines and principles for activities geared to
protection (prevention) and suppression (repressive control) aspects
such as patrolling and criminal investigation are discussed in detail in the

course of your study although the way in which this role has to be
fulfilled is not clearly spelled out.
The police are symbols of order, and the community has a guarantee that
the constitutional rights of every individual will be protected, irrespective
of race or social class (Van Heerden 1976: 15); this means that the task of
policing has to be carried out in such a way that order is reinforced by
respect for individual rights. Police activities can not be carried out in an
arbitrary way that simply carries out the functional content of the police
role. They are always subject to the principle that the police function is
delegated to the State in order that interests may be equally (Skolnick 1966:
6): Police authority and power (delegated by the public) equals protection.
Justice under the law can exist only when judicial standards are applied
fairly and impartially. Impartiality, fairness and equality before the law are
the cornerstones of the sovereignty of the law. Acceptable maintenance of
order also requires that the sovereignty of the law be served as an end in
itself. It is essential for this attitude to be reflected in all police activity
(Van Heerden 1976: 59-60), regardless of resulting attitudes towards the
actualisation of the role content.

Police force versus police service

The two main aspects of policing protection (prevention and
maintaining the peace) and coercive control (law enforcement) are related
but non-identical objectives. According to Weston and Wells (1972: 43)
they represent two extremes in a continuum determining the general way in
which this role is fulfilled.
Law enforcement, in the form of arrest, prosecution and criminal
investigation, at one extreme of the continuum, creates the impression that
the police function as a police force. At the other end of the continuum, the
execution of the preservative and protective functions in social control
gives the impression of a police service (More 1975: 123). Obviously these
two approaches cannot exist in isolation, but the position of police
institutions on the continuum is determined by the extent to which each is
emphasised at the expense of the other (Van Heerden 1976:49-51)
The general nature of an institution is very largely determined by the place
where the emphasis falls: on law enforcement (police force)or law
execution (police service). We can summarise the difference between the
two approaches as follows (Van Heerden 1976:42-46):
Law execution
Comprises

proactive

Law enforcement
or

preventive Comprises reactive or repressive policing

policing (crime prevention)

criminal investigation
A form of persuasive control has A form of coercive control has negative

positive significance
significance
Refers to police service that is to say Refers to police force that is to say
support and aid
arrest and prosecution
Practitioner friend, advisor and officer Practitioner repressor, enforcer and
of the peace
enemy
Considerable room for discretion, e.g. Little or no room for discretion action
warnings for minor offences
strictly according to the letter of the law
Efficiency not measurable in statistical Efficiency statistically measurable
terms is measured by:

number

(a)

absence of crime

convictions, etc.

(b)

public image of police

(c)

degree

of

support

of

arrests,

prosecutions,

from

community; and
(d)
partnership in goal achievement
Needs cooperation from public

An exclusive police function The sole task

of the police
Order maintenance not the police's sole Geared to coersive control
responsibility geared to voluntary
obedience to law
Executed by means of functional acts Carried out by means of specialisation,
preventive

activities,

projection, traffic control.

patrolling, clear rules and procedures

Styles of policing
The operation of a police force is closely linked with the "war style"
advocated by Hopkins (1931: 32). This style is based on the theory that the
police are the first line of defence. A criminal is therefore an "enemy" to be
combated at all costs and in any way whatsoever. Any method is justified
for the winning of the "war" even the administration of punishment
which is not, in terms of the tripartite doctrine, the police function. This
style is to be deplored and is a violation of the true meaning of policing.
After a careful study of the way in which various police forces carry out
their roles, Wilson (1968: 140-226) identified three styles (Van Heerden
1976: 106-107):
Watchman style
The main characteristics are:

emphasis on maintenance of order

discretionary action

minor offences overlooked

protection of person and property

activities geared to patrol and protection services

arrest statistics not the measure of efficiency

purposeful repression of major offences.

Legalistic style
The emphasis in this case is on:

law enforcement

evaluation of situations from the legal point of view

arrest for all offences including legal misdemeanours

cases are dealt with formally

patrol work is neglected

no room for discretion

efficiency measured in terms of administrative skill and arrest

statistics.

Service style
This style of policing is a synthesis of the watchman and legalistic styles.
Its main characteristics are:

a balance between law enforcement and law execution

discretion meaningfully exercised by using alternatives to arrest

police act frequently but in an informal way

geared to the maintenance of existing orderly conditions

public opinion is taken into account.

The proposed model: The staff cadre of the first line. It is demanded by
the new challenges. e. g. the evolution of the organized crime especially
this committed by armed groups as the terrorist groups are. Consequently
permit me to focus to another matter parenthetically, in order to give a
distinguish explanation for the new model. This parenthesis has to do with
modus operandi, of the armed groups. By an anatomy (made personally)
during my 25 years career in Police (senior officer) dealing with
antiterrorism and was examining over than one thousand deeds
(internationally), analysing them by an anatomy way the following were
concluded:
Every armed deed follows a formula which includes 20 maneuverings,
which comes before the deed and some of them follow it. They have as
next:
First: The group examines all the data and makes the decision for the deed.
Second: In order to act safely the group takes measures in order to achieve
and to exploit a sudden deed.
Third: The target must be kept sleepy. For that reason various other and
different threats are distributed.
Fourth: The 4th manoeuvring supports the third. It is the dissimulation. The
members of the group that deal with the following (watching) the target
show other interests.

Fifth: Deceiving in General (of the broader surrounding).

Sixth: Deceiving in special (of the other groups of similar ideology or other
illegals like member of organised crime).
Seventh: Agit-propaganda deeds, so the police forces take constant
measures.
Eighth: Propaganda deeds so all the believed targets undertake private
measures.
Nine: Constant threats so the involve personnel in the 7th and 8th measures
to be fatigue and to be guided to burn out syndrome.
Tenth: Abandone (by the group) all the other activities and collection of
information about the target (2weeks at least till several months).
Eleventh: Strict security measures of the group itself.
Twelveth: Verification of the collected information
Thirteenth: The group is ready to answer to a police action.
Fourteenth: An undercover try out (prova generale) is transacted against the
target.
Fifteenth: 24 hours (upper time limit) the deed is executed. At the place of
the deed many guards of the perpetrators are stand by.
Sixteenth: Evacuation of the scene of crime
Seventeenth: Evaluation of the deed after some days.
Eighteenth: The group try to minimize internal trivialities.

Nineteenth: Knowledge management for the Police activity and in order to

support the members effectivity.
Twentieth: Data processing in order a new target be chosen from the
alternatives. (Spyros Kyriakakis: Modus Operandi of armed groups Penal
Justice Review Athens Greece No. 4, pages 535-437, April 2004).

This modus operandi is not only the terrorist groups characteristic.

Nowadays many other groups like armed groups of organised crime, armed
groups of industrial espionage, cycles, (bombings against installations)
pirates, and others, copy this formula Chain of Copy
Consequently it is difficult for police officers to determine if they are in
front of a terrorist action, or they have to do with another type of crime.
Subsequently new demands have been flowerised for police officers. I
mean to be effective in a staff work, (analysing a lot of information and
intelligence), to be good managers directing police personnel and to have
an extent level of knowledge and simultaneously to be effective on
operational level and on the tactic level as well and to be able to teach
others to exploit every detail e. t. c.
Consequently a new style of Police (and Border Police) officer is
demanded, this of the effective manager, staff cadre and effective
operational officer (three roles to one person).

An officer like the model we described is able to recognize the process of

the armed groups modus operandi from an early stage. Moreover is able
to communicate all this knowledge to his/her subordinates.
This new model is more flexible and effective while the other styles try
to be efficient.
Efficient is to do the things right according the affiliated style.
Effective is to the right things. And the effectivity demands a big amount of
knowledge and skills. Exactly as the proposed new style (model).
Discretion
Good judgment is the basis for the approach to the police role and the way
in which it is carried out, as indicated in the previous two paragraphs: that
is, the decision as to whether the law is to be executed passively or
extensively. This decision is usually taken by the institution itself and is
largely determined by prevailing conditions. What it amounts to is that
selective action is taken, in other words the emphasis is on discretionary
maintenance of order.
Because discretion is often confused or equated with discrimination or
differentiated action, the view is taken that the police are not allowed to
exercise any discretion. If the police were not allowed to use discretionary
action the judiciary system would collapse under the burden of an
overloaded police service, crowded courts and overpopulated prisons

(Davis 1971: 25-26). Without discretion it is not possible to carry out the.
police role in a meaningful way.
More (1975: 81) defines discretion as consideration, good judgment, the
freedom to make decisions and the ability to form a judgment. It can result
in action or in a decision not to act. This decision must never be influenced
by class differences: this would violate the principle of equality before the
law. Discretion in such a case would look like discrimination. If policemen
do not constantly bear this in mind, the entire system of justice as well as
the police are in danger of being seen in an unfavourable light.
Note that discretion covers a wide area:

Discretion and the law

Actions that are specifically prohibited cannot be dealt with in a
discretionary way. According to Skolnick (1966: 7) this would be
unauthorised discretion. Discretion in such a case can at most mean a
decision to arrest or to employ alternatives to arrest. Patrick (1972: 6) feels
that the social control process can not allow for a margin of discretion in
cases where universal rules of conduct (penal regulations against murder,
rape, high treason, etc.) are transgressed. A choice is, however, possible in
the application of alternative rules (norms of convenience, i.e. legal
misdemeanours).

Discretionary action must be in the spirit of the law in other words, it

should be possible to ask: Is the action or non-action in accordance with the
final objective of the law? Radelet (1973: 90) believes that every individual
should be dealt with in such a way that he will relinquish his lawless
behaviour, even if in some cases it means declining to prosecute.

The victim's discretion

The public initiates the legal process and mobilises the police (Reiss 1971:
114). The decision as to whether to report a crime can be influenced by a
variety of factors, such as:

private settlement

disinterestedness

lack of involvement

fear of time-consuming legal actions

belief in police incapacity to solve cases

negative police attitude at time of report

triviality of cases

darker motives such as a wish to take unlawful private action or

to derive private advantage from reporting the crime.

Institutional discretion

Within the institution, discretion refers to administrative policy as far as

priorities and sporadic actions are concerned. Without institutional
discretion, police service is subject to a disorganised "first come, first
served" approach (Geary 1975: 253). Total law enforcement is impossible.
Passive enforcement, that is, the partial enforcement of some laws, appears
to be the answer. The following are some of the factors involved:

availability of personnel and resources

scope of specific types of crime

the seriousness of the threat

insistence of authorities and public on more efficient action

regular revision of policy to adapt to specific circumstances.

Line discretion
It is the line functionary who most often has to decide whether to exercise
discretion or not. Apart from departmental policy or the insistence of
seniors, his judgment is also affected by:

court decisions, light punishment, ambiguous court procedures

public antagonism and indifference

his own shortsightedness, prejudices, tendency to categorise,

negative attitude and fear of consequences

the situation in which he finds himself.

Judicious action by individual policemen is of vital importance. Banton, as

quoted by Radelet (1977: 82) writes: "It will be agreed that nothing is more
important to police-public relations or to police efficiency generally than
that the individual police officer should have good judgment in handling
people."

ROLE RESTRICTIONS
The system of roles, each embodying a specific commission in the
actualisation of the social ideal, requires that each role should be
concentrated on a specific area and should require restricted powers for its
fulfilment. Police action is therefore restricted to what is associated with
the maintenance of formal social order. We need to be thoroughly
acquainted with the following.

Authority and power

Authority is a brief to act within the framework of the institutional
objective. The action of the police as an executive subsystem is restricted to
action prescribed, permitted or prohibited by the collectivity (Banton 1964:
147). The limits of police authority are therefore indicated by the codes of
con duct contained in criminal and statutory law, regulations and
ordinances. Action is justified only when the disputed act is subject in this

way to legal control. To act outside the law is to exceed the limits of
authority and is not permissible. The police as directors of social
relationship (Bordua 1967: 26) also have the authority to take preventive
action against any manifestation of conflict that could result in disorder or
crime. This is closely linked with the obligation to carry out the basic
meaning of the law.
Power, on the other hand, is the right to apply methods within the limits
of authority to achieve this objective. This relates to the use of force to
extort obedience from others (Germann et al, 1962: 9) and to carry out
effectively the obligations that underly law enforcement. Restrictions to
these powers, with regard to arrest, search and interrogation are laid down
by criminal procedure. Hence, authority delineates the sphere of action,
while power is mainly concerned with the methods used to achieve the
objectives of authority. Accountability is the basic principle that underlies
the delegation of authority and power. A policeman is always accountable
to the authorities, to the role allocator (society) and to the institution. His
conduct must always be in accordance with the prescriptions and with the
expectations set in relation to it.
For our present purpose we need only note the distinction between
authority and power.

Individual rights
We have seen again and again that the maintenance of order must always
take place with due heed to individual rights to privacy, safety and
freedom. This obligation underlies the delegation of authority by society to
government. A portion of individual freedom is relinquished on the
understanding that rights will be protected and respected. In fact, the
division of judicialy powers and the clear prescriptions as to how these
powers are to be exercised are based on this respect for individual rights
(Wessels 1962: 20 and B.R.No5).
Safeguards for the upholding of rights are in the nature of a statement of
immunities rather than, a set of demands. These immunities comprise a
promise to bring about freedom and to replace unnecessary fears by peace
of mind (Van Heerden 1976: 60).
Inroads on individual rights to privacy, freedom and safety are therefore
justified only when claims to these rights would interfere unduly with the
rights of others (Le Grande 1967: 399), with order, and with national peace
and order (Coffey et al. 1971:84).
After studying the restrictions placed on role fulfilment, you must note that
the sovereignty of the law and the thirteen principles of policing that
generally apply in democratic societies also have a restrictive action. Study
all this along with the above portion.

THE ROLE ENVIRONMENT

The police role is fulfilled in an external environment that is in a constant
state of change with regard to

cultural values morals, ethics, interests and preferences

the structure of the social system privileged and underprivileged,

high and low status, wealth and poverty and other unequal distributions of
desired commodities

cultural

institutions

schools,

churches,

judicial

system,

government institutions, trade unions, technology and economy (Strecher

1971: 57).
The occupational environment is further composed of diverse population
groups that are spatially arranged in different degrees of density through
processes of concentration, centralisation and decentralisation. This results
in the formation of groups. The stratification process divides these groups
horizontally into a status hierarchy. Competition, communication and
cooperation result in conflict, but also in diverse expectations of the
fulfilment of the police role. Distorted perceptions of the police,
projections, prejudices and open antagonism often result from the fact that
the police, as the executive arm of the total system, are held responsible for
inconveniences created by general conditions. The accept ability of the
total system therefore has an implied effect on the acceptance and support

accorded to the police. In this environment, not created by the police, a

service has to be given that largely concerns the antisocial side of life. The
policeman, being human, is not immune to negative influences from his
occupational environment. His tendency to categorise and to harbour his
own prejudices can be neither ignored nor condemned. Yet the policeman is
expected under all circumstances to play his part impartially and without
prejudice, judiciously and with understanding. This underlines the fact that
the police role cannot be fulfilled in a vacuum; it is in constant interaction
with a wide range of social subsystems and with the physical and psychic
conditions of the role environment. Make sure that you are familiar with all
this, particularly with the implications for policing.
You would also do well to note at this stage that a police man's general
attitude and style of role-fulfilment is largely determined by the climate of
the internal occupational environment. This environment, with its
bureaucratic nature, is geared to the most efficient role fulfilment in terms
of a rigid set of prescriptions and rules of conduct and a structured system
of discipline.
All of us, the police officers our attention was drawn to certain principles of
organisation. Since the internal organisational environment will be
discussed in detail in course III, these remarks will suffice. You are
expected, however, to take note of the meaning of discipline.

The word discipline means instruction, teaching or training, in other words,

a systematic exercise in self-restraint. Its main purpose is to simplify the
coordination of activities, to develop self-restraint and character, and to
promote orderliness and efficiency (Iannone 1970: 208).
Unfortunately discipline is often associated with punishment. It actually
goes much further. The following forms are distinguished by Van Heerden
(1976: 199-121):
(1)

negative or corrective discipline directed at punishment and

admonition
(2)

positive or creative discipline, which is achieved by training and

guidance which conditions attitude in such a way that rules and regulations
for the promotion of self-discipline are internalised
(3)

preventive or clinical discipline designed to identify and eliminate

the causes of undesirable actions.

SUMMARY
There is no doubt that the police play a far-reaching role in society. Its
importance to society, its complex nature and the heterogeneous
environment it serves are likewise beyond doubt. What is not always clear
is the meaning of that role in relation to the maintenance of good
relationships.

The object of policing is not an absolute one. It is not to do with law

enforcement at the expense of social order, but rather with the execution of
the law for the sake of social order. This is the substance of the Border
Policing.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Banton, M. 1964. The policeman in the community. London: Tavistock.
Blanchard, R.E. 1975. Introduction to the administration of justice. New
York: Wiley.
Bordua, D.J. 1967. The police. New York: Wiley. Caldwell, H. 1972. Basic
law enforcement. California: Goodyear.
Coffey, A., Eldefonso, E. & Hartinger, W. 1971. Human relations.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Davis, K.C. 1971. Discretionary Justice. Chicago: University of Illinois
Press.
Geary, D.P. 1975. Community relations and the administration of justice.
New York: Wiley.
Germann, A.C., Day, F.D. & Galatti, R.R. 1962. Introduction to law
enforcement. Springfield: Charles Thomas.
Hopkins, E.J. 1931. Our lawless police. New York: Viking.
Horton, P.B. & Hunt, C.L. 1964. Sociology. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Iannone, N.F. 1970. Supervision of police personnel. Engle wood Cliffs,

NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Killinger, G.G. & Cromwell, P.F. (eds) 1975. Issues in law enforcement.
Boston: Holbrook.
Le Grande, J. 1967. Nonviolent civil disobedience and law enforcement
policy. Journal of criminal law, criminology and police science. 58 (no. 3).
More, H.W. 1975. Principles and procedures in the administration of
justice. New York: Wiley.
Patrick, C.H. 1972. The police, crime and society. Springfield: Charles
Thomas.
Radelet, L.A. 1977. 2nd edition. The police and the communi ty.
California: Glencoe.
Reiss, A.J. 1971. The police and the public. New Haven: Yale University
Press.
Skolnick, J.H. 1966. Justice without trial. New York: Wiley.
Skolnick, J.H. 1968. Professional police in a free society. New York:
National Conference of Christians and Jews.
Strecher, N.G. 1971. The environment of law enforcement. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Van Heerden, T.J. 1976. Introduction to police Science. Pretoria: University
of South Africa.

Wessels, F.J. 1962. Die Republikeinse grondwet. Kaapstad: Nasionale

Boekhandel.
Weston, P.B. & Wells, K.M. 1972. Law enforcement and criminal justice.
California: Goodyear.
Wilson, J.Q. 1968. Varieties of police behaviour: the management of law
and order in eight communities. Harvard University Press. 1968(2).
Dilemmas of police administration. Public Administration Review 28 (no.
5).

CHAPTER 3

The Code of police ethics

It springs up the Recommendation (2001) 10 adopted by the

committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe in 19 September 2001

General obligations
The Police personnel:
a. Shall serve the people and perform its duties in accordance with
the Constitution and laws.
b. Is obliged to respect human dignity and protect human rights of
people both as individuals and as members of society.
c. Shall always act with a view to securing public order and safety,
serving public interest and guaranteeing citizens legitimate interests.
d. Shall act, while carrying out its duties, guided by the principles of
legitimacy, proportionality, leniency, good public governance, non discrimination and respect of peoples diversity.

Guidelines for Police Action

The Police personnel:

a. Is subject to the principles of constant readiness and execution of

orders while on duty.
b. Shall proceed to the implementation of law guided by social
consideration and shall never surpass permitted limits of the discretionary
power invested to them. Police personnel are obliged during intervention to
give evidence of their police status and professional identity.
c. Shall perform their duties guided by the principles of impartiality,
objectivity, transparency, prudence, self - control, firmness, decisiveness
and dignity with a view to protecting all citizens without any discrimination
by unlawful acts committed against them.
d. Shall respect the every persons right to life and security. Police
does not inflict, instigate or tolerate acts of torture and inhuman or
degrading treatment or punishment and reports cases of violations of
human rights.
e. Shall use non - violent means while maintaining and enforcing
law. The use of force is permitted only when absolutely necessary and to
the extent envisaged and required for law enforcement. The use of force
shall always respect the principles of necessity, adequacy and
proportionality. Police shall use the most moderate means possible by
avoiding any unnecessary disturbance, cruelty or unjustifiable damage to
property. Police shall not proceed to abusive use of chemicals and other

available means, in particular those that are likely to harm public health.
Police shall use firearms only in cases provided for by law and shall
immediately report the incident.
f. Shall act with a view to maintaining and reestablishing public
order and safety in order to secure respect of all citizens human rights and
smooth social living, crime prevention and combat, protection of
democracy by avoiding behaviors that may lead to conflict and enforce
only the necessary rights restrictions envisaged by law.
g. Shall confirm the violations of the law without any discrimination
guided by sound judgment, calmness and politeness. Police shall explain
the violation committed by the violator, as well as his / her rights as clearly
as possible in order to clear up doubts by avoiding disputes and
exaggerations.
h. Shall protect the private and family life of individuals and
intervene when necessary in accordance with the procedures provided for
by law in order to serve legal and specific causes. Police personnel shall
respect confidentiality as far as top secret incidents or information are
concerned, as well as in case of incidents or information obtained while on
duty or due to their police status, either these concern police matters or they
refer to the private and family life and in general to personal matters of
citizens, unless lifting of confidentiality is permitted by law.

Guidelines during arrest and detention by the Police

The Police personnel:
a. Shall proceed to the arrest of persons as provided for by the
Constitution and law. The arrest shall be conducted in a cautious and
consistent way, the police personnel must behave correctly and omit any
action that can insult the honour and pride of the arrested person and in
general insult the dignity of a person. Police must use force only when
absolutely necessary and shall restrain the arrested person only when the
last one reacts violently or is suspect of escaping.
b. Shall immediately inform detainees of the reasons for their arrest
and detention, for any charge against them, their rights and for the
procedure applicable to their case. Detainees, who do not understand the
speaking language, shall be informed in a language that they understand by
way of interpretation or by any other available means.
c. Shall take care of the direct communication by telephone or any
other available means of the arrested persons with another person of their
choice or the consular authorities of their country in case they are aliens in
order to notify the third party for the reason and place of their detention.

d. Shall make easier the provision of legal assistance to the arrested

person and secure his / her direct and unhampered communication with a
lawyer.
e. Shall secure the communication of the detainee with his / her
family, the consular authorities of his / her country in case he / she is an
alien and national and international committees that are competent for the
protection of detainees according to international conventions and the law.
f. Shall permit the communication of the detainee, in case he / she
approves, with official collective bodies that provide support to the
detainees and in general protect their human rights.
g. Shall secure detention conditions that guarantee safety, health and
protection of the personality of the detainee and makes sure that the rest of
detainees are not put together with criminal detainees, men with women,
minors with adults, while special care shall be provided to vulnerable
persons.
h. Shall take care of the protection of the detainees health,
securing direct medical care if necessary and the possibility of
examination by a doctor of the detainees choice.
i. Shall prevent and immediately report any act of torture or other
form of inhuman, cruel or degrading treatment or punishment, any form of

violence or threat of violence, as well as any form of unfavourable or

discriminating treatment against the detainee.
j. Shall bring to justice or to any other competent authority the
arrested person as soon as possible and in any case within the deadlines set
by law.
k. Shall take all available legal measures, as the case may be, in
order to prevent the escape of the arrested person.
l. Shall not publicize the identity, group, race, ethnic origin or
nationality of the arrested person, unless it is deemed necessary for the
purpose of anticriminal policy.
m. Shall register all arrests and detentions in the official records of
the Service.

Guidelines during preliminary investigation

The police personnel:
a. Shall act according to the provisions of the Criminal Procedure
Code during preliminary investigation with a view to quickly
accomplishing the purposes of preliminary investigation.
b. Shall respect the presumption of innocence of the person accused
and is obliged to secure all his / her rights. Everyone accused has the right
to be informed promptly of the accusation against him / her and to prepare

his / her defense, in particular through legal assistance of his / her counsel.
Those who do not understand the speaking language shall be informed
in a language that they understand by way of interpretation or by any
other available means.
c. Shall behave appropriately towards the arrested persons, suspects,
witnesses and persons inflicted damage and shall not use force or pressure
of any form in order to obtain information.
d. Shall protect persons inflicted damage and witnesses, in particular
when there is danger of them being intimidated. Police shall also take
seriously in mind the mental health, specific occasion and interests of
victims of sexual exploitation or molestation, trying as much as possible
to limit the victims secondary victimization.
e. Shall act according to domestic law during inspection and every
kind of search, showing special care and decency and avoiding any
publicity. In particular, Police shall make sure that during body and home
searches the personality and private life of the persons involved are
respected and that any disturbance not necessary is avoided.

Helping out citizens

1. Among the police personnel's duties are, above all, the protection
of citizens rights and the creation of the conditions under which helping

out the public in a quick, unhampered and easy way can be possible. Police
shall also improve the relations between police and citizens. In particular,
police personnel shall immediately examine citizens requests that relate to
offences and incidents of police interest and offer their legal assistance
without any delay.
2. Among the everyday duties of the police personnel are the
following: dealing with the citizens needs with humanity, modesty,
social awareness and flexibility, avoidance of formalism, demonstrating
initiatives and adopting practical measures in order to avoid injustices
and succeed in dealing with them effectively. Furthermore, the police
personnel shall create relations of common trust, cooperation and social
consent.
3. Among the basic parameters of Police behaviour are the
following: avoiding prejudice based on colour, sex, ethnicity, ideology,
religion, sexual orientation, age, disability, marital status, economic
and social position or any other personal distinguishing characteristic.
4. The police personnel shall show special care in particular for the
protection of children, women, over - aged and disabled people, refugees,
members of ethnic minorities and in general persons of vulnerable social
groups. The police personnel shall offer assistance to pregnant women,
women in childbed, sick persons and persons in need. In particular, Police

shall show minors understanding and humanity shall protect them from
damaging effects and dangers to which they may be exposed. Police shall
also deal with minors with exceptional sensibility in case they have
violated the law, as well as minors and women refugees or victims or
physical, psychological or sexual violence or exploitation.

The Police high official as a public servant

The police officer:
a. Has the same rights with the rest of the citizens with the
exceptions provided for by the Constitution and law. These exceptions are
necessary for the fulfillment of the Police mission in a democratic society.
b. Shall respect, conform to and implement the rules that apply to the
relations between senior and lower rank officers and the relations of the
colleagues among them in order to secure the proper, unhampered and
efficient functioning of the Service in a climate of discipline, solidarity and
unity.
c. Shall secure that in case citizens express complaints against a
colleague police officer, the procedures of investigation and control are
conducted impartially and effectively.
d. Shall follow the commands of his / her superiors and is
accountable for any action or omission committed. The police officer is

personally responsible for his / her actions or omissions and may also be
held responsible for carrying out illegal or anti - constitutional orders.
e. Shall facilitate the investigations and controls conducted by
judicial, administrative and independent administrative authorities.
f. Fully cooperate with civil servants of other public Services while
on duty, as well as representatives of public bodies, institutions and
organizations in order to serve public and social interest.
g. Shall reject any effort of bribery and shall in general behave and
live by setting the example of a good citizen and uncorrupted police officer.
h. Shall not use his / her position in order to gain personal advantage
or favour the interests of third parties, neither shall he / she allow to his /
her relatives or friends to use directly or indirectly the police officers
status in order to promote their interests.
i. Shall deal with austerity and fight against any act of corruption and
report such an act to the competent authorities.
j. Shall show an honourable behaviour while on duty and shall not
accept directly or indirectly any present or free services, also imposing the
same behaviour to his / her close relatives.
k. Shall not take part while off duty in activities and shall not
proceed to any action that may harm his / her police officer status.

l. Shall try to improve on a permanent basis his / her performance

and knowledge and receive on - going training.

NOTE: On the above mentioned basis of Police Ethics, several

codes of ethics can be established separately e.g. for basic level staff, for
non commission officers, for inspectors, commissars even for leaders.

CHAPTER 4

Principles of organisation

Objective determination
The objective can be seen as the definition of both a goal and the criteria
that can be applied to measure the extent to which the goal is realized. You
should also concisely differentiate the three forms of objectives, from
which it can be deduced that objective determination and formulation is not
a static process, but a dynamic one.
Objective determination can be singled out justifiably as the fundamental
organizational principle ( first among equals ) since it gives rise to and,
owing to its fluid character, pervasively influences all the other.

Distribution of work
Try to answer the following questions on the course of your discussion:
what is understood by distribution of work?
What is the connection between this concept and that of
organization?

 What are three basic function subsumed under distribution of work,

and how do they complement each other?
What is the criterion used to measure the effectiveness of the
distribution of work?
How does specialization relate to this principle? specialization is
described as a necessary evil (Whisenand 1971:190). The evil is
countered by co-ordination. Specialization and co-ordination must
always, as is the case with the scale of justice, be in total
equilibrium

Chain of command
The chain of command, that is, the vertical hierarchy of power, again
subsumes the organization both as a whole and as a collection of similar
(homogeneous), interrelated units. Consequently ot forms part of the
cohesive force that maintains organisiatonal unity. The terms chain of
command, power and authority are closely related, and thyis
relationship must be studied and explained in details. You will notice that
these terms are complementary and that a delicate balance must be
preserved between them.

Unity of command
You will notice that the principles of unity of command and the chain of
command are inextricably bound up with each other. Define unity of
command and explain how it relates to the chain of command. It is
important to note that the principle of unity of command applies only to
subordinates coming directly under someones command and not to
supervisors in commanding positions

Control team
Define the principle denoted by this term. Note that it has both a psychic
and a physical component. Indicate the factors that influence the control
team and the nature of the influence.

Delegation
This is a crucial principle that is unequivocally bound up with the other
principles. Any institution reflects a formal and identifiable structure. This
is known as the organiziatonal structure or internal occupational
environment in which the organizations processes are aimed at relating its
goal.

Any structure, in truth, results from organizational processes based on the

underlying principles of administration. The division of labour gives an
institution a certain horizontal structure. The vertical structure of an
organization constitutes the pattern of authority inside the institution, in
which structure the processes of control and coordination are of special
significance. Control and coordination make it necessary to delegate
authority.
Delegation is the passing down of authority to subordinates, enabling them
to act(within limits) independently. Delegation not only creates a feeling of
mutual trust, but also gives subordinates the opportunity of learning and of
testing their own initiative. In this way they are contributing to the
attainment of the institutional goal. Delegation leads, among other thing, to
the lightening of work load, development of subordinates and the
promotion

of

job

satisfaction

and

morale.

Delegation

implies

responsibilities for both the delegates and the delegated. Delegation can
never be absolute, in other words, responsibility can never be delegated.
Since delegation operates within this restriction, it is obvious that only part
of a superiors authority can be delegated downloads.
Delegation should therefore be seen as a means of facilitating the work of
an organization and of maintaining and promoting efficiency within an
institution.

In closing
Max Webers exposition of the bureaucratic model as pyramid with a
horizontal (H) and a vertical(V) level be presented simplistically as
follows:

In this simplified diagram:

Horizontal level

D1 = the division of labour)

Hm = horizontal mobility)
Applicable not only
Uc = unity of command

to the pyramidal hierarchy

of the organisation, but also

D = delegation
Cc = chain of command
Sc = span of control

Vertical

to the "sub" pyramids on the

Level

different levels of authority

Now the term organization as an item, is included to the management.

The concept of management inspired the Integrated Border Management.
Please see the next chapters 5 and 6.

CHAPTER 5

The concept of management

Operational definitions of key concepts

Alphabetically

Administration: The implementation of command and control measures (in

an enterprise or organisation) in order each member contributes his/her
share everyday on a regular basis, according the laws and (internal)
regulations and the measures taken to prevent losses, so the set goals are
achieved.
Leadership: It is an external, creating a motivating climate for teams/groups
in order everyone be inspired and follows the leader in order tasks and
goals be achieved focusing the attention on the desired outcomes.
Management: Is an american term difficult defined even in English.
According our manual (introduction to Management:2) Management is
the process of planning, organizing, leading and controlling the work of
organization members and of using all available organizational resources to
reach stated organizational goals. Very good definitions are given by: Karl

MARX (utilization human and other resources as efficiently as possible in

order certain products or services be provided aiming to fulfill particular
needs and achieving the stated goals of the business. Jean Jacques
SERVAN SCHREIBER (management is the art of all arts). Jan Christian
SMUTS (management is like poetry and music. The result is more dynamic
that the dynamic included in every added component).
Manager: He/She is the head, the creator of future, the preventor, the
generalist, having Interpersonal, Decision-making and information roles.
(Intr. To Managements: 13-15)
Managing: It is the art of the action, in order stated goals be effectively
achieved, based on the organised knowledge providing by management.
Organisation: The grouping of related activities in a group for efficient
operation or the ordering of people both as individuals and as groups,
into a particular pattern which makes it possible for them to direct their
actions in a particular way. (Both definitions B.R. No 2).
Security Management: The organised Knowledge so the dealing with risk
situations and limit security losses to absorbable levels is effective.
Security Manager: The person with many and different knowledge acting
as top manager and solver of difficult risk problems. According my opinion
the greatest security manager in the world, Wilhelm the third of Orange
Stadhouder of Holland (1650-1702) WAS.

In 1672 he saved Holland

opening the dams. The big army of French famous general Voban was
withdrawn unachieved.

The losses were lower than the losses of the

conquest of Holland if the french army was invading.

The Historical Perspective of Management And Its Philosophical Base

Throughout history, management has relied upon the four pillars of

organisation that are the:
Division of labour. The work is breaking into small basic tasks so
anyone regardless to his/her education/ skills, can do them. The
tasks are standardised so different people can do them in the same
way.
Span of control. It refers to the number of people can be managed by
a supervisor. The number depends on the complexity of the task. The
more complex the tasks, the shorter the span (but with limitations).
Scalar process. More persons manage workers, other manage the
managers. This true, attributes the classical organisations their
pyramid shape.
Structure.

Different functions transact the objectives of the

organization effectively. Some are charged with the hard core of the
function (e. g. security services providing by a security company),

some others deal with supporting activities for the hard core, (e. g.
advisory studies, logistics e. t. c.).
These four features enabled persons at the top of the pyramid to mobilise
all the members of the other levels, to dream and to achieve the goals not
efficiently but effectively.

This was the beginning.

These 4 pillars

constituted the skeleton in which the management process as a cycle of 4

basic managerial functions and the 6 additional management functions
simultaneously, were been manifesting.
Management as liberator of workers from their needs was philanthropical,
then became procedural and then preventive. The last one constitutes the
philosophical base of the management which is similar to the philosophical
basement of Police.
Both have to do with prevention (mainly) and the maintaining of order.
Order is the blood of the Life, because of the next: Life is the force which
is resisted to the laws governs the non-life material. In other words. A non
life been for the same period of time that a live organisation exist, would be
inserted to a thermodynamical equilibrium situation or in situation of
maximum entropia. So life for continuation purposes must be fed with
negative entropia. Negative entropia is nothing else but the order itself.

Management- Administration- Leadership.

Element of leadership and administration are included in management but

there are differences. Management is different of the old administrative
structure. The old director (boss_ has been replaced mot in routine matters
but in the top responsibilities, by the manager of the top level. By the other
side a leader is focused on opportunities while a top-manager is focused on
problems. (KOSTOULAS 1984:22-31).

The concept and the continuous cycle of (general) management

It can be said that 4 elements compose the concept of management. a.
People means-ideas-goals b. The ensuring of coordination of individual
efforts in order the selected aims be achieved not efficiently but effectively
c. Liberating the people working in groups for the accomplishment of the
selected aims by the way of motivation fulfilling these peoples upper
needs. d. The creation of a secure and safe environment in and for the
institution or the organization strengthening its life and lead it to the future,
giving a continuous cycle of life. This continuous cycle has been marked
in the General management function, where the four basic managerial
functions are performed simultaneously with the six additional managerial
function in an alliance and continuously. This process is known as the
management process. (Introduction to Management: 4) Analytically: The

four basic management functions. They are the most important steps in the
management process, in which all managers are engaged.
These 4 basic functions are:
Planning: It means to define organizations goals, to establish and develop
strategies, to choose the most proper for achieving the goals and to develop
a comprehensive hierarchy of plans to integrate not only an strategical level
but an operational and tactical (scene) level, coordinating all the activities
(on different levels) effectively.
(Intr. To Management: 5,Kostoulas 1984:2,Susan van Eck in Du Preez:142)
Organising: It concerns works division into manageable component and
coordinating results to achieve objectives (Intr. Mment: 5).
Leading: The direction and the coordination of the workers motivating
them with deep communication and conflict solving (Intr. To Mment: 6)
Controlling: It concerns the monitoring of the activities in order to be
ensured that these activities are transacting according the plan and to
correct any significant deviation. (Intr. to Mment:6)
The six additional management Junctions are:
Decision-making: Is the process whereby alternative solutions to a problem
are purpose fully considered and the best of them is chosen after
considering the consequences and advantages and disadvantages of each
alternative. (Intr. To Mment: 6).

Communication: It is important in all management function providing the

necessary information for work performance. It demands clear messages to
all people involved.
(Intr. To Mment: 6, 7).
Motivation: Includes all attempts made by a manager to get his
subordinates to the point where the willingly strive to do their best.
(Introduction to Management: 7)
Coordination: Involves the managers purposeful efforts to establish
harmony and cooperation where work is done by different individuals and
departments in order to achieved all the set aims. (Intr. To Management: 7)
Delegation: It concerns the allocation of duties, responsibilities and
authority for more effective performance in work (Intr. to Management: 7)
Disciplining: It refers to the shaping of a subordinates behaviour to guide
his/her activities to ensure the achievement of stated goals. (Intr. to
Management: 7)

The 4 Distinct levels of Management-the General Management and the

business functions/tasks with demands of C+ R

In order to shoe the relationship among the above mentioned elements of

the title unity the below figure is cited:

1/(C+R)
2/(C+R)
3/(C+R)
4

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

(vii)

A=Top management. B=Middle Management. C=First-line management

(supervisors and analogous in relation with the organization.

D=Non

managerial employees/personnel.

1= Top MANAGER C+ R =Competencies and Roles

2= Middle MANAGERS C+ R =Competencies and Roles
3= First line MANAGERS C+ R = Competencies and Roles
C+ R = doesnt matter on which level of managements especially for
Competencies. Roles are same too but according the level have narrow or
wide content.
4= Base personnel.
5= Strategic management. O= Operational management. T= Tactical
Management.
According my opinion, Operational management exists between Strategical
and Tactical management, because Tactical (according military /police

terminology is reported for the scene of activity (on the field) and
operational level coordinate and support the activities on the real scene. It
is the European aspect. I made the frame because its only a note.
(i)Human resource management , (ii) Purchasing management (iii)
Production management (iv) Administration management, (v) Marketing
management,

(vi)

Financial

management

(vii)

Public

relations

management.
G. M. = General Management. It is referred to the tasks of leading which is
performed at all levels of management.

Further discussion for explanation of some reported points

General management transpires the other business functions with its 4 basic
and 6 additional functions. (v) The other functions of the business as they
are figured by the figure, are:-Human resource management (personnel
needs according the strategic plan recruitment, selection, training (and
further training) placement personnel matters (demotions, transfers, etc.)
-Purchasing management (about establishment of the required sources,
research for possible sources of supply, negotiations etc.). Production
management (planning of production of products and services, choosing of
production process, quality assurance, transportation etc.)-Administrative
management (offices organization, computerized management information

systems collection, storage and processing of data etc.)-Marketing

management (every thing to satisfy the consumer)-Financial management
(raising, allocation and control of business capital). Management of public
relations between the business and the interest groups and compliance with
the authorities. (Introduction to Management: 2-4).
Managerial competencies are technical, conceptual, interpersonal and
political (establishing the right connections in the organization).
(Introduction to Management: 12, 13). Managerial roles: Interpersonal
(figure head, leader, relations builder), Decision-making role (entrepreneur,
problem solver, allocator of resources, negotiator), Information role
(monitor, analyser, spokesperson), These categories of roles have common
ground (overlapping in some cases).(Introduction to management:13-15).

Management having been relied upon the 4 pillars of organization, has been
marked out as a composite and complex business function. Analyzing it
deeply by the help of our cognitive and affective domain, we are able to say
that by the term management we mean the General Management linked
to different managerial functions on the different levels of management,
creating a secure environment for the business, giving life and future. It
has the same moral pedestal with police and security because they feed the
life with negative entropia (order). Managers independently if they act as

first line, middle levels, top managers, are generalists. Consequently they
ought to have many competencies (technical, conceptual, interpersonal and
political) in order to perform effectively their demanded roles,
(Interpersonal, decision making, information) in other words to be effective
in managing. First line managers play an important role because they know
the strategic plan and act between the operational and the tactical level
guiding the base personnel on the real field of the business. They (as the
other managers of the top and middle level, liberate people (workers) from
their needs instead to press them to act, and communication is the keyword. Management is assorted with security function. This is the point of
conduct that in concept of Management the Integrated Border Management
is included. About the IBM please see the next Chapter 6.

CHAPTER 6

The concept of the integrated border management in theE.U. and in the

Western Balkans.

An integrated management of borders fundamentally seeks to ensure

proper in-country and international coordination among the various
services involved in border management issues, in order to guarantee that
borders are managed with maximum effectiveness. Efficient and effective
border management will enable the citizens to live in an area of security
and freedom, where citizens can travel more freely and where their
business can operate more easily across borders, which are key
prerequisites for economic growth and poverty reduction. Enhanced cross
border flows will also support the development of more open societies
with better understanding and tolerance of their neighbors and their
cultural, religious and linguistic differences. At the same time, threats
related to abuse of malfunctioning border management systems, such as
smuggling of goods and trafficking in people, drugs, weapons etc. can be
better addressed if authorities responsible for management of the crossing
of state borders improve their exchange of information and cooperation.

The states of the Western Balkans should implement regulations related to

border management in a way which is in conformity with the EU acquis
communautaire (which among others covers the Schengen; requirements
and the pre-existed basic capacities according to the Copenhagen criteria as.
well as the established requirements in the area of trade. (B.R. No 10, 24).

The IBM concept for the Western Balkans covers:

The coordination cooperation among all the relevant authorities and
agencies involved in border control, trade and facilitation and border
region cooperation to establish effective, efficient and integrated
border management systems, in order to ensure the common goal of
open, but controlled and secure borders.

An EU CARDS multi-faceted approach

Neighbouring countries must cooperate more than they have on
managing their shared borders-agreeing priorities, cooperating on
crossings, and so forth.
National agencies (especially customs and border police) must
cooperate more if border crossings are to be made more efficient in terms
of both flows of trade and persons and of controlling cross-border crime.
Border management often cannot be improved solely by trade

facilitation and border control-the development and exclusion problems of

the border regions themselves must also be considered.
Border management problems cannot be solved through actions at the
border alone, they must involve actions elsewhere within the country. Of
central importance is of course the role of the central authorities involved
in border management.
Following the above, the IBM approach for the Western Balkans integrates
3 main components:
Trade facilitation
Border control
Border region cooperation
The third component, Border Region Cooperation, is extremely important
in the overall EU approach to integrated border management in the
Western Balkans.

The three main pillars of the IBM concept

Intra-service co-operation.
Inter-agency co-operation.
International co-operation.

a. Intra-service co-operation should be understood as co-operation

within ministries and agencies responsible for specific tasks.
b. Inter-agency co-operation takes a more horizontal approach, whereby
the

services

active

at

the

border,

as

well

as

the

central

Ministries/authorities responsible for these services ensure proper

cooperation and co-ordination. This starts with day-to-day operational
contact at the BCP (both at a formal and an informal level), but extends to
the need to coordinate discussions on mid- and long-tem strategies.
The CARDS Multi-annual Indicative Program (MTP) for the CARDS
regional program considers three types of inter-agency cooperation at the
border and within the country.

Coordinated processing at border crossings.

Integrated information technology systems that cover border security,

national police and customs information. An important matter to take into
consideration is the co-operation among the various agencies with regard
to risk analysis.

Awareness building and joint responsibilities.

c. International Co-operation can be divided into three levels.

Local co-operation between officials on both sides of the border.

Bi-lateral co-operation between neighbouring states:

Multinational co-operation, focusing on border management issues.

Other related issues to bear in mind

a. Data protection laws and regulations

As data management and information exchange are key elements for
integrated border management, the proper gathering, handling and sharing
of data is of utmost importance. The handling of the data according to EU
and other international standards and requirements should be ensured by
law and practice.

Cross border surveillance and hot pursuit are performed in accordance with
Act

Preliminary statement about the strategy and the organizational

structure of a border management model

Regarding borders, border control and border surveillance, Member States

should take the most effective measures to safe guard internal security and
prevent

illegal

immigration

by

implementing

an

overall

border

management model. This means a set of measures to be implement at the

external borders ( border checks and border surveillance); activities in third
countries, especially I the countries of origin and transit; international
border cooperation an activities in the Schengen States to prevent illegal
immigration and border-crossing crime.

The strategy and the organizational structure of a border management

model should contain several key elements:
(1) Coordination of duties and responsibilities
From an organizational point of view, the key responsibilities are fall under
the responsibility of the Minister of the Police Order. Nevertheless there are
several other bodies involved in border management system. Policy

decisions are made under its direct authority. The mission statement is to
have coherent legislation, a clear training-concept, sufficient equipment,
functioning internal coordination, bilateral and international cooperation.
There is however, no written policy plan or memorandum of understanding,
nor is there a political or strategic coordination body representing the other
involved Ministries, especially with the Ministries of Finance( Customs)
and of Foreign Affairs.

(2) General strategy and risk assessment

(3) Regional or local strategy

Regional and local strategy is developed on the basis of available data that
is analyzed in order to create the possibility for adjustments on all different
levels, at any time.

(4) Intelligence and data-flow management

Policy decisions are furthermore made on the basis of the risk analyses
periodical (weekly, monthly, yearly) situation reports are made at several
levels.

Well-functioning data-information systems through which operational

information and are sent to BCPs analysis. It should further be given
attention to ensure flow of information effectively reaches the practitioner
at the border.

(5) Professionalism
(6) Availability and permanency

In general, the availability and permanency of staff can be considered as

sufficient, taking into account the national character of the supplying force.

(7) Situational awareness and reaction capability

(8) National and international cooperation

The strategy has to be aimed to a large extent intensive cooperation with

the neighbours with frequent meetings with the local neighbouring
authorities. The experts were made available the written reports of these
meetings that show that a large number of topics are addressed in a frank
way. The method of keeping record of these meetings ensures continuity of
the commitments made on both sides.

To facilitate international police cooperation, a fully-integrated platform

must be provided that allows users to access the following information
sources:

EUROPOL

INTERPOL

National Central Schengen Authority

SIRENE

and primarily on the next matters:

Terrorism

Human trafficking

Fugitive pursuit

Travel document inspections

Financial crime

This strategy and the organisational structure are facilitated by Schengen

Catalogues as next.

SCHENGEN CATALOGUES

1) Schengen Catalogue or Catalogue of recommendations for the

correct application of the Schengen acquis and best practices

The Catalogue has been drawn up at an initiative of Belgium and

with the assistance of experts of various countries. The purpose is to clarify
and detail the Schengen acquis and to provide recommendations and best
practices, in order to provide an example for the states wishing to join
Schengen and also those fully applying the Schengen acquis.
The Catalogue gives a good indication to the candidate countries
for accession toy E.U., as to what is expected of them in practical terms,
regarding Schengen.

Recommendations
Series of measures which should make it possible to establish a
basis for the correct application of the Schengen acquis and for monitoring
it.

Best practices
Set of working methods which must be considered as the optimal
application of the Schengen acquis.

Border Management
This concept covers both the border checks and border surveillance.

Border checks
Checks carried out at authorized Border Crossing Points - BCPs. It
should be noted that checks on persons shall include not only the
verification of travel documents and the other conditions for entry,
residence, work and exit but also checks to detect and prevent threats to the
national security and public policy of the Schengen States. Such checks
shall also be carried out on vehicles and objects in the possession of
persons crossing the border.

Border surveillance
Surveillance carried out between authorized BCPs.

2) Organization of a Border Crossing Point (BCP)

Land Borders
A security fence must be erected around the controlled area.
Entry and exit barriers must be installed, which must be monitored.
Separate lanes for the different types of traffic must be constructed
(pedestrians, commercial vehicles and non commercial vehicles, buses etc.
must be channeled separately as far possible tollgate system).
Incoming and outgoing traffic must be separated.
Facilities for searching persons and goods must be made available
at points where such searching takes place.
Border checks to be carried out in special control booths from
which officers can observe the queue of passengers. Control booths should
face the passengers.
Storage facilities for seized or detained goods must be available
(warehouse).
Adequate parking facilities must be made available.

General Criteria
Before the designation of a BCP all the relevant Ministries /
authorities must be in agreement.

 Sufficient accommodation of an adequate standard for all Services

active at the BCP must be available.
BCPs must be sufficiently staffed before being operational.
Basic logistical and communication services means must be
available.
Physical security: fencing, lighting, guiding (signposts to provide
information) etc. must be in place.

Airports
A proper security fence must be erected around a defined controlled
area which must be monitored. A controlled area can be defined as that area
which includes the terminal building, the runway and apron. Access to the
area will be limited to the terminal building by the public.
All passengers and crew must go through the main terminal
building. All international passengers must personally pass through Border
Police and Customs on arrival departure.
Official hours of the airport will be determined in conjunction with
the relevant Services active at the airport. However officials must be duty
during official hours. Official hours must be publicly displayed.
No aircraft may take off or land after official hours for international
flights.

 The responsible Authority of the Airport must supply suitable

facilities for screening people and baggage on all international airports,
according to ICAO standards.
The responsible Authority of the Airport must provide suitable
accommodation for Border Police, Customs and other Authorities officials.
At internationally designated airports, the control tower must
maintain a 24 hour service. Outside of official hours this need not be a
trained Air Traffic Control official. The control tower must report all
movements to Border Police, Customs and other Authorities officials (flight
plans).

Sea Borders
The responsible Authority of the harbour must ensure that suitable
accommodation is provided for Border Police, Customs and other officials.
Border Police, Customs and policing must always be housed within
the port limits terminal.
No ships may leave or enter the port outside official working hours.
The harbour authorities must report all shipping movements to
Border Police, Customs and other responsible Authorities.
No foreign going vessels may call on non designated harbours.

 Incoming and outgoing traffic must be separated. In general this

must be guaranteed by fences, walls etc. In mirror Ports with only a limited
amount of passengers, constructions can be supplemented by surveillance.
After the above mentioned is useful to have an overview in Europe
about the practiced specific tasks of Border Control and the issues in which
the schooling and training is focused.

SPECIFIC

TASKS

OF

BORDER

CONTROL

IN

EUROPEAN

COUNTRIES (AN OVERVIEW)

The Border Police assists in enforcing laws which regulate security, and in
particular (as the practice has shown in Europe). An overview has as
follow:

(1) Monitors entry into and exit from the state area through passport
control and Aliens Police checks (e.g. Austria, Albania, Hungary,
Lithuania, Luxembourg, etc.).
(2) Takes care of security management in the area of weapons,
ammunition and explosives (e.g. Austria).
(3) Assists the other Police branches within the framework of border
control and surveillance especially in areas such as combating cross
border crimes like illegal immigration, people trafficking, vehicle
trafficking, illegal transport and dealing in drugs and weapons (e.g.
Austria, Hungary, Slovak Republic etc.).
(4) Applies other state regulations within the framework of border and
surveillance (e.g. Austria, etc.).
(5) Carries out customs controls when timely intervention of customs is
not possible (e.g. Austria, etc.).

(6) Trains the security police (e.g. Austria).

(7) Monitoring entry into and exit from the state and the Schengen area
by checking for false and falsified documents and by checking other
entry regulations, such as the need for adequate means of support,
travel motives, visas (e.g. Belgium).
(8) Assisting investigations for illegal immigration (e.g. Belgium,
Poland, Lithuania).
(9) Checking people on the Schengen information system (SIS e.g.
Belgium, Luxembourg).
(10)

Opening files for asylum-seekers (e.g. Belgium).

(11)

Repatriating illegal immigrants or aliens who have committed

a crime (e.g. Belgium).

(12)

Propose ideas on matters of uniformity for all borders control

points (e.g. Belgium).

(13)

Offer advice on structural improvements (adequate indications

for passengers in the terminal in order to direct at the border control

area towards exit and entry points e.g. Belgium).
(14)

Check if immigration procedures are performed in the same

manner at every border (e.g. Belgium).

(15)

Participate for problems solving in Schengen area (e.g.

Belgium).

(16)

Intensifying international co-operation with neighboring

countries in the field of preventing trafficking in and smuggling of

persons (e.g. Croatia, Romania, Albania and other countries).
(17)

Intensifying further development and modernization of

technical equipment and enhancing of the infrastructure for border

guarding (e.g. Croatia).
(18)

Control of the stop list supplied by competent agencies of the

state (e.g. Cyprus, Lithuania, Romania).

(19)

Security at all points of entry (In many countries it is provided

by Police Security services (e.g. Cyprus, Czech Republic security at

international airports, Luxemburg).
(20)

Coastal and aerial surveillance of the airspace and territorial

waters, (carried out for example by the Port and Marine Police as
well as the Police Air-wing e.g. Cyprus, Greece, Poland).
(21)

State administration duties related to the transit of guns (e.g.

Czech Republic).
(22)

Electronic surveillance (e.g. Denmark).

(23)

Joint patrols, operations and other surveillance tasks

(Schengen countries).
(24)

Information / Intelligence and exchange of information.

(25)

Surveillance tasks performed beyond regular official duties on

behalf of another cooperating authority (e.g. Finland).

(26)

Boat patrol on rivers ( e.g. Germany on the Oder river).

(27)

Overt and Covert patrols (if need be like in Germany where

this kind of patrol is anticipated for the Federal Border Police and
the Federal Customs Administration) as well as overt and covert use
of air security patrols and the pre-control of flights as it is happens in
Germany , Netherlands.
(28)

The protection of fish popularity in rivers and sea due the

cooperation of Border Police with other competent authorities (e.g.

Germany).
(29)

The managing of the needs of illegals from the first moment of

their entry taking in mind the tragedy of these people (As in Greece
for example).
(30)

Checks of persons on board ships in territorial waters (e.g.

Greece, Lithuania, etc.).

(31)

Checks of radioactivity (e.g. Lithuania).

(32)

Rescue operations (Finland , Lithuania).

(33)

Preventing border water contamination (e.g. Poland , FR of

Yugoslavia) (B.R.No3).

BORDER POLICE DEMANDS IN EUROPE

SCHOOLING AND TRAINING (AN OVERVIEW).

The Border Police Demands arising from practice, have concluded in the
following unities which are courses of Border Police personnel training.
They are:
(1)

Detection of forged and falsified documents.

(2)

Detection of stolen and falsified documents (Austria, Slovak

Republic, Spain etc).

(3)

Cross-border drug trading (Austria, Romania, Slovak Republic

etc).

(4)

Combating organized illegal immigration (e.g. Austria, Hungary,

Netherlands etc.).

(5)

Enforcement of Border-specific legal requirements for motor

vehicles on entry into state (Austria, Lithuania, Romania etc.).

(6)

Legislation covering rights to appeal for asylum, the rights of

aliens entering to the state legally and illegally and regulations
covering cross-border traffic in general (e.g. Albania, Austria
etc.).

(7)

Trained officers give assistance to the airlines having to do with

passport control at destinations, where there are passengers

without proper documents or visas or with false documents (e.g.

Belgium where this special assistance is provided to the airline
SABENA for problematic destinations concerning travel
documents of some states in Africa).
(8)

Legislation enforcement concerning the Act of Aliens Stay and

the Act concerning Refugees (e.g. Czech Republic) and
legislation of international conventions covering asylum seekers
(Finland).

(9)

General basic Police training (e.g. Belgium, Denmark, Greece,

Latvia, Romania).

(10) Border-Control management (e.g. Denmark, Albania , FR of

Yugoslavia).
(11) Electronic Surveillance (e.g. Denmark, Port Police in Greece
using VTMIS/VTS).
(12) Training on information / Intelligence and exchange on
information matters, technical surveillance systems and
computers.
(13) Search and rescue function (e.g. Finland, Lithuania).
(14) Training on joint patrols, operations and other surveillance tasks
like surveillance tasks performed beyond regular official duties
on behalf of another cooperating authority (e.g. Finland, Latvia).

(15) Interviewing techniques (e.g. Finland).

(16) Language training (e.g. Finland, Hungary).
(17) Dog handling (e.g. Finland, Poland).
(18) Initial training for the prospective commissioners and police
leaders in the tasks of the Schengen external border security (e.g.
Germany, Albania).
(19) Training of the exchange of experiences in the Schengen
countries, the combating of illegal entries, the application of
regulations govering aliens and asylum procedures at the borders
and the problem of returns by air.
(20) Tragedy management for the human needs of the mash
transported illegals after their illegal entry and the furthermore
control of every circumstance (e.g. Greece).
(21) Border Police Patrol Training Course (e.g. Italy Training Centre
of Duino, Spain, FR of Yugoslavia).
(22) Airport Security Techniques training Course (e.g. Italy,
Luxemburg).
(23) Crisis Commander training course (e.g. Italy Military Genius
School of the Italian Army in Rome).
(24) Movement and Residence in the Border area.
(25) Trafficking of arms, narcotics (Slovak Republic etc.).

(26) Specialized training and courses on trans border criminality and

intelligence.
The intelligence specialized training includes the combating of
illegal networks, information sources, victim aid and social
assistance (e.g. Spain etc.) (B. R. No3).
As it is obvious a matter close related with IBM is that of the Risk
analysis as it follows.

RISK ANALYSIS
Risk Analysis & Risk Management
The Risk Analysis, answers to the question of choice of
"countermeasures" that will offer protection of proportional hazards that
threatens the object.
Definitions of terms
Accident: it is an undesired and unplanned event that leads to injury,
damage, or other loss.
Harm: the range of health status from unwell to death as well as any
physical or psychological ill health, damage to property, production of a
combination of any of these factors.
Hazard: something with the potential to cause harm.
Risk: the likelihood that the harm from a particular hazard has been
realized or identified. Risk reflects both the likelihood and the severity of
the harm.
Risk extension: the numerity of people affected and the
consequences for them. The likelihood of them is causing harm.
Safety: condition where risks have been controlled to the level
required by specific regulation.
Vulnerability: The formula pf vulnerability has been devised and
developed by prof. Van der Westhuizen (1990) and it is V= S*B/C

V=Vulnerability, S=Security threats, B=Backlog in security, C=Security

Consciousness.
Security awareness: it is defined as the clear and distinct realization
that risk threat exists.
Risk assessment: it concerns the analysis of hazards in order to be
ascertained the likelihood of them to cause harm. This harm affects Border
Police Personnel and other people (of the community, passengers, passers
by etc).
A risk assessment is a proactive measure and usually includes the
following:
Environment (natural, built, material etc) unsafely conditions.
Peoples activity
Significant or not, crimes, hazards etc.
Existed control measures.
Awareness and discipline
Risks (crime is included).
Persons able to be affected
Severity and risk extension.
Persons in danger - likelihood
Measure commitment / monitoring
Reactivity (e.g. investigation after the event)

Results
Review and introduction of any corrective actions

The two steps of the risk assessment:

1st: is considering the operation to be carried out and breaking it
down into its component elements.
2nd: is identifying the hazard associated with the various component
elements of the task.
Risk control: it concerns several methods varying down from the
most effective methods to least effective methods:
Elimination.
Reduction.
Enclosure.
Remove persons.
Reduce Access.
Object of the Risk Analysis can be each case or team of cases, each
person or team of persons or organisations and institutions and more
generally everything that requires protection.
According to the analysis above we could determine as Risk (R) the
product between the probability (P) to occur an event of safety, and the cost
(C) that will involve this event. Therefore, we have the type below:

R=PXC
More analytically, the probability to occur an event of safety could
be considered as the function of the probability of appearance of a threat
and the relative sensitivity, that is to say weakness of the object to prevent
from the threat. Respectively, the cost of the occurrence of an event could
be appreciated according to the financial incidence that will produce the
damage to the object.
If we compare Risk Analysis with the evaluation of an investment,
which is certain that assess seriously Risk, we would realise that the
evaluation of an investment is a more complicated process that takes into
account much more criteria.
With the comparison above, we want to show that Risk Analysis of
different objects requires different methodology and different criteria each
time.

PART IV
Functional police science/Functional Border Policeology

INTRODUCTION
Policing does not mean the same thing to everybody, and expectations with
regard to it vary and sometimes conflict. A policeman is really a kind of
walking Rorschach ink blot. His professional equipment uniform,
handcuffs, weapons and fine book make up a mantle of symbolism that
stimulates fantasy and projection. Mothers use him as a bogy man to make
children eat their food or behave properly. Children associate him with
gangster games. Teenagers behind steering wheels go rigid with anxiety
when they see a patrol car. To people in trouble he is a rescuer, to
transgressors an implacable persecutor. At one moment he is a friend and
hero, the next an enemy and monster.
Some people see the policeman as a personal instrument to be manipulated
in their own interests. To others he is an instrument of society to ensure
harmony, peace and quiet; to yet others he is an instrument of government
and stands for oppression, baasskap and power.
There are many to whom the policeman is a symbolic representative or
useful peg on which to hang their personal conscience. To evade this inner
policeman/authority tension, the troubled conscience is projected onto the

policeman as something visible and tangible which can then be despised,

criticised and controlled so that the person can have a feeling of
blamelessness and complacency.
In this symbolisation process a number of things are generally overlooked.
The policeman, as a member of the same society, is performing a function
that is actually binding on all; he, too, is subject to the rules and customs
which society has formulated for its own regulation, and he has to carry out
these rules in a sociocultural climate for which he is not responsible.
Another fact that is ignored is that his delegated authority and his power to
enforce it arise from the obligations that pertain to every member of
society. Organised policing is a projection of society's police authority,
which in turn is the aggregate of police authority of every individual.
Policing, as we know, is a culmination of these obligations to meet the need
for peaceful coexistence. This peaceful coexistence is a pattern of living in
which particular expectations are held, and obligations are laid on every
individual, and where individuals demand certain rights from one another
both the public and the police.
Every society whether homogeneous or heterogeneous, primitive or
sophisticated, consists of interdependent individuals bound together by
collective sentiments and interests that have to be put to work for the
common benefit and survival. Interdependence and cooperation imply a

multiple and many-faceted interaction that produces a diversity of

relationships. This interaction can be beneficial, or it can produce conflict
or manifestations of conflict. In this labyrinth of diverse interacting and
conflicting interests and expectations, the policeman is expected to perform
his duties in such a way as to satisfy everybody. An unenviable task! No
wonder that August Vollmer, former chief of police in Berkeley, California,
once remarked that a policeman needs some attributes to achieve this. Me
the underwriter I modify a little this list which is the next concerning the
attributes of a policeman and especially a senior police officer.
the wisdom of Solomon
the courage of David
the physical strength of Samson
the patience of Job
the leadership qualities of Moses
the friendliness and compassion of the good Samaritan and of Nene
Teresa
the strategy of Alexander
the faith of Daniel
the tactics of Skenderben
the diplomacy of Lincoln

 the tolerance of the Carpenter Of Nazareth

We as students of Police Science need to reflect deeply on the police force's
important role in society and its implications. When one remembers how
many messages are implicit in the way in which policing is done, and how
these can hamper or ease the interaction process, one may well ask whether
it is carried out for the maximum benefit of orderly coexistence and
survival.
Policing does not take place in a vacuum, because it is a service from and
for society and an integral part of a network of roles in the judicial system.
Neither is it an end in itself: it is a means to an end the maintenance of
social order in a fashion compatible with the basic principles of
maintaining order and the claims of every member of society. This means
that the police force is inherently limited in its function, authority and
power.
The police as the executive arm of the State are the visible guarantee that
the claims of each individual, irrespective of social class or race, will be
protected within the framework of what the authority structure at any given
moment regards or envisages as order by laying down legal prescriptions.
The police are expected to protect individual claims and maintain public
order in such a way as to embody the positive meaning of the law. On this
analogy, protection is the primary meaning of policing. The oppressive

function constituted by arrest and prosecution is an integral part of the

policing process, but it is a secondary one which arises only when
protection could not prevent injury of the interests of others.
It might be argued that all police activities consist of prevention to a greater
or lesser degree; but there is nonetheless a significant difference between
the control and the prevention of crime. Control has a reactionistic
character: action takes place after a crime has been committed. Prevention
is proactive in that action takes place before a crime has been committed.
The reactionist approach to the task of policing, making it essentially to do
with crime control or law enforcement, is misplaced.
In its historical and the philosophical context, policing is proactionistic.
When reactionistic action becomes unavoidable, this means that the police
have already failed in their primary task of protection. It then becomes
concerned with the scope of secondary suppressive measures rather than
with the necessity and scope of preventive measures. However, it is
realistic to accept that democratic policing cannot be one hundred percent
successful in protecting society (i.e. in its preventive function). The
authority attached to the delegated task is not sufficient to eliminate
criminal conduct altogether. Total crime prevention would in any case
demand such a degree of authority that it might destroy the democratic
principles of individual freedom and privacy. Apart from this cardinal

principal, there is considerable variety in the possibilities of preventing the

various kinds of crimes, and the police are unable to eliminate all the
factors that contribute to crime.
You will see that we have consistently tried to make a clear distinction
between protection against crime (proactionism) and the control of crime
(reactionism). Control calls for the power to arrest, search and interrogate,
and the collection of facts by means of criminal tactics and techniques, that
is to say, by means of criminalistics.

CRIME PREVENTION AN OVERVIEW

Crime results from an interaction between predisposing and precipitating
factors; in other words, the coincidence of a desire to commit a crime and
the belief that an opportunity exists to commit that crime. The desire is a
condition of readiness created by sociopsychological causes (predisposing
factors). This readiness is precipitated by an opportunity that exists at the
time of the crime or that is deliberately created by the criminal. If only one
of these two factors is present, no crime will result: both have to be present.
It follows that crime prevention cannot be directed at eliminating only one
of these factors, if we are to strengthen our control over the conduct of
individual members of society the real burden of crime control.

Operationally speaking, the police are mainly geared to the elimination of

precipitating conditions, so that they do not have a direct concern in
character-building processes or changes in social conditions. These things
fall outside the scope of police authority; but this does not rule out an
indirect concern. The police are in a favourable position to identify
predisposing factors at an early stage and to bring them to the attention of
interested parties and social institutions who are in a position to do
something about them.
Obviously, crime can best be prevented if each individual carries out his
obligations by suiting his conduct to the expectations expressed in the rules
of conduct (laws) and by taking responsibility for his own protection. Such
obligations are in fact the corollary of privileges such as freedom and
security. This means that society as a whole should be involved in all crime
prevention programmes. Crime prevention cannot be made the sole
responsibility of either the public or the police.
The police are not isolated from the public: there is a tacit partnership
between them when it comes to the maintenance of law and order. On the
one hand, the police force is the active partner which is remunerated to
carry out a function which actually belongs to each and every citizen. The
passive partner is responsible, in the first place, for his own safe survival
but he is obligated, in the second place to give aid and support to the active

partner. The general obligations of the police with regard to the

maintenance of order include the obligation of converting the passive
partner into a fully active partner. There can be no Question of full
partnership without cooperation. The readiness to assist is a latent
phenomenon which needs to be converted into actual assistance by the
active partner. This cardinal principle ought to be reflected in all police
activity, so that the idea that policing is proactive in nature is given
substance. Clearly, then, crime prevention cannot be confined to the
functional performance of a specific unit: it must be promoted by the total
operation in the following ways.

PUNITIVE PREVENTION
Although the police have no punitive powers, they are an integral part of
the punitive process, which also contains an underlying element of reform.
The process starts with the arrest of the offender. However, arrest or its
alternatives should not be seen as a form of punishment but merely as a
measure to ensure the presence of the offender at his trial. It should take
place in such a way that even at this early stage the offender becomes
aware that it is in his own interests and in the interests of society, and in
such a way as to persuade him to relinquish his antisocial behaviour.

One often hears that the police have no duties in the area of rehabilitation.
The humane treatment of offenders often has more effect on their state of
mind, and greater deterrent value, than the punishment they undergo. Good
judgment is essential: it is a question of applying the law with discretion.
The cardinal principle is that each offender must be dealt with as an
individual for ensurance of the end purpose of law: an ordered society.
Misapplication of discretion or none at all can bring the police and the
entire judicial system into disrepute.
Apart from being a visible symbol of protection, the police are also a
potential symbol of negative punishment. The general deterrent value of
this is directly proportionate to the effectiveness of crime detection, and the
likelihood of succeeding in tracing, prosecuting and punishing criminals.
However, people are not equally deterred. There are variations in personal
disposition, and not all crimes are equally detectable. Success in crime
reduces the fear of detection, with the result that the deterrent value of
reactive action is also reduced. Bear in mind the growing crime rate and the
relatively low rate of success in detection, and it should be clear that this
form of prevention is of limited value.

CORRECTIVE PREVENTION
Policing is a community service created and rendered by people to people
in a man-made environment. Police officers are in constant interaction with
virtually all institutions and groups in this environment. The interaction
process com prises a mutual influence that can either promote or hamper
relationships.
The police have no control over the economic, sociological and political
factors that make up the differentiated environment or over the associated
psychological implications of prejudiced perceptions and attitudes. As
visible representatives of the authority structure, the police cannot
dissociate themselves from those environmental factors that affect attitudes
and conduct. Indifference would confirm negative perceptions and
prejudices, and would damage the partnership. Relationships can be
consolidated, and cooperation and sup port obtained, only when attitudes
are transformed by sym pathetic, unbiased, fair and equal treatment for all.
We live in a time when subversive elements are ready to exploit conditions
that give rise to dissatisfaction. When one remembers that the police have
the task of managing social relations, it stands to reason that all police
activity must be aimed at the consolidation, by positive action, of relation
ships between groups, and between individuals and the State. While the
police are not in a position to transform the negative effects of a particular

environment, they can con-tribute in many ways to the identification and

control of the factors engendering negative attitudes or acting
criminogenically on the environment. This is the kind of attention that is
needed

timely identification of dissatisfaction, so that it can be brought to

the attention of bodies such as welfare services, management organisations

and other government bodies, that are competent to improve general living
and housing conditions

improved protection services in slums and in residential areas

occupied by the lower socioeconomic classes, where crime is roost

prevalent and the sense of social insecurity at its worst

regular visits to recreation areas where negative influences may be

active

the removal of criminal elements that may influence others.

CREATIVE PREVENTION
What is needed is an environment in which all members of society feel
themselves to be involved with the problem of crime; they need to
understand that this is so essential an element of police activity that a
separate prevention category seems superfluous. However, the education of

society on the subject of crime is an important topic that justifies a separate

discussion.
No cooperation or help will be forthcoming from the public if they are kept
in the dark about the real problems arising from crime. Statements about a
drop in the crime rate or success in crime control (sometimes unjustifiable
in statistical terms) may give the general public a false sense of security.
Apart from giving an unrealistic image of police efficiency, it may promote
the indifference and carelessness that creates opportunities for crime.
One can justify the view that secrecy is an essential element of policing,
because investigation and control measures need protection. Often,
however, secrecy is used to cover the seriousness of the crime situation and
the problems experienced in crime control. This can serve no purpose apart
from creating an artificially good image of the police force. If the
passiveness of the public is to be transformed into active participation, they
must be fully informed about the serious ness of the problem and educated
with regard to each individual's primary obligation of seeing to his own
interests.
Police institutions cannot function as isolated entities. Isolation can only
result in a situation where they are left alone to cope with crime on their
own. Crime is a community problem, and there should be constant and
open interaction. The common goal cannot be achieved in conditions of

mutual suspicion, inaccessibility, aloofness, apathy and hostility. The

general public is in no position to change an environment like that. It is up
to the police, who are sworn to maintain law and order, to make a real
contribution to a positive atmosphere by:

keeping the public properly informed about the crime situation

stressing individual obligations in an acceptable way

winning the respect of all parties by selfless and willing service

evaluating complaints and information with due regard to the

motives and interests of the reporter or informant, with a view to

stimulating future aid

an irreproachable respect for the law and for the claims of

individuals, which will set an example to the public.

MECHANICAL PREVENTION
This form of prevention refers particularly to physical obstacles such as
locks, fences and barriers placed in the way of criminals, and to
technological aids such as alarms, detectors, closed-circuit television and
concealed cameras for the detection of suspected criminals. The aim of all
these aids is to make crimes more difficult to commit and to root out the
idea that it is possible to get away with crime.

Physical security has become the responsibility of private enterprise to such

an extent that a distinctive "police force" is developing alongside the
traditional force. This is closely related to the principle of self-protection,
but the intervention of the legally instituted police force is not ruled out.
Crime remains the responsibility of the police, even in these enclosed
areas; it does not relate to private losses or personal protection only but to
the financial stability of the national economy and the protection of the
general public (particularly in the case of urban terrorism). In this respect
too, the police must play an active part with regard to education, the
inspection of premises- and possibly even a share in the training of security
officers.

PREVENTION UNIT
It is clear from all this that crime prevention cannot be seen as the sole
responsibility of a special prevention unit. It is essentially the task of all
line functionaries involved in the total area of police performance. The line
functionary is limited by his individual obligations, and a coordinating unit
therefore becomes essential. A prevention unit can render valuable
auxiliary services such as:

the planning of crime research and study to relate the nature and

extent of specific crimes to possibilities of committing it in differentiated

areas

coordination and execution of special patrol services, raids and

observation services

handling of specific criminals policewomen can make a valuable

contribution in the area of juvenile delinquency and family disputes

links with community councils and other bodies that can give real

help in eliminating predisposing factors

using all communication media to inform the public and obtain their

cooperation

arranging symposiums, consultations, educational sessions and visits

to departmental institutions such as the police college to promote a better

understanding of police activities

inspection of business enterprises and giving guidance with regard to

security measures and aids

activating the public an excellent example in this area is the crime

committees established all over the country

participation in decision-making processes with regard to the policy

of line functions

If we go along with the axiom that every society has the crime it deserves,
it is equally true that every society has the police force it deserves. By
implication, every police system has the crime it deserves. When a police
system fails to organise for crime prevention as its primary priority, and to
use all its available energy (people and resources) for this purpose in a
meaningful way; or when a community takes the view that the police
perform an inferior service on which it is possible to economise by way of
inadequate manpower, low salaries and insufficient resources, this
multiplies the direct and indirect losses (in money as well as lives), and
results in disorder, unrest and insecurity.
Concerning the Borders, the follow chapters 2 and 3 illustrates the
European General Provision and the main points on the implementation of
state border control according the European standards.

CHAPTER 2

State border control

European General Provisions.

Purpose of state border control

State border control shall be conducted in order to:

- Protect life and health of people;

- Prevent and detect criminal offences and misdemeanours, and
detect and apprehend the perpetrators thereof;
- Prevent illegal migration;
- Ensure the safety of people, property and the environment in
the territory of the Republic of Albania (and in Schengen
area).
- Prevent and detect other threats to public safety and order

Meaning terms
The following terms shall have the following meanings:

1. The border line shall demarcate the territory of the Republic of

Albania from thee territories of the neighbouring states.
2. The state border shall be the land and sea border, and airports and
ports that handle international traffic.
3. A border crossing shall be a place where specific categories of
person may cross the border during its operating hours.
4. A border check shall be a check performed solely upon an intended
crossing or immediately after the crossing of the state border.
5. A Contracting State shall be each state to which the provisions of the
Convention implementing the Schengen Agreement apply.
6. After the entry into force of the Convention implementing the
Schengen Agreement in the Republic of Albania, external border
shall be the national border of the Republic of Albania with a state
that is not a Contracting State and airports and ports where direct
ferry traffic takes place insofar as they are not an internal border
7. After the entry into force of the Convention implementing the
Schengen Agreement in the republic of Albania the internal border
shall be the common state border between the Republic of Albania
and the Contracting State, and airports and ports where direct ferry

traffic takes place solely from and to the territories of the Contracting
States.
8. After the entry into force of the Convention implementing the
Schengen Agreement in the Republic of Albania a direct flight
between the states to which the provisions of the Convention
implementing the Schengen Agreement apply shall be considered an
internal flight
9. After the entry into force of the Convention implementing the
Schengen Agreement in the Republic of Albania direct regular ferry
and passenger sailing between the states to which the provisions of
the Convention implementing the Schengen Agreement apply shall
be considered internal maritime transport.
10.Established international practice shall be the rules of general
practice and generally recognized rules applying to the content and
issues governed by a relevant Act of the Republic of Albania.

Authority conducting state border control

The police shall be responsible for conducting state border control with the
cooperation of customs and other authorities.

Police power

In order to conduct state border control, border police has the powers laid
down by Constitution, Laws and other acts.

Risk prevention measures

In order to conduct state border control the police may, if special powers
are not provided separately by Acts or regulations, adopt and implement
other measures required to prevent risks that in specific cases constitute a
direct threat to public safety and order, particularly to the life and health of
people and to property.

Facilitating state border control

The police may set up signs with warnings and other notices, or install and
use technical devices for conducting state border control or set up barriers
preventing illegal crossing of state border. The maintenance of signs and
other notices shall be the responsibility of the police
Border Police may, when necessary for performing its tasks according the
laws, enter on and drive through land irrespective of its ownership.

Owners and possessors of land must permit free passage for the unhindered
implementation of state border control tasks.

Use of vehicles and vessels

In order to implement state border control tasks, border police may

irrespective of the provisions of other regulations employ all types of
vehicles, vessels, and aircraft in the wider area along the state border, but in
other areas they may only be used if this is required to access such area.

Crossing the state border

Crossing the state border shall mean any movement of people across the
state border.
The state border, and after the entry into force of the Convention
implementing the Schengen Agreement the state border that is not an
internal border, may be crossed only at border crossings designated for that
purpose in accordance with the intended use of border crossings during the
determined hours and within the determined extent.

Notwithstanding the provisions of the preceding paragraph the state border

may be crossed anywhere and anytime in case of force majeure or if
otherwise provided by an international agreement. A person crossing the
state border because of force majeure must inform the police thereof as
soon as it becomes possible.

Crossing the internal border

Internal borders may be crossed without border checks anytime and at any
place, except of special order and security
Should the maintenance of public order or national security so require, the
minister responsible for internal affairs may order the certain parts of the
internal border be temporarily crossed only at the provisional border
crossings determined for that purpose, and order that border checks be
performed. The order shall be published in the media.

Transit traffic
Persons crossing the state border by air transport shall not be subject to
border checks:

- If after landing at an airport they take another flight without

delay and do not leave the aircraft or premises designed for
transit of passengers in this time;
- In the case of the over flight of an aircraft without interim
landing
The provisions of the preceding paragraph shall be applied to maritime
transport.

Designation of border crossings

Border crossings shall be designated by the Government of the Republic of

Albania by a decree in agreement with the neighbouring state.
It shall be determined by an order the operating hours and the extent of use
of border crossings in agreement with the minister responsible for finance
and the competent authorities of the neighbouring state.

Designation of provisional border crossings

A provisional border crossing may be arranged by common decree of

competent ministry. If this is required for the effective implementation of
short-term cross-border activities, such as:

- Natural disaster exercises;

- Traffic redirection measures;
- Cultural, scientific, professional and tourist events and
activities;
- Implementation

of

activities

based

on

international

agreements;
- Agricultural, forestry and other works and tasks of wider
public interest

In the event that a provisional responsible minister shall issue a decision in

agreement with the minister responsible for finance and transport.

Marking a border crossing and its zone

A border crossings and its zone shall be marked by warning and

supplementary signs.
The form, content and method of installing the warning and supplementary
signs shall be determined by the minister who shall issue the rules, in
agreement with the minister responsible for transport.

Obligation of passengers and other persons in border-crossing zone

Passengers and other persons at the border crossing and the border-crossing
zone must observe the instructions and orders issued by officials of the
agency performing border checks.

Obligations of a shipmaster

Upon arrival from abroad or before departure a shipmaster must give a

Border Police cadre, a copy of the list of crew members and the list of
passengers and provide the inspection travel documents of crew members.
The provisions of the preceding paragraph shall not apply to the list of
passengers in ferry transport.
Upon arrival from abroad a shipmaster must ensure that crew members and
passengers do not leave the vessel prior to completion of the border check
if the border check is performed on the vessel.
The shipmaster of the representative of the shipping company must prior to
the ship sailing into the port or no later that upon landing in the port notify
the Border Police of all passengers without valid travel documents.
The shipmaster must take the necessary measures to ensure that the
passengers without valid travel documents or those refused admission to

Republic of Albania do not disembark without permission of the Border

Police.

Obligation of submission to border check

A person intending to cross or having already crossed the border line,

except the internal border line after the enforcement of the convention
implementing the Schengen Agreement, must present a valid travel
document and submit to a border check and must not leave the bordercrossing zone until the border check is completed or evade the border
check in any manner.
The person referred to in the preceding paragraph must explain to the
Border Police conducting the border check any circumstances relevant to
crossing of the state border.
The person referred to in the first paragraph must act according to the
instructions and orders issued by officers conducting border checks.

Border check

A border police cadre conducting a border check may:

- Request the presentation of valid travel documents required to

cross the state border for persons and objects;
- Insert into the travel documents any information concerning
the circumstances relevant to entry into or departure from the
state;
- Perform a personal check, a vehicle check or check of the
persons possession;
- Detain a person for a reasonable period.
Where the Border Police performs border checks at the border crossing in
the immediate vicinity of a customs officer, the police officer shall
normally, prior to the implementation of the check according to the third
indent of the preceding paragraph, enable the person subject to the border
check to present the goods to the custom authority.

Checks on persons, vehicles and goods

A personal check shall be a check consisting of the verification of travel
documents by establishing the identity of a person intending to cross the
state border, and of other conditions for crossing the border, and arrestwarrant and technical checking of a person by taking fingerprints and palm
prints, and checking other physical identification features.

A Border Policeman/Policewoman may request a person to show what he

or she has on his or her person. In the event of suspected possession of
illegal items and objects or to establish identity the police officer may
examine or search a person. The examination shall not include the
examination of body cavities.
A vehicle check shall be a check consisting of external and internal visual
inspection of a vehicle and the examination of the vehicle.
A Border Policeman/Policewoman may examine a vehicle with the aim of
preventing illegal entry to Republic of Albania or in the event of a
suspicion that a person is within the vehicle transporting prohibited objects
or items that would help establish the persons identity or the identity of
other passengers; this means a detailed inspection of all parts including
dismantling individual parts of the vehicle.
A goods check shall consist of the check of objects and items that a person
intending to cross the state border has on his or her person or in a vehicle.
When conducting personal checks and vehicle and goods checks a Border
Police Cadre may use appropriate technical aids and devices.

Right to be present
The owner of a vehicle and the owner of goods possessing them shall have
the right to be present at the inspection and examination.

Application of other regulation

If during the inspection or examination of a person, goods or vehicle
Border Police Cadre finds goods that may be seized pursuant to the
provisions of the penal code, shall conduct a Border Police Officer

Detention of a person
Border Police may detain a person for a responsible time according the law,
intending to cross or having already crossed the border line if there is
reason to suspect that this person has illegally crossed the state border and
detention is required in order to establish all necessary facts and
circumstances of the crossing of the state border concerned, or in order not
to admit a foreign person not meeting the conditions for admission to
Republic of Albania, and who cannot for justified grounds be immediately
directed from Republic of Albania.
The detained person must be immediately informed of the grounds for
detention.

Border check area

Border checks shall be normally performed by Border Police Cadres at a
border crossing, i.e. the border-crossing zone. In the event that a person is

caught illegally crossing the state border, shall be performed a border check
in the area where this person was apprehended.
A border check or part of border check may be performed, if so determined
by an international agreement, in the territory of another state or on the
train that has crossed or will cross the state border.

Measures in the interior of the state

In order to prevent illegal entry and residence to the territory of Republic of
Albania and preventing and detecting cross-border crime, police may take
identity checks on international traffic connections and facilities relating to
cross-border traffic if security situation so requires; furthermore Police
Cadres may perform a personal check, vehicle check and goods check.

Automatic photographic and recording devices

The Border Police may install automatic photographic and recording
devices in the border-crossing zones and other areas along the state border.
Automatic photographic and recording devices installed in border-crossing
zones must be installed in such a way that they are visible. Persons located
in these zones must be informed of such devices.

Should personal data be recorded, the recordings must be destroyed within

one year unless they are required for persecuting a criminal offence or
misdemeanour.
The minister responsible for order shall issue the rules regulating in detail
the implementation of the first and second paragraph of this article.

Automatic collection of data

The Border police may directly collect personal data kept in the records
from the persons undergoing border checks, and for this they may use
appropriate technical devices; furthermore they may use other data from
the existing records.
Records
In order to efficiently protect the state border the police may keep:

- Records of persons subject to border checks;

- Records of persons subject to an identification procedure
according the laws.
- Records of persons allowed to cross the state border at border
crossings for certain persons listed by name.

Personal data
The following personal data may be collected and kept in the records
referred to in the first indent of the preceding Article: name and surname,
date and place of birth, residence, citizenship, data on the travel document,
place, time and direction of the crossing of the state border, and
fingerprints, palm prints, data on other physical identification features, if
taken.
The personal data are kept for such period of time that laws anticipate.

Penal provisions
They are anticipated by the relevant laws.

CHAPTER 3

Main points on the implementation of State border control according

the European standards.

Marking the borderline

The marking of the border line, the issuing of orders by the competent
Minister banning activities along the border line, the investigation and
resolution of border incidents, the border crossing area, the installation of
automatic photographic and recording devices, the method of performing
border control and the marking of the entrance and exit, are according the
convention implementing the Schengen agreement.

Occurrences and events that threaten public orders

The events or occurrences that threaten pubic order shall be events that are
taking place or for which a possibility exists for them to take place in the
area that is spatially or functionally connected with the state border, or
events or occurrences in an area including several police administrations in
the Republic of Albania, especially the following:
- Mass breaches of the public order and peace;
- Mass commitment of criminal offences;

- Serious criminal offences resulting in the death of at least one

person whereby there are reasonable grounds to expect that the
number of victims could be higher;
- Public gatherings at which civil disobedience is being
expressed or executed, big organized strikes, non-permitted
public gatherings, other actions at the state border which cause
big or long delays or which may cause the illegal mass
crossing of a state border or international incidents;
- Big natural disasters;
- Serious accidents such as the crashing of an aircraft, serious
railway accidents and the like;
- Direct danger of actions of terrorism;
- Serious border incidents or direct danger of a border incident
which could damage the international reputation of the
Republic of Albania
- Other events and actions that impact on a large number of
people

Identifying and resolving Border incidents

The Border police cadres that detect or find out about a suspicion of a
border incident shall immediately take all the necessary measures to secure

the traces of activities and other material evidence in reaction to the

suspected border incident and shall report competently.
The report on a suspected border incident shall include the following: the
day and hour of the commitment of an offence, information on the offender,
how, with what and where the offence was committed, information on the
consequences and other findings that are important for the further
identification of the border incident.
On the basis of the report and the information specified in the above
mentioned paragraph, it will be decided whether to conduct investigations
of the bored incident and which authority will be responsible.
Border incidents shall be dealt with:
- Through negotiations between the security authorities of both
countries,
- Through diplomatic channels and
- Through the work of joint committees determined by
international agreement.

Methods of performing border control

Border control shall be performed immediately on the arrival of a means of

transport or passengers at the border crossing. If necessary, the control may

be performed also inside the means of transport, during travel or in another

specified place.
The passenger traveling by private car shall normally stay inside the
vehicle while border control is being performed. In the case of passengers
crossing the state border by bus, border control shall normally be
performed inside the premises of the border crossing or, exceptionally, on
the bus, in the event that the facility at the border crossing does not allow
control inside the premises.
Border Police Cadres shall normally perform border control at the border
crossing outside the cubicle, beside the vehicle.
Thorough border control shall be normally performed in spaces determined
for this purpose in the border crossing area.
In accordance with the law governing state border control, border control
shall be performed first (before customs and other control) upon entering
the Republic of Albania and last upon leaving the country.
In the event of heavy road traffic, the passengers traveling by buses on
regular schedules in local passenger traffic shall have priority in border
control.
The persons personally known to a police officer and for whom the police
officer establishes, after the first control, that measures are not prescribe
against them in the Schengen information system or in the national

information system and that they hold a valid document for crossing the
state border, shall be checked only occasionally in order to verify whether
they are carrying a document required for border crossing.
This shall apply primarily to persons that frequently cross the state border
at the same crossing. An unexpected thorough border control shall be made
on such persons in sporadic intervals.

In the case of installation

Automating photographing and recording devices in the border crossing
area for recording and photographing activities inside the border crossing
area.
The photographing and recording devices may be installed in such a way
that they also record personal data.
A sign shall be put up warning about the presence of automatic
photographing and recording devices in the border crossing area. The sign
shall be put up in such a way that makes it visible to all passengers
irrespective of whether they are entering or leaving the country with a
picture of a camera on it and a clearly visible inscription POLICE VIDEO
SURVEILLANCE or CONTROLLED AREA BY CAMERA. It is better
the relevant law to be mentioned.

Basic border control

Basic border control shall be obligatory for all passengers and shall include
the ascertainment of the identity of persons and the authenticity and
validity of the document for border crossing.
Basic border control shall be sufficient for:
The nationals of the Republic of Albania
The nationals of the E.U. Member States, Switzerland, the European
Economic Area and their family members,
Persons holding a diplomatic or an official passport
In the event of a judgment being made under given circumstances, that a
person referred to in the preceding paragraph in transporting illegal objects,
or if there are doubts about a persons identity, or if it is suspected that the
person is in some way connected with the illegal crossing of the state
border of any person or if there are grounds to suspect that a particular
person presents threat to public order and peace, to peoples security or
health, a thorough border control shall be performed on such a person in
addition to the basic border control.
Border control in railway traffic shall be performed in the border crossing
area for railway traffic or during travel on the train.

In the performance of border control in railway traffic, control shall be

performed on passengers traveling in railway traffic, railway employees
including those traveling on freight trains and other railway compositions.
The railway transport organization shall ensure during the entire duration of
border control that there is a sufficient number of authorized staff of the
railway organization on each train (passenger or cargo) offering help to
police officers and ensuring safety in the performance of border control o
trains (passengers and cargo).
The railway transport organization shall be obliged to notify the border
control authority about all facts and circumstances that may, in any way,
influence the performance of border control.
In the event of the situation arising requiring the simultaneous performance
of border control on several trains traveling in international traffic shall
have priority over the trains traveling in interstate traffic, passenger trains
shall have priority over cargo trains, scheduled trains over non-scheduled
and entering trains over exiting trains. In these cases the railways transport
organization shall ensure that passengers remain on the train until the
border control is completed.
The personal check of air traffic passengers shall be normally performed
outside the aircraft, in the border crossing area. The separate control of

luggage shall be performed at the airport at the place of destination or at the

airport at the place of departure.
Border control at air traffic border crossings shall be performed on all
passengers on flights from countries that are not parties to the Convention
in accordance with the law governing state border control (hereinafter
referred to as parties that enter the Republic of Abania or connect to
internal flights.
In the case of passengers entering or connecting from internal flights to
flights to countries that are not party to the Convention, border control shall
be performed upon exit at the airport from which the final flight departs.
Border control on entering the Republic of Slovenia shall be performed
also in case of internal flights which have arrived from countries that are
not party to the Convention and which had one or several stops in countries
party to the Convention where passengers were not allowed to board the
plane. Border control shall not be performed on passengers on internal
flights without an intermediate stop in a country that is not party to the
Convention.
In the case of internal flights that have arrived from countries that are not
party to the Convention and on which passengers board and disembark in
the territory of countries party to the Convention and which travel within

the territory of countries party to the Convention, border control shall be

performed on all boarding and disembarking passengers.
In the event that an aircraft in interstate traffic must, due to force majeure,
great danger or official request, land at an airport where there is no border
crossing , the aircraft shall be required to obtain permission to continue the
flight, from the authority competent for performing border control and from
a customs officer. The same shall apply in the event of an aircraft landing
without permission.
The border control of the flight crew shall be performed in accordance with
the general principles. The flight crew shall have priority over the
passengers and their control may be performed in special control areas. In
the case of persons known to a police officer, border control may be
performed only occasionally.
Border control in maritime traffic shall be normally performed in the port
determined as a border crossing for maritime traffic from which the vessel
is sailing or to which it arrives, on the deck or in the facility determined for
this purpose, in the direct vicinity of the port.
Entry control shall normally have priority over exit control.
The ships captain shall be obliged to notify immediately the border control
authority of all changes concerning the composition of the crew or number

of passengers and to duly announce the departure of the ship, at least two
hours before the planned departure time.
When controlling the travel documents or other documents for the
identification of the passenger and crew members on ships in international
maritime traffic, the identity of all persons on the ship shall be verified by
comparing the data in the travel documents or other documents for the
identification of persons on the ship with the data from the list of
passengers and the list of the crew members.

A model of certificate form on the performed personal check, control

of the means of transport or control of items, has to be issued, by the
competent ministry. This certificate will be filled up by the Borders
Police cadres.

CHAPTER 4

Omnipresence
The principle (strategy) of omnipresence relates to the traditional
perspective on policing, in which social order is maintained while the
primary emphasis is on prevention as a fundamental objective. Thus
policing strives to create an ideal situation characterized by the absence of
crime. Omnipresence is the strategy of police proactionism.
A criminal act follows the coincidence of an individual desire to commit a
crime (crime predisposition) and the belief that the opportunity exists to
commit that crime (crime precipitation) without fear of detection (Botha,
Coetrer, Van Vunren, 1982: 152,153)
The principle of omnipresence means that the police try to protect and
reassure citizens by means of their visible presence. They endeavour to
give the impression that they are actively present, everywhere.
Their objective is therefore to
Eliminate real opportunities for committing crime
Change the belief of alleged offenders that there are opportunities for
the successful perpetration of crime
The components of the principle of omnipresence may be distinguished:
Actual, visible and physical police involvement and protection

 Subtle (psychological) interaction with alleged offenders

Since actual intervention by the police is temporary, crime is a constant
reality. The subtle deterrent of omnipresence lies the unpredictability of
where and when the police will be present. Wilson and McLaren (in Van
Heerden 1986:172) maintain that the extent to which opportunities for
crime are eliminated relates to the degree of omnipresence. Another two
factors are therefore essential, namely
Prominent visibility
Continuous, irregular patrols

The history of policing abounds with examples of proactionism. Some of

the marching watch provided for the Statute of Winchester in 1285, the
separate crime prevention section created by Dr Patrick Coiquhoun and his
Marine Police and the fact that Sir Robert Peels new police directed
their activities towards the prevention of crime.
It should be understood, at the outset, that the principal object to be
attained is the Prevention of Crime. To this great and every effort of the
police is to be directed. The security

of person and property, the

preservation of public tranquility and all the other objects of a Police

Establishment, will thus be better effected, than by the detection and

punishment of the offender, after he has succeeded in committing the

crime(statement when the Metropolitan Police of London was founded in
1829)
Historically, the absence of crime and disorder is regarded as the true enter
ion of the police efficiency and not the visible act of suppressing crime(Van
Heerden 1986:79)

A theoretic-philosophic nucleus
If crime is caused by the coincidental presence of both predisposing and
precipitating factors, it follows that the prevention of crime has to be
directed to eliminating both types of factors. It is especially in respect of
the precipitating factors (opportunities for crime) that patrol is important.
The illusion of omnipresence is of much importance
Visibility is the initial starting point
Omnipresence relies on a distinctive uniform and/or patrol car and
constant, irregular patrols
There is however also a hidden factor:
The use of unidentifiable policemen/policewomen and unmarked patrol
vehicles can create the impression of police presence even though
prospective criminals and law-abiding citizens cannot see them. Since
omnipresence is practically impossible to achieve (Van Heerden 1986:172)

the police always try to create an illusion of constant availability of

manpower among both law-abiding citizens and potential transgressors.
Deterrence is intended to block potential opportunities for crime. It is
important to note that crime investigation may be a deterrent.

Operational methodology of the omnipresence strategy

(1)

Routine or general patrols denote patrol of a given time. The

regularity of this method emphasizes its inherent disadvantage
(see paragraph 2.5.1) which reduces its value as a deterrent. It
does, however, facilitate inspection and staff control

(2)

Selective (planned) patrol involves the patrol of a specific area

to eliminate or reduce the incidence of a particular problem. The
method obviously relies on thorough preplanning- in this respect
the collection of data on a particular problem in a specific area
plays a key

(3)

Saturation patrol is primarily intended to maximize arrests and

reduce a high crime rate by saturating areas afflicted by a high
crime rate with a great number of patrols. Although this method
assumes the form of an intensified reactive nature rests on two
assumptions: intensified arrests will reduce the high crime rate,

and increased patrol services will create an image of

omnipresence that will deter offenders
(4)

Sporadic patrols involve mobilising all the available manpower

in a city and transporting them to the various suburbs for patrol
service.

The larger areas are patrolled by vehicles while foot patrols take to the
streets.
Vehicle and foot patrols then meet at a particular point, move to a different
suburb and repeat the process. This method can create the illusion of
omnipresence despite limited personnel.
Operationalising the illusion of omnipresence

The success of crime and operational preparedness

In view of the above one could say that the success rate of crime is directly
related to operational inefficiency. The rationale of patrols lies at a
theoretic-philosophical level (the illusion of omnipresence with pragmatic
level). In this regard the only real disadvantage of routine patrols serves as
a (rather simplistic) example: when the prospective criminal feels assured
of relative success ( because the patrolman is not at the scene of the
prospective crime at a given time) the operational preparedness of the

police on patrol (and, thus, the impression that the police are present
although not visible to the public) becomes questionable.

Perceptual interpretation
The illusion of omnipresence does not imply constant visibility but rather a
perceptual interpretation that such visibility does in fact exist. As a
result the prospective offender develops relative feelings of relative
uncertainty, as well as a relative inability to predict the potential
favourability or unavoidability of the opportunity for crime.

CHAPTER 5

Patrol
Patrol is an instrument to prevent crime. The word patrol is
derived from the French word patrouiller which, literally translated, means
to paddle or puddle in the mud on foot (Chapman 1965, Hale 1977,
Caldwell 1972, in Bibl. Report No 2).
Broadly speaking, patrol means the deployment of policemen in
society to prevent and deter criminal activity and to promote service to the
public (clientele).
Patrol is also part of preventive policing, which is directed primarily
at crime prevention. Although some police institutions refuse the
importance of patrol, it is nonetheless the pivotal function of policing: the
success (and efficacy) of police institutions depends mainly on the efficacy
of patrol activities. The responsibilities of patrol units, summarized by the
slogan we protect and we serve, comprise the following:
the prevention of crime
the preservation of public peace and order
the protection of life and property
the tracing of offenders
the rendering of specific community services

Patrolling is not just a matter of law enforcement; it amounts to a

police service (i.e. proactive policing). Patrol activities are usually designed
to actualize the total (primary) institutional objective: order maintenance.
The following police functions are relevant:
elimination of opportunities that could precipitate crime
control of conditions that could contribute to crime
prompt reaction to appeals from the public
the protection of life and property
the maintenance of public peace and order
the promotion of voluntary obedience to the law on the part of the
public
the enforcement of the law and the exposure of offenders (Caldwell
1972, in Bibl. Report No 2).

Objectives of patrol
Before turning to patrol objectives, we need to note specific details
about the role of a patrolman.
In the efficient achievement of his objectives, a patrolman depends
on a clear, written institutional policy defining the role of a patrolman as
such, and giving the operational objectives and priorities associated with
the efficient implementation of patrol activities in minimizing the crime

problem. In this respect police leaders are also responsible for the
maintenance of a policy which
(1) will be recognized by the patrol unit as the institutions primary
service to the clientele and to crime prevention;
(2) will ensure maximum efficiency in the service rendered by patrol
units;
(3) will ensure that the appropriate resources will be utilized as
effectively as possible in the implementation of fundamental police
functions;
(4) will ensure that patrol carry out only those tasks that are relevant
to the police objective;
(5) will emphasize the need for preventive patrol that can eliminate
opportunities for crime;
(6) will implement public information programmes to make available
information about institutional policy with regard to the service function of
the police, and to make ample provision for greater involvement in crime
prevention (Bibl. Report No 2, 3, 4, 5, 18).

Protection
The patrolmans protective function is largely focused on the image
of omnipresence. Broadly speaking, his role as protector involves the

promotion and preservation of public order, the handling of appeals for

protection, and the prevention of conf1ict between individuals and groups.
According to Caldwell (1972), the patrolmans protective inf1uence can
embrace a variety of functions.
The main duties are
(1) visiting licensed drinking premises, shebeens, cheap eating places
and boarding houses, and premises used for prostitution or gambling;
(2) tracking drunken drivers The patrol officer takes a significant
step toward fulfilling his responsibility to protect lives when he exercises
continuous vigilance to detect the drunken driver (Caldwell 1972) also
protection against armed robbers;
(3) observing of and visiting to public buildings, unoccupied houses,
or houses of which the owners are absent without having notified the police
a situation that could be exploited by vagrants;
(4) observation of all vehicles that move about under suspicious
circumstances, particularly at night;
(5) ill treatment of animals
Police specialists points out that the patrolman should not play a
purely preventive part, since the patrol officer must carry out a continuous
and systematic program of education regarding the tactics of the thieves.

Another matter of primary importance, therefore, is education of citizens,

with regard to crime prevention.

Dialogue or preventive interview

Voluntary obedience to the law remains a primary goal of patrolmen,
and it is the task of the police to give effect to the meaning of the law to
enforce obedience to the laws of the country, which is essential if justice is
to be done to social control. The patrolman is equipped with authority that
is delegated to him by the community, he is bound to serve. He needs to use
his authority judiciously voluntary obedience to the law cannot be
brought about by force or through abuse of authority. The daily contact
between patrolmen and citizens (most of whom are honest, law abiding
citizens), and the image he projects, will help to improve the chances of
voluntary obedience to the law. People obey laws voluntarily when they
understand the law and when they feel the laws to be binding on their own
conduct . The patrol officer is in a key position to utilize his many
contacts with the public towards this end (Caldwell in Bibl. Report No 2,
page 149).
It is the patrolmans responsibility to make himself familiar with his
patrol area and its inhabitants. This enables him to identify criminal

activities and precipitating opportunities in good time and to take proactive

steps.
Friendliness and goodwill towards decent law abiding citizens
should be maintained at all times. On the other hand, the appearance and
habits of dubious characters should attract the patrolmans undivided
attention.

Reassurance
The public feel a sense of security from the knowledge that the patrol
unit has certain duties entrusted to it and from the understanding that these
duties are carried out faithfully. When a patrolman fails to carry out his
patrol duties properly, he destroys this sense of security, and violates the
trust placed in him and in the total institution.
This feeling of reassurance is brought about by the mere sight of a
patrolman in uniform. The visibility of the patrolman is of the greatest
importance, since the success of proactive policing depends on the degree
of visibility of the police. Patrolmen in uniform, or in an easily
recognizable patrol car, should be seen as often as possible and by as many
people as possible. This gives expression to the true philosophy of direct
deterrence, through the physical presence of police on patrol duty.
According a research of University Professor Mr. Maurice CUSSON

(University of MONTREAL / Canada) the visibility of a police uniform is

able to stop the most of the quarrels.

Traffic/crowd control
The police have an extreme important task in traffic and crowd
control, in aid during emergencies, and in the settlement of domestic
disputes, in Border Crossing Points etc..
The traffic control function is closely associated with the control of
crowds, demonstrations and riots, since traffic regulations should be
primarily directed at the prevention of traffic jams.-

The social service function

The handling of young people in the framework of crime prevention
is an important objective of patrol service, the patrolmans social service
function goes a good deal further, and policemen have to help in the
following ways:
(1) conveying tidings of death to next of kin and, where necessary,
giving assistance if anyone faints;
(2) calling at unoccupied houses and making personal contact with
the owners on a their return to enquire whether everything is in order an
important opportunity for service.

(3) giving assistance in cases of drowning;

(4) assisting stranded motorists where possible;
(5) giving assistance in cases of fire;
(6) attending to suicide attempts

The patrolman is usually the first person on the scene when police
attention is required. It is important for him to be self restrained and
calm, for he may have to deal with panic. In such cases the patrolman has
to take the initiative, since the public looks to him for advice (Bibl. Report
No 2, page 151).

PATROL METHODS: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Different types of patrol can be used for the above purposes. In most
cases patrol activities are assigned to specific patrol areas what is called
the beat. The size of a patrol unit is determined by the following:
(1) the type of area to be controlled (e.g. industrial or business area,
farm, holiday resort)
(2) the nature and extent of criminal activities in a given area
(3) the frequency (i.e. high or low intensity) of crime in a given
patrol area

Patrol in foot
Patrol in foot is one of the most expensive patrol methods, terms of
manpower deployment, but it has distinct advantages that justify its use,
even on a limited basis (According King in Bibl. Report No 2, pare 152):
Patrols awareness and interest, covers the whole action spectrum of
police service.
Advantages
(1) The foot patrolman is in a unique position to make face to face
contact with the clientele he serves, which enables him to promote and
expand police community relationships (partnership policing).

(2) Because of his first hand knowledge of the area he patrols, the
patrolman is in a position to build up information sources (informants).
(3) He is better acquainted with the physical features of his patrol
area (gaming houses, slums, vacant houses, vacant lots) than a mechanized
patrol could be.
(4) If he has adequate communication equipment while on patrol
(such as two way radios), he can react rapidly to almost any kind of
appeal from the public including low priority appeals.
(5) His knowledge of his patrol area enables him to identify and
eliminate possible crime precipitants (opportunities) in good time.
(6) A clearly visible policeman in a recognizable uniform not only
creates an image of initiative but improves the chance of crime prevention.
(7) Foot patrol has a greater deterrent effect with regard to
shoplifting, parking offences, vandalism and loitering.
(8) The foot patrolman, because of his availability in a given patrol
area, can give instant assistance in cases of traffic problems such as traffic
jams.

Disadvantages
(1) Mobility and area coverage are limited.
(2) Bad weather conditions are a handicap to certain patrol activities.

(3) Certain forms of equipment, such as report forms, first aid

equipment, and large caliber weapons, are difficult to carry.
(4) Communication with the patrol station is limited unless two
way radios are available.
(5) It is difficult to maintain proper supervision over policemen on
foot.
(6) Foot patrol is very expensive: many officers are needed to give
adequate coverage.

Vehicle patrol
The following are some of the factors influencing decisions to use
vehicle patrols:
(1) the size and physical layout of patrol areas
(2) the nature and positions of buildings
(3) the number (frequency) of pedestrians
(4) the types of obstacles in the patrol area
(5) the degree of patrol efficiency that is desired or needed

Advantages
(1) Speed and mobility help make it possible for the whole patrol
area to be served efficiently.

(2) Easily recognizable patrol vehicles (in characteristic police lice

colours blue and gold with the police emblem on both front doors) have
distinct advantages.
- They are the best aids to proactive policing.
- They provide extremely effective crime deterrence.
- They enhance the impression of omnipresence.
(3) The patrolmen are protected both against inclement weather
and against gunfire.
(4) Essential pieces of equipment, such as first-aid, extra clothing,
and large calibre weapons, are easy to transport.
(5) Additional patrolmen, suspects and even exhibits can be
transported.
(6) Cars, especially station wagons, are suitab1e for the transport of
patro1 dogs, can serve as temporary ambulances, and so on.
(7) Patrol cars are particularly suitable for road blocks.

Disadvantages
(1) In patrol vehicles there is a lower level of observation, because of
the speed at which they move, and because they are confined to the streets.
(2) Persona1 contact with the c1iente1e is reduced and therefore
iso1ation is promoted.

Inconspicuous patrol vehicles

Whi1e inconspicuous patro1 cars have 1itt1e proactive va1ue, they
do enab1e the patro1man to observe crimina1 activities more effective1y
than he cou1d have done from a marked vehic1e. It fo1lows, however, that
the use of inconspicuous vehic1es is reactive rather than proactive; that is
to say, their purpose is not to prevent crime by deterrence but to arrest
suspects.
A combination of inconspicuous patrol cars and patro1men in civi1
dress increases the reactionistic nature of such a patrol, because people in a
nondescript vehicle may create an impression of being anything from
bums to average citizens (Kirkham & Wollan 1980, in Bibl. Report No 2,
page 53).
The reactive nature of patrols in inconspicuous vehicles is justified
by the argument that certain transgressors always manage to evade
prosecution, because marked vehicles are conspicuous. However, the real
rationale for the use of inconspicuous patrol cars is that they contribute to
the illusion of omnipresence: the impression is created that the police are
present even though they are invisible to the public.

Visible patrol (marked vehicles)

The mere presence of a visible patrol vehicle prompts voluntary
obedience of the law and increases the possibility of success in crime
prevention. Visible (marked) patrol vehicles are also more acceptable to the
public, because the visible role fulfiller brings a sense of safety and
security. However, the greatest value of a visible patrol lies in the mutual
reinforcement of relationships.
Hale (1981, Bibl. Report No 2, page 114) writes: The theory
underlying the high visibility patrol concept is that certain types of crimes
can be reduced by increasing the aura of police omnipresence in the
community.

Helicopter patrol aircraft patrol

Air patrols came into being in the USA as early as 1929. Air patrol is
also used in deterring prospective offenders and so eliminating or
minimizing the opportunities for crime. It has pointed out that the
effectiveness of the helicopter (air patrol) is increased if it is controlled and
coordinated by ground personnel, and that cooperation and coordination
between air and ground units is essential for successful helicopter
applications by police.

Advantages
(1) The physical advantage of helicopters for patrol purposes is their
multidimensional mobility.
(2) Their psychological advantages, lies in the so called sense of
omnipresence: In five minutes, twenty people might see an officer on foot,
a hundred or so could see a patrol car, but thousands can see the helicopter
(Bibl. Report No 2, page 156), and the aircraft.
(3) The capacity of helicopters for rapid following and tracing of
suspects is a successful deterrent, particularly in cases of on the spot
arrest. A helicopter eliminates long, protracted pursuits, and the image of
the institution as such is enhanced.
(4) Information from the air enhances the efficiency of the
ordinary patrol unit (as in tracing stolen stock, and locating dagga fields or
missing persons).
(5) Air patrols can give protection to ground patrols and can also
supply them with first hand information about isolated areas and about
the rooftops of high buildings, which are normally not visible.

The air surveillance by airplane

For Police purposes small aircrafts are used.
Their patrol types are:

 The serpentine maneuvering. It is proper for a big ground traffic

axis of straight line. There are two variations this maneuvering: The
surveillance of the basic line and the creeping line surveillance.
The fluvial ramification for near river areas. The aircraft is
moved from every tribulatory river, to the main one. It is proper for rescue
activities.
Circular or square movement surveillance, e.g. around the peak of a
mountain.
The parallel contrary lines, surveillance.
The fan maneuver, from a central point to the periphery and
contrary.
Combination of two or three of these types.
All the above mentioned air surveillance types are transacted in close
cooperation with ground police units and with police or rescue vessels in
lakes and at sea.

Disadvantages
(1) Poor weather conditions hamper the efficiency of this type of
patrol.
(2) It requires special training and special skills, which are
expensive.

(3) Problems such as scarce and inadequate landing places,

exhaustion, and fuel intake, are negative factors in air patrol.
(4) Public reactions of fear about spying from the sky, and
invitation with the noise that goes with it, may hamper the success of this
patrol method.

Selective patrol
You should be aware that there is a distinct difference between
ordinary routine (general) patrol and selective patrol, and between selective
and saturation patrol. Routine or general patrol refers to the patrolling of a
given area or beat within a given period. Policemen are advised to patrol
randomly, make a conscious effort to avoid a pattern. There is no obvious
sequence, yet all areas are inspected within a certain time period.
Selective patrol, on the other hand, is the patrolling of a specific area
to reduce or eliminate a specific problem a high crime rate (armed
robbery and rape) or a high road accident rate through deliberate breaking
of specific traffic regulations, such as disregarding traffic lights.
Selective (planned) patrol entails thorough planning. The purpose of
this planning is to collect data about a specific problem in a specific area.
Summaries, spot maps and the graphic presentations of statistical data on a
particular problem are some of the aids needed for predictions, and for the

judicious use of manpower. The allocation of sufficient and suitable

personnel, which is virtually important for the deployment of a selective
patrol unit.

Saturation patrol
The main purpose of saturation patrolling is to maximize arrests and
to reduce a high crime rate. This strategy rests on two assumptions that
stepped up arrests will reduce a high crime rate, and that stepped up
patrol services will create an image of omnipresence that will deter
offenders.
The term high visibility patrol for the concept of saturation
patrolling, that is to say the saturation of high risk crime areas by means
of intensified patrolling. It follows that areas with a high frequency crime
rate are saturated by means of several patrols (i.e. sufficient manpower is
deployed in relation to the crime problem) until the problem has been
handled. Unlike selective patrolling, which is a refined technique based on
general or routine patrolling and geared mainly to proactive deployment of
preselected and well trained personnel, saturation patrolling is designed
for intensified reactive measures (arrests), patrolling specific portions of a
given patrol area which is subject to a crime wave with a view to
minimizing the high crime rate or eliminating it altogether.

Other forms of patrol

The following patrol methods (which will not be discussed in detail)
are also involved in proactive policing in the process of crime prevention:
bicycle and motorcycle patrols
boat patrols
dog patrols
mounted patrols (on horseback)
canoe patrols.

Border Surveillance
Crime is a complex problem requiring complex preventive measures.
Along with various other preventive activities, patrolling remains the
cornerstone of crime prevention: it is the pivotal function of any police
institution and, by implication, of the entire judicial system. Patrolling is a
complex task with many dimensions. It is an integrated task of the total
partnership setup. The ways in which you carry out this task will ref1ect the
measure of public cooperation. More your behaviour on patrol will
determine to what extent justice is done to mutual police community and
passing by people relationships, irrespective of race and colour. You, the
patrol officer and representative of the state are responsible for upholding
the individual rights of each citizen and his rights to civil liberties.
The main purpose of surveillance is to prevent illegal border
crossings, to counter cross border criminality and to apply or to take
measures against individuals who have crossed the border illegally (Bibl.
Report No 16, 21).

Patrol team
The Border Police has the right to conduct physical searches of
persons, goods and vehicles within a zone of 10 km.

Means of patrol
Vehicles (all terrain, 4x4 WD).
Foot.
Dog Handling. Horses.
Aircrafts and helicopters.
Vessels, boats.

Equipping of patrols
A BP patrol consisting at minimum of two officers and a dog.
A patrolman should have:
Uniform suitable for whether and terrain conditions (field work).
Suitable weapons or firearms.
Binoculars (regular, night vision).
Maps.
Handcuffs.
Bullet proof.
Small first aid pack.
Notebook.
Patrol equipment comprising:
A terrain car.

 Radio (develop procedures for secured communication between

Services).
Portable technical surveillance equipment.
A dog.
Light.
Rope.

Technical surveillance system

A centralized technical surveillance system that detects and
identifies (camera) the target and enables immediate reaction (patrol).
The system is based in different types of sensors (stable and
portable).
The system is controlled centrally in the operational centre that is
capable of commanding patrols and requesting reinforcement when
necessary.

SELF PREPARATION
1. Complete uniform
2. Clean uniform
3. Check your equipment

4. Know the law(basic elements of the penal code and of the code of
criminal procedure especially the sections protect yourself legally)
5. Know your responsibility
6. Know very well your responsible area
7. Know your specific tasks
8. Know the shift activities
9. Know the special or daily orders
10.Try to be afraid for an unforeseen event. Then make a scenario and
find several alternative solutions. Choose the most proper. (It is a
kind of a risk analysis on the self-level).

Preparation for the patrol

Make arrangements for:
Food and water
Fuel, weapons and ammunition
Check uniform and equipment
Emergency medical assistance
Transport of apprehended suspects
Support and back up units
Radio frequencies

 Prepare yourself for the possibility of a violent confrontation

(mental preparation)
Review of all available intelligence
Food for the animals used (horses, dogs)

Duties and responsibilities

Use all mentioned methods to guarantee the border integrity and
border regime.
Keep the border under observation.
Prevent illegal crossings of persons, goods and vehicles.
Take measures to prevent border incidents.
Take measures to ensure the implementation of the obligations
resulting from bilateral or international agreements, international
conventions or any other international obligation.
Collect useful information in the interests of the border service or
other Police structures.
If it is necessary, to give help for the other patrol teams which are
near.
To follow exactly all orders which are given them to carry out their
duties.

 Immediately inform their unit about discovered border incidents,

law breaks and other extraordinary observations.
Apply all measures to extinguish the fire on the borderline or close
it.
Make reports from all observations and applied means.
Each patrol team member is personally responsible about;
His / her lawfulness in actions carried out by him / her.
Received armament and special and/or technical equipment.

For patrol members it is not allowed to:

Leave the place (area) of service before fixed time or change shift.
Change the duty tasks or route.
Without permission switch off radio or surveillance equipment.
Light up the neighbour state territory.
Without duty needs enter to living facilities, buildings, any
properties or working places.
Speak loud, set fires and smoke during night time.
Make any contact with neighbour state border policemen or other
person (except some cases mentioned in border law).
Throw any kind of objects to the neighbour state territory.
Enter the territory of neighbour state.

Patrol teams are aloud to leave their duty area (route) in case of:
Natural catastrophe and fire when due that kind of incidents the
duty area is endangering to their lives, or there are not any possibilities for
illegal border crossing any more.
When member(s) of patrol team is injured or fall ill and further
continuing the duties is not possible.
If it is necessary to give help for neighbour patrols.
On purpose, to catch illegal border crosser(s).
Save human lives.
From any kind of changes of duty area or route, ifs necessary to
inform immediately their unit.
Patrol team rights:
To move without any hindrances by foot or by vehicle in all public
temporary and private roads (coast tracks), on purpose to catch illegally
border crossed persons, also outside from roads without any permission of
the owner.
Check the documents and make search on the spot for persons,
goods or vehicles in case of suspense of breaking the border regime.

 Stop the vehicle, check driver and car documents as well as cargo
papers and make searching in case of suspense of breaking the border
regime.
If necessary, transport suspicious persons to their office (unit) to
find out the person identity and to clear all circumstances.
Enter in case of suspense of crime, border regime breaks and illegal
border crosses, or to avoid these cases, into living facilities, buildings,
private properties and working places.
To give the first aid for injured people who are dislocated on duty
area. The unit has to be informed immediately.
Rest and have meal on duty according the rules.
Salute for the neighbour state border patrol.

Methods
Surveillance shall be carried out by mobile units which perform
their duties by patrolling or stationing themselves at places known or
perceived to be sensitive. Surveillance may also be carried out by technical
and electronic means.
The need of local surveillance should be evaluated on the basis of a
tactical risk analysis. Surveillance should be carried out in accordance with
Police tactical criteria, by appropriate numbers of staff working at

unexpected times and in unexpected areas in any 24 hour period, so that

unauthorized border crossings will be an ongoing risk.
Being everywhere is impossible, but the risk of being caught must
be maintained at all parts of the border at all times.
The main methods they can use are:

Observing
This is a fundamental method for guarding the border that has to be
carried out 24 hours a day in public or hidden way on purpose to discover
the border regime breaks.
Observing can be divided to technical or visual observing. For
technical observing can be used radiolocation or electronic equipment. For
visual observing can be used optical equipment.

Listening and Smelling

Has to be carried out also 24 hours a day on purpose to discover
voiced or smelled symptoms about the border regime breaks or any other
activities on guarded area.

Exploration on the spot

To explore; surrounding environment, borderline, foot tracks, special

secret marks, cost borderlines on purpose to discover illegal border
crossings or any indications for this.

Distance control
Controlling the borders from distance by using technical equipment
on purpose to discover any movements in the guarded area.
Document control
The purpose is to check the legality of border crossings, to discover
illegal border crossings and to clear on the wanted persons and vehicles.

Revision
It consists to search the persons, vehicles and goods on purpose to
discover illegal border crosiers, wanted persons and vehicles, and also to
discover contrabands or smuggled goods.

The questioning of the local people

On purpose to have information about illegal border crosses, illegal
activities, wanted persons and vehicles and also about general situation on
the border area. It is an anticrime tactic or a criminalistic investigate way to

acquire information through communication (Botha, Bibl. Report No 26,

pages 67-78).

Lurking
It means; to be on the hidden position on the possible route (way)
of illegal border crosiers accordingly to the previous information on
purpose to catch the border regime breaker(s).
This activity must be co ordinated, unexpected and resolute.
A patrol team is transformed to lucking and a lucking to a patrol
team. It is the famous waylayed defense. Lucking rules are simple: wait
keep the arms Dont have a gap in your line keep silent. It is said
that these rules were introduced by Leon 6th the Wise (Bysantine Imperator
865-912).

Tracking
Decrease the space (distance) between the fugitive and patrol team
on purpose the offender be caught.
There must be all time continual change of information with unit
(station) or the operational centre about any change of situation during the
tracking.

Searching the area

It consists to search deeply certain area on purpose to discover the
border regime breaks.
Always pay attention to what is going around you, take note (of
suspicious persons or circumstances), share your suspicions with
colleagues, and report your suspicions to a supervisor.

Arresting
Resolute and quick action on purpose to force the lawbreaker or
suspicious person to come under patrolling team fully control, according
criminal procedure code, of the republic of Albania (Law 7905/1995).

The leader of the patrol team as first line manager

The Confederation Europene des Services desecurit edited a

handbook about the best security provider with the support of European
Commission / Directorate General Employment and Social Affairs and the
uni Europa. According the forementioned handbook an important variable
has to do with the efficient training of the operative personnel and the first
line managers.
The Leader of a Border Police patrol team is a supervisor and a first
line security manager.

Key supervisory tasks or the tasks of a first line security manager:

* motivate employees to change or improve their performance
* making a risk analysis at a practical level
* provide ongoing performance feedback to employees
* take action to resolve performance problems in your work group
* blend employees goals with organizations work requirement
* identify ways of improving communications among employees
* inform employees about procedures and work assignments

* keep track of employees training and specia1 skills

Bibl. Reports No 4, 16, 21, 2, 14.

The chief (deputy) of unit appoints the leader of the patrol team. He /
she must be experienced and to know well the patrolling area. The leader
will get instructions from the chief of the unit and from that moment on he /
she has to take all the responsibilities concerning the team and duties.
The team leader, after arrival on patrolling area, has to clear up the
members of the team all tasks and inform them about:
Route of patrolling.
Orders of movements on the way.
Places for observing and spot exploring.
Task demands.
Security demands.
Regime for communications between team members.
Orders, when to use arms or special equipment.
Discipline during the controlling or searching the persons or
vehicles.

Patrol team activities moving tactically

Move like a hunter:
Slowly, quietly and close to the ground
Stop, listen and look ahead and all around (from the ground to the
height of a man)
Use cover and concealment
Select your route
Watch your back (rear)
Stop, get off trail and see if you are being followed
Dont leave tracks or signs
Watch where you step
Avoid the soft ground
Leave the soil and vegetation in a natural state
Dont move into or across an area until you have visually searched
and scanned it
Search and scan near to far and side to side
Recognize danger areas
Make sure you know where you are at all times
Maintain communication with support units at all times

Be alert at all times

Bibl. Report No 4, 16.

Movement of patrol team:

Purpose for a patrol team is to discover during the patrolling all
border regime break cases or circumstances.
On these purpose;
The distance between team members must be enough to carry out
listening service during the movements.
The move speed must be such as to allow to make observations.
All movement must be as much as possible voice and soundless.
Communication equipment will be used only when it is deemed
necessary.
Conversation is allowed only during the stops.
Move without leaving any extra tracks and rubbish.

Making observations:
Observation of the surrounding area
During the move, the patrol team must observe the surrounding area
on purpose to notice any movements. Special attention should be kept on;
Broken plants or broken twigs.
Injured trees.
Bent grass and overturned stones.

 Objects, which does not belong to nature.

Foot-, ski-, bicycle- or any vehicle tracks.
Disturbances (when something is moved from its original position).
What is present that shouldnt be.
What should be present but is not.
Litter.
Fire ashes.
Any evidence that proves the passing of a person, vehicle, animals.

Tracks
If some track or indication of movements is discovered must be
cleared up.
Tracks identification
Size.
Type.
Patterns (What kind of track it is foot gear, vehicle track, snow or
water ski tracks, etc.).
Shape.

Track intelligence
Number of suspects or vehicles.

 Kind of subjects.
Location and direction of the movement.
Time (how old it is).
Manners of movement.

Other signs
Any evidence that proves the passing of a person, vehicle, animals
Litter
Fire ashes
Broken twigs, bent grass overturned rocks etc.

Communication
The area between track and borderline must be controlled, also the
surrounding area. The unit must be informed. Information must be short
and simple;
When (In what time the track was discovered)?
Who (Who discovered the track)?
Where (Co ordinates)?
What (What has been discovered, is it illegal border crossing,
incoming or outgoing, is the border crossing fixed, etc)?
What has the team already done?

 What is the team up to do further (start tracking, stay to lurk, wait

for new orders, wait for a dog, etc.).
When radio communication equipment is used, all speech must be
coded.

Activities for catching illegal border crosser:

In case a border patrol team notice a person, who illegally crossed
the borderline, has to arrest him / her in all circumstances by using all
available means.
First, the team must take him / her under observation without draw
attention.
At the same time the plan of arresting should be drafted.
All arresting procedures must be done with minimum risk for team
members lives.

Movement on the same direction

When a suspicious person moves on to the direction of the team
dislocation position;
The team will hide and observe.
When he / she will come close the catching must be unexpected
and quick.

Movement beside the team

When a suspicious person moves beside of the team;
Keep eye contact and move as close as possible and try to surround
him / her to avoid escape.
Arrest the person.

Movement far of the team

When a suspicious person moves far from the team;
To track him / her and try to keep eye contact.
To send some team members forward on purpose to cut his / her
way.
Arrest the person.

Swimming
When a suspicious person swims over the water;
Observe him / her and arrest on the moment he / she comes ashore.

Use a vehicle
When a suspicious person is using a vehicle;
Block the roads to avoid escape.

 Arrest him / her when the vehicle stops.

Actions during arresting a person:

First the team leader gives orders to each team member for different
activities like;
Surrounding tactics.
Safety measures.
Arresting acts.
Searching the person and goods.

Arrest procedure
Another officer should assist in the arrest (at least two officers)
Assess the situation
Utilize the tactical L
Use cover if possible and needed
Keep a two meter distance between you and the suspect
Observe the suspect's hands

Handcuffing

Handcuffs are a TEMPORARY restraint

Bibl. Report No 4, 16, 21.
Bibl. Report No 4.

 Criminals have developed ways of escaping from handcuffs

Searching
Searching a suspect is done for:
officer safety
to find a weapon
contraband
evidence

Rules of searching
Position the suspect at a disadvantage
Obtain and maintain control
Stay alert, search the area where the suspect's hands may have
access, first
Begin from his hands and work down
Use the feel, crush and twist methods
Never put your hands in suspects pockets
Everything removed from suspect is secured (by another officer)
Remove the suspects weapons safely
(Bibl. Reports No 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 16, and 18).

Searching the area accessible to the suspects hands

The initial search is done to ensure safety and prevent escape
Use a crush and twist method
Check the front and back pockets by asking the suspect to pool
them out
Search the groin area

Cross gender search

Ask an officer of the same gender to search the suspect
If an officer of the same gender is not available, you should
conduct the search
If possible, have another officer to be present as a witness

Arrest of one person

The team leader or other member says loudly STOP, POLICE.
On the same time the other members are hidden and ready for action.
Attention: if the person doesnt stop, the team members are aloud to use
arms according to the domestic law.
When he / she stop, the next order will be HANDS UP.

During these activities try to be at a safe distance from the person.

Have under your consideration the Bibl. Reports No 5, 7, 11, 20.

 Next order is PUT DOWN THE THINGS FROM YOUR HANDS

AND MOVE THREE METERS FURTHER WITH HANDS UP.
The team leader will approach to him / her on the same time and for
safety reasons has to take care that he will not come between the team and
the suspicious person.
Firstly, he handcuffs the person. Then he will search the person and
check his / her documents.

Arrest of more persons

If the team is to arrest more than one person;
Depending on the number of the suspicious persons ask for backup.
Give orders to lie down on ones belly in a distance of three meters
from each person.
Let the persons put their hands on the back.
Avoid conversation between each other and do not allow any
resistance.
If the team isnt being able to organize all procedures (less
members) observe the suspicious persons and wait for the asked backup.
At the same time the surroundings must be observed to discover
other illegal activities.

 If possible follow the mentioned procedure to handcuff and search

the persons.
In all cases when the team has to arrest somebody, only one person
contact officer (usually the team leader) must be engaged with that.
Other officer(s) security officer(s) must take care about his / her safety.
Surprise, speed, aggressive action (coupled with surprise and speed
intimidates and confuses the suspect(s) (please see Bibl. Reports No 5, 7,
11, 20).

Using a flashlight
Advantages
The officer can observe the situation and the suspects better.
The officer can affect the vision of the suspects.

Disadvantages
A light will give away the officers positions.
A light could offer an aiming point for the suspect.
The light may be seen from long distance.
Using a flashlight device can affect the use of the officers weapon.

While making the arrest

 Shine the light in the suspects eyes.

Hold the flashlight in your non shooting hand.
Do not illuminate yourself or other officers.
Illuminate the suspects hands.
If the suspect runs, illuminate him from his shoulders down.

Escorting the person:

It means to transport an arrested person from the border zone to the
border Unit.
It can be done by foot or vehicle.
The team, who is responsible for escorting has to be sure that they
searched the arrested person on the spot of the arrest. In case they take
over the arrested person from any other team they have to be sure he / she
is already searched. If its not clear, for safety reasons they have to do it
themselves.
The number of the escorting team depends from the number of
arrested persons, their physical characteristics, their criminal background
and the information we have.
For example;
1-2 arrested takes 2 members.
3-6 arrested takes 3 members.

 If they are very serious criminals or people who might escape, the
number of escorting staff must be increased.
Searching arrested person and / or loading them into vehicle will
take place without arms.
During those activities they are close to the arrested persons and for
safety reasons they hand over their arms to other team members (Bibl.
Reports No 5, 7, 11, 20).

Duties for escorting team:

After arresting carry out security control (searching).
Before start moving, inform arrested person that in case on
resistance or escape force will be used.
Observe that during escorting the arrested person will not throw
away anything.
Dont give the arrested person possibilities to talk or have contact
to other people.
In case of more arrested person they must be separated.
Before loading them into vehicle, be sure they have no objects that
he / she can use to injure themselves or team members.
Before and after transport the vehicle must be checked on any
objects left by the arrested person.

 Exclude that arrested person can leave the vehicle during the ride or
first after stopping.
The arresting and handcuff procedure can change the behaviour
of the person to an unexpected direction.
Be aware that using handcuffs does not give full protection. The
arrested person can use them for throttle or beat weapon. There is always
some risk. He / she can bite, hit with head or legs, or try to escape.
By arriving to unit (other destination) be aware to a last try to
attack for escape.

Without orders the patrol team can start actions in case of:
Sea accidents.
Forest or other fires.
Explosions.
Oil tank leaking.
Natural disasters.
Car-, train- or airplane accidents.
When someone is lost.

Co-operation / Communication with local people:

Border police must co-operate with local people, on purpose to
have information of activities near to borders and to give help for local
people.
Give help to local people in case for danger for their lives or
properties.
Communicate with local people if it is necessary to have essential
information connected with border guarding.
The team must be polite and correct, fix all information, listen to
what local people have to say, consider people ethnical differences,
manners and general situation and avoid conversation about patrol team
duties and places.

Surveillance on lakes
Demarcation by floating signs / Agreements with neighbouring
countries.
Equipped patrol boats, speed boats, rubber boats.
Observation by being stationed at some strategic point in the lake
or at the surrounding green border zone.

 Technical surveillance means Radars and monitoring cameras and

individual means like binoculars and telescopes with night vision
capabilities.
Care for maintenance of the patrol boats (fuel, spare parts).

Sea border surveillance

The width of the territorial waters area is 12 miles according the
international conventions of HAGUE, GENEVA and JAMAICA (1930,
1958 and 1982 correspondingly).
Border Police keeps the situation under observation and takes
measures for preventing illegal crossings
BP has the same duties at sea as at the green border
- Implement legislation
- Perform rescue duties
- Prevent and control illegal navigation equipment, items and illegal
persons
- Control fishing
There are rules to how to treat the foreign maritime vessels with
trusts, sportsmen, and scientific researchers in the coastal and territorial
waters
Patrol vessels / boats fully equipped

 Radars (mobile in vans), VTMIS (Vessel Traffic Management and

Information System) and VTS (Vessel Traffic Services These services
upgrade the security and the safety at sea) will be the most effective
measures.
Strengthen the cooperation between the other national security
authorities and bodies so their tasks and responsibilities be supplementary
to Border Police responsibility.

Ships with a large number of illegal immigrants on board

Emergency plans should be set in place to handle ships with a large
number of illegal immigrants on board, covering the following aspects:
Apprehending the persons responsible for illegal transportation
with a view to further juridical measures.
Apprehending all persons on board in order to take responsibility
for the immigrants with a view to repatriation and in order to guarantee
their health and protect their rights.
A special committee is nominated for inter ministerial and inter

agency coordination.

VTS and VTMIS have been adopted by the Maritime Safety Committee of the International Maritime
Organization of United Nations. European Union recommends European VTMIS (2002 / 59 / EC).

 This committee possesses the necessary parallel representative sub

bodies at regional and local levels to facilitate coordination and the clear
division of responsibilities.
Adequate powers and resources are made available to this structure
and especially to those regional bodies responsible for carrying out
physical measures.
Local and regional authorities maintain consistent plans for their
participation and cooperation. These plans are regularly tested and
developed as instructed by the governmental coordinating body.

CHAPTER 6
BORDER POLICE PATROL
ADDITIONAL MATTERS CRIME IN PROGRESS

1. A crime in progress becomes a big test for a Border Police officer.

When it occurs, it is too late to go back and obtain more training or develop
additional skills. At this point there may be no time to even check your
equipment.
2. Caution must be a dominant thought in a Border Police officers
mind. Strive for the safety of yourself and others.
3. Obtain as much information as possible when notified of a crime
in progress. Where is the offender? Is he or she armed? Any injures? Were
public police notified?
4. Approach the scene cautiously but do not enter the scene until the
situation has been carefully studied. Note people leaving and those inside.
5. If people have their hands up or they are not moving, obviously
the crime may still be in progress. For safety, do not rush into the crime
scene.
6. Remain at a distance in a defensive position and observe. Prepare
for the suspect to depart.

7. Watch for an unseen suspect or a bystander who is really a

suspect.
8. Communicate with responding police officers about the crime in
progress. Tell them the location of suspect and your location.
9. By waiting for the offender to depart, victims are safer than if the
Border Police officer went into the scene and forced a shoot out.
10. When the offender departs, the security officer, from a defensive
position with his or her revolver drawn, should order the offender to drop
his or her weapon and surrender. Deadly force may be the only alternative
if the Border Police officers life or another life is threatened.
11. If the offender takes a hostage, remain in the defensive position
and keep the offender talking.
12. Do not give up your weapon or exchange yourself for the
hostage. Such action adds to the problem. Keep the offender talking and
stall for time. Additional responding police will help prevent escape.

Protecting a Crime Scene

1. Criminals often leave identifying items at a crime scene that tie
them to the crime. Examples include fingerprints, blood, clothes, and tools.

2. Border Police officer who first arrive at a crime scene should be

alert for the suspect(s), tend to the injured, and then protect the area to
prevent the contamination, destruction, or theft of evidence.
3. A physical barrier or crime scene tape can be used to keep out
unauthorized people.
4. People walking on the crime scene and adverse weather can
destroy valuable evidence.
5. Public police should be notified as soon as possible after a crime
so an investigation can be conducted and the offender can be arrested.
6. Accountability of evidence, before it reaches a court, can have a
serious impact in a case. The chain of possession must be controlled.
Investigators typically photograph and sketch the scene and properly label,
package, and store evidence. These procedures support a case when the
following questions are asked in court:
a. Precisely where was the evidence located?
b. Who touched it first?
c. How was it stored?
d. Who had access to it?

THE SCENE OF THE CRIME AS THE SOURCE OF INFORMATION

The purpose of the criminal investigation is to gather facts and clues to

serve as evidence before a court by means of which the accuseds
involvement in the commission of an offence can be proved. Each crime
scene should be approached on a scientific level as other information is
sometimes inadequate to prove the guilt or innocence of the suspect.
It must be borne in mind that:
Crimes can be committed anywhere and crime scenes can beindoor-, outdoor the zone between two BCP included-,mobile(in
cars)-and person directed scenes. In some instances the corp can
also be considered as a scene of crime eg where the body was
removed from the original place and dumped on other place. In a
rape case the pathologist must examine the body carefully to look for
clues-not only about the fact who committed the offence(by tracing
public hair on the body which originated from the assailant) but also
about the location where the offence took place.
The locard principle (theory of contact-eg imprints and ballistics)
need to be elaborated on. Residue of soil/sand, mud grass/leaves etc
on the scene/body/clothes can be vital in the determination of a
specific location. This in turn can lead to the possible arrest of a

suspect (eg circumstantial evidence to proof the presence on a

scene).

Preliminary investigation (first officer on the scene)

The role of the first officer on the scene cannot be under estimated. Many
cases were spoilt due to the behaviour and/or conduct of inexperienced or
unmotivated officers.

Taking control and preserve scene

In order to prevent the disturbance or destruction of any clues, the
following immediate action/measures must be taken:
Remove all persons who have no interest in or function at the scene
of crime-this include inquisitive police officials of all ranks.
The area must be condored off with ropes of any other obstruction in
order to prevent:
The unnecessary handling of objects ( whre new fingerprints may
destroy/erase the prints of the offender)
The random moving of furniture or objects (it must first be
noted/recorded or photographed)
The addition of physical clues (hair/prints and other residueremember the contact theory)

 The first officer on the scene stays in control and is responsible to

preserve the scene for as long as possible until the preliminary
investigation is completed or until the investigator arrives at the
scene and is told that his/her services was no longer required.

Victims
Attend to victims by applying first aid to elleviate the immediate
suffering. If necessary, contact the emergency services for medical
treatment. Before injured persons are removed, the position of the
body and the injuries sustained must be noted in detail. The officer
must do his/her utmost to identify the injured before they are
removed to hospital. The clothes of the injured may in many cases
contain valuable material evidence and arrangements must be made
to accompany the injured to hospital to seize the clothes for future
investigations by criminalistic experts.

Witnesses
Witnesses must be identified and their names and addresses obtained
before they leave the scene. If possible, they must stay there until the
investigation officer arrives to interview them.

Suspects
If the suspect(s) (remember that an offender remains a suspect until
officially charged) is still on the scene, he/she must be apprehended
of it is necessary.

Vehicles
If vehicles involved in a crime(eg accident, hijacking, robbery, etc)
are causing an obstruction in the road, it must be marked off before
they are removed. The vehicles must be taken into sake keeping pr
guarded until permission is granted by the competent authority to the
lawful owner. A detailed description is required of the condition of
the accessories on/in a vehicle which is towed away to a police
station or other place of storage. Failure to do this may lead to claims
that accessories had been removed by the police- this may even lead
to civil claims against the responsible officers.

Auxiliary services
It may often be necessary to obtain the help of other auxiliary
services at a scene of a crime(eg the fire brigade, traffic, paramedics
etc). the officer in charge of the scene must ensure that such vehicles
will be in a position to get as close as possible to the scene(eg fire

brigade and ambulance) by ensuring entrance through the cordoned

area. Care must however be taken that no clues will be destroyed in
doing so.

Actual investigation (by the investigator/experts)

Has a crime indeed been committed? ( NB suicide must be regarded
as murder-van Vuuren case in Carletonville). If you are not
conversant with the case it is recommended that you do research
about the case.
The formulation of an investigation hypothesis will help the
investigator/expert to determine how the offence has been
committed. The examination, identification and reconstruction of the
scene must confirm that a crime was commited.

Recording facts
Once the scene has been taken over by the investigating
officer/expert, it is of vital importance that the scene will be
thoroughly recorded. Official notes must be taken. Photos, videos
and a plan of the whole scene is important in the reconstruction of
the scene.

MODUS OPERANDI INFORMATION

In order to determine the guilt or innocence of the offender, the
place, time, method used to commit the crime is very important. The
investigating officer must also establish the motive and habits of the
offender. Any deviation must also be taken into consideration in
order to individualize the crime.

METHOD OF SEARCH
The systematic search may be conducted according to the following
methods:
Subjective method
Here the scene is observed and described as seen by the investigator using
the direction in which has approach the scene.
Objective method
This method evaluates the scene of crime along the width and breadth of
the area ( search on a criss-cross basis).

APPROACHES TO THE SEARCHING OF THE CRIME SCENE

Investigators defer in their approaches to crime scenes. A scene can be
approach in the following manner:

Deductive reasoning (from a general appearance to the scene of the crime

and the circumstantial evidence surrounding it)
Inductive reasoning (uses detailed evidence which leads to a general
knowledge-all the evidence are collected before a theory is formulated
about how the crime has been committed)
Rationale reasoning ( combine both

approaches where all possible

theories are taken into account-this required unbiased, systematic and

thorough gathering if information(van Heerden 1986:222)

SEARCH METHODS
In search of the truth, investigator can apply different search methods to
trace physical evidence on the scene (e.g. wheel, spiral, grid & zone
methods). Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages-the
investigator use his/her experience to determine the method which will be
applied at a specific scene (e.g. the wheel, spiral, zone or grid method).

Physical evidence
Crime scenes differ and there are no fixed rules on what clues will be traces
on the scene of a crime. Investigators must take care to ensure that he/she
comply with the Departmental instructions and legal requirements
regarding the following:

Collection, handling, packing and preservation of evidence

To enable Forensic experts at a forensic laboratory to deliver expert
evidence, physical evidence(eg cartridges, pieces of glass, etc) must be
collected, handled and packed in such a way that their condition remains
the same as it was when it was discovered by the investigator.
Sealing requirements
In order to be admissible, care must be taken that sealing requirements are
strictly adhered to (eg blood, semen, etc). any tampering with the container
will be detrimental for the adjudication of the case.
Limited handling and maintenance of continuity of possession
It remains a golden rule that as few as possible people must handle
evidence and that care is taken that everybody who handled any evidence
will be in a position to testify that the evidence was in their possession or
under their control at all times.

Conclusion
The scene of crime remains the most important aspect in the adjudication
of a case. The police official at the scene must take all the necessary
precautions to ensure that information on the scene of crime is preserve for
as long as possible or until the preliminary investigation at the scene is

completed. Any mistakes done during this phrase may lead to the
acquittance of the criminal. (B.R. No 16, 27, 4, 28, 30, 21)

ESTABLISHING THE FACTS

Importance of report writing

Communication skills, such as writing good reports and speaking
well, are fundamental for many professional positions. A major part of a
senior officers job is to observe, repor , analyse, and make studies for
unusual occurrences, crime, unsafe conditions, hazards, and violations of
policies and procedures. The overall purpose of such studying and
reporting is to protect people, assets, state and the Schengen area.
An understanding of the facts listed can have a definite impact on an
officers career.
1. Report writing reflects on an officers communications
abilities.
2. Officials get to know their subordinates through reports.
3. Performance evaluations are partially based on the quality of
report writing by subordinates.
4. Many supervisors consider report writing a major factor in
promotions.
5. Senior police officers use individual reports and summations
of many reports to study crime or loss trends and to act
properly.

6. As in many cases, a sole Border Police officer may be the first

person to respond after a serious event. In certain instances,
the officer may be a witness. Under such circumstances, all
concerned parties will look to the Border Police officer for
facts (Bibl. Reports No 18, page 108 and No 26, pages 107,
108, 109).
7. Once a report is prepared, it may serve as a reference for the
security officer, supervisors, managers, public police, or those
involved in criminal and civil proceedings.
8. The value of a quality report is illustrated when, at a later date,
the security officer has to testify about its contents in court.
9. The value of quality reports is illustrated when an analysis of
several reports produces a suspect in a series of crimes or
reveals a serious safety hazard that can be corrected.

Where report writing begins

Six basic questions are the foundation of taking notes and report
writing. When Border Police officers arrive at the sense of an incident, they
should seek answers to the following questions.
1. Who?
a. Who conducted security about the incident?

b. Who are the individual involved?

c. Who are the victims?
d. Who are the witnesses?
e. Who are the suspects?
f. Who will sign the complaint?
g. Names, addresses, telephone numbers, and other identifying
information are important.

2. What happened?
a. What is the whole story of the incident?
b. What happened before, during, and after the incident?
c. What actions were taken by all these involved?
d. What was stated by each individual?
e. What evidence was collected
f. What authorities were contacted after the incident?

3. Where?
a. Where did the incident occur?
b. Where were all the individuals before, during, and after the
incident?
c. Where was evidence found?

4. When?
a. When did the incident occur?
b. When was it discovered?
c. When was it reported?
d. When did authorities arrive at the scene?
e. When was an arrest or a detention made?

5. How?
a. How did the loss occur?
b. How was it discovered?
c. How did security and loss prevention strategies function?
d. How was the cost of the loss?
e. How the loss be prevented in the future?

6. Why?
a. Why did the event take place?
b. Why was the crime committed?
c. Why did the parties involved act the way they did?

Naturally, many other questions may be asked during an inquiry.

However, the above six questions are universally accepted as a beginning
point to record the facts after a critical incident.
The why question is particularly difficult to answer, even though it
helps establish a motive.

Improvement of skills to take notes

As a Border police officer, if you arrive to the scene of an event, one
of the first objectives for the safety of people and assets is to begin
recording facts. A pocket notebook is useful to write the basic facts. Later,
at a quite time, a company standard report can be completed with the help
of the earlier notes (Bibl. Report No 18, pages 112-113).

Guidelines
The following guidelines provide useful tips to improve your skills
for taking notes.
1. Always carry a notebook and at least one pen and one pencil.
2. It is not recommended that a Border Police Officer rely on
memory as the major source of information to complete a
subsequent report. When an emergency occurs, many

activities are quickly taking place. Therefore, facts can easily

be forgotten or distorted.
3. When notes are taken while an event is occurring, or soon
afterwards, accuracy is enhanced.
4. Witnesses, victims, and offenders may change their story or
cite inaccurate information at a late date. The officers
notebook can play an important role in refreshing memory
and/or refuting erroneous testimony
5. Notes on a loss event should be written in chronological
order. In other words, what happened before, during, and
after the event?
6. Use abbreviations and symbols to note as many important
details as possible, especially if time is limited. Later, when
preparing the final report, avoid abbreviations and provide
complete information.
7. Concentrate on the main events of an incident.
8. Diagrams, specific measurements, and photographs may be
required in certain cases.
9. Police officers should keep in mind that a notebook and its
contents may be questioned in court if a case goes to trial.

10.Since court cases can take (sometimes) many years to

resolve, notes and records should be saved for several years.
11.Provide proper protection for notebooks to prevent loss or
alteration of information.

Quality reports
Techniques
Facts recorded in a notebook after an incident proves to be valuable
during the writing of a report. A good place to begin the report is to develop
a rough outline (list the main points) so facts can be presented in logical
order. This helps to organize a report in a narrative style (the story of the
events) with a chronological sequence (according time) of events.

Characteristics
Reports must be factual and accurate, since future decisions may be
based on their content.
Reports should be concise. Use short sentences and common words.
Get to the point with facts. Eliminate unnecessary words, phrases, and
sentences.

Complete reports contain as many important details as possible.

Include additional background information that may be helpful to a
supervisor or investigator.
Editing of a report should be accomplished before the final draft is
prepared. This involves deleting or relocating certain words or sentences, or
making additions to improve the report. Look for misspelled words,
awkward sentences, and unnecessary repetitions of words. As the report is
proofed for errors, use a dictionary.
A neat report reflects on the police officer. The report should look
good. Neat penmanship is important, as well as an absence of wrinkles in
the paper, food or liquid stains, and dirt. If possible the report should be
typed, otherwise print neatly.
A timely report is submitted when due. Usually, incident reports are
required at the end of the shift. Reports submitted on time reflect on the
security officer. Furthermore, when a report is prepared as soon as possible,
the facts are fresh in your mind.

Using Senses
Border Police officers use all five senses when collecting
information for a report. The senses include sight, hearing, smell, touch,
and taste. Upon arriving at a scene, an officer may see something odd, such

as damage to an alarm system. The scene of an accident can produce all

sorts of unusual noises, such as the whining of a motor, the sound of
escaping steam, or faint cries for help. The sense of smell is important to
report a dangerous leak of toxic chemicals, or at a crime scene, the smell of
alcohol or other drug. A victim initially through to be dead would have to
be touched to find a pulse. A vehicle can be touched near the engine to find
out if it is warm, hot, or cold to signify when it was used. Foul substances
in the air can result in an unpleasant taste.
Sometimes we hear about a sixth sense. The sixth sense is not as
obvious as the other five but the officer s perception or conclusion, based
on his experience, knowledge and the utilization of the other senses, must
be given consideration as a viable information gathering source.

Senior police officials teaching subordinates about reports.

a. Daily reports
Many Police officers complete a daily report to describe the
activities they encountered during their shift. Although much of the
information may appear minor, it can become valuable at a later date.
Supervisors and managers use these reports to evaluate existing conditions
and the activities of the Border Police officer on duty.

b.Daily logs
A daily log describes the activities at a particular post (Bibl. Report
No 2, page 119). The log consists of a ledger where entries are made in pen
to be used as a permanent record. Examples of activities include people and
vehicles entering and leaving through an access point. These records can be
helpful during investigations.

c. Incident Reports
(Behaviour on a scene at the first approach)
Get an overview
Beat back of danger
(first aid to injured person, inform rescue units, location of injured
person, traffic control)
Avoid changes of the scene
(urgent necessary changes are to be recorded)
Report/inform your office by radio/phone
Follow perpetrator / suspect if possible
( pay attention to your own security, initialize wide-spread search)
Wide-spread block of the scene/area of the incident

 Secure tracks/trails (rain, snowfall?)

Documentation of the scene/location
(photos, drawings, description, weather)
Ascertain witnesses, questioning of witnesses
Hand-over the crime/incident scene

d. How to do an action report

(everything has to be put down in writing)
Policeman/officer
Name, surname, rank, duty station, incident no., place and date
General information about the incident
Information received at time, received from ,
Policeman being tasked by Duty station, arrived at the scene at
time, other involved policemen/officers
Description of the incident
Committed crime, damages, victims, witnesses
Data of involved persons
If possible also description of the perpetrator, clothes
Taken measures

 List of things in the possession of the person

List of seized things
Hand-over/take over
Date, time, duty station, name of officer, who has taken over the
person or the object

e. Other reports
In addition to these three major reports, a host of other reports or
papers may be used to increase the effectiveness of security. For example, a
daily truck report is helpful to register trucks entering and leaving the
borders. Also, property passes provide an authorization and description of
property to be removed from the premises.

f. Information about persons involved

(perpetrator, co-perpetrator, suspects, informer, witnesses, victims)
Family name/surname

(also nickname, pseudonym, maiden name)

First name
(underline forename)
Date of birth, place of birth<district, country

 Permanent residence
(street, no., flat, city, district, country, etc)
Nationality
Passport or id card no
(issuing office, issued when, valid till)
In case of juveniles
( all data of parents or other responsible people)
As far as necessary and available following information
Background of the family
(status, married, single, number and age of children)
Profession
Employer
(B. R. No 16, 21, 27)

CHAPTER 7

Airports and ports facilities security (APFS)

And APFS plans

Risk analysis
At a practical level this means evaluation of the persons, vehicles,
flights or vessels to be checked.
Risk analysis is essential at blue and azure gray, border
surveillance.
Vessel and aircraft movements should be monitored and vessels /
aircrafts identified. Identifications (names of vessels and codes of aircrafts)
should be checked against background information containing knowledge
on risky vessels / aircrafts.
The level of checks on each particular vessel / aircrafts should be
decided according to this reference.
The same procedure should be applied to crew and passenger lists.
Personnel should be provided with risk indicators, risk profiles and

typical modus operandi of cross border crime.

Bibl. Report No 25, chapter XI-2, about international ship and Port Facility security code, and No 17, 21,
30 about aviation security.

 The risk analysis and management of borders need to be backed by

systematic intelligence. Border Management Systems should be able to
gather intelligence, analyze it and utilize the products in fieldwork.
To have a realistic picture of prevailing irregularities for the purpose
of medium and long term operative management, estimates should be made
of:
Type and volume of all vessel movements between the open sea
and coast.
The level (volume) of actual checks.
The level of risk of being caught illegally crossing a border.
The level (volume and type) of detected irregularities.
The level of estimated undetected irregularities.

APFSRs should:
1. Detail the security organization of the airport or port facility,
2. The Border Police links with other relevant authorities and, the
necessary communication systems to a1low the effective continuous
operation of the organization and its links with others, including ships m
port;
3. Detail the basic security level 1 measures, both operational and
physical, that wi1l be in place;

4. Detail the additional security measures that wi1l allow the port
facility to progress W1thout delay to security level 2 and, when necessary,
to security level 3;
5. Provide for regular review, or audit, of the PFSP and for its
amendments in response to experience or changing circumstances; and
6. Reporting procedures to the appropriate Contracting Governments
contact points.

The APFSP should make provision for the retention of records of

security incidents and threats, reviews, audits, training, drills and exercises
as evidence of compliance with those requirements.
The use of firearms on or near airplanes or ships and in airport or
port facilities may pose particu1ar and significant safety risks, in particu1ar
in connection with certain dangerous or hazardous substances and should
be considered very carefully.
The APFSP should contain specific guidance on this matter in
particu1ar with regard its application to ships carrying dangerous goods or
hazardous substances.

Organization and Performance of

Airport or Port Facility Security Duties

In addition to the guidance given under section, the APFSP should

establish the following which relate to all security levels:
1. The role and structure of the airport or port facility security
organization;
2. The duties, responsibilities and training requirements of all airport
or port facility personnel with a security role and the performance measures
needed to allow their individual effectiveness to be assessed;
3. The BPP links with other national or local authorities with security
responsibilities;
4. The communication systems provided to allow effective and
continuous communication between port facility security personnel, ships
in port and, when appropriate, with national or local authorities with
security responsibilities;
5. The procedures or safeguards necessary to allow such continuous
communications to be maintained at all times;
6. The procedures and practices to protect security sensitive
information held in paper or electronic format;
7. The procedures to assess the continuing effectiveness of security
measures, procedures and equipment, including identification of, and
response to, equipment failure or malfunction;

8. The procedures to allow the submission, and assessment, of

reports relating to possible breaches of security or security concerns;
9. Procedures relating to cargo handling;
10. Procedures cover1ng the delivery of airplanes and ships
11. The procedures to maintain, and update, records of dangerous
goods and hazardous substances and their location within the port facility;
12. The means of alerting and obtaining the services of waterside
patrols and specialist search teams, including bomb searches and
underwater searches;
13. The procedures are assisting employees in confirming the
identity of persons when requested.

Access to the Facilities

The APFSP should establish the security measures covering all
means of access to the facilities identified in the APFSP.
For each of these the APFSP should identify the appropriate
locations where access restrictions or prohibitions should be applied for
each of the security levels. For each security level the APFSP should
specify the type of restriction or prohibition to be applied and the means of
enforcing them.

The APFSP should establish for each security level the means of
identification required to allow access to the facilities and for individuals to
remain within the airport or the port facility without challenge, this may
involve developing an appropriate identification system allowing for
permanent and temporary identifications, for Border Police Personnel and
for visitors respectively. Any port facility identification system should,
when it is practicable to do so, be co ordinated with that applying to ships
that regularly use the port facility.
Passengers should be able to prove their identity by boarding passes,
tickets, etc., but should not be permitted access to restricted areas unless
supervised.
The APFSP should establish provisions to ensure that the
identification systems are regularly updated, and that abuse of procedures
should be subject to disciplinary action.

Restricted Areas within the Airport and the Port Facility

The APFSP should identify the restricted areas to be established
within the port facility, specify their extent, times of application, the
security measures to be taken to control access to them and those to be
taken to control activities within them. This should also include, in

appropriate circumstances, measures to ensure that temporary restricted

areas are security swept both before and after that area is established.
The purpose of restricted areas is to:
1. Protect passengers, avia and ships personnel, facility personnel
and visitors, including those visiting in connection with an airplane or a
ship.
2. Protect the vessels or aircrafts facilities.
3. Protect means using, and serving, the port or the airport facility.
4. Protect sensitive security locations and areas within the facilities.
5. To protect security and survei11ance equipment and systems; and
6. Protect cargo and stores from tampering.

The APFSP should ensure that al1 restricted areas have clearly
established security measures to control:
1. Access by individuals;
2. The entry, parking, loading and unloading of vehicles;
3. Movement and storage of cargo and facilities stores;
4. Unaccompanied baggage or personal effects.

The APFSP should provide that al1 restricted areas should be clearly
marked indicating that access to the area is restricted and that unauthorized
presence within the area constitutes a breach of secur1ty.
When automatic intrusion detection devices are instal1ed they should
alert a control centre which can respond to the triggering of an alarm.

Restricted areas may include:

1. Areas immediately adjacent to the airplane or the ship.
2. Embarkation and disembarkation areas, passenger and personnel
holding and processing areas including search points;
3. Areas where loading, unloading or storage of cargo and stores is
undertaken;
4. Locations where security sensitive information, including cargo
documentation, is held;
5. Areas where dangerous goods and hazardous substances are held;
6. Vessel traffic management system control rooms, aids to air
navigation and navigation, control buildings, including security and
surveillance control rooms;
7. Areas where security and surveillance equipment are stored or
located;

8. Essential electrical, radio and telecommunication, water and other

uti1ity instal1ations; and
9. Other locations in the airport or the port faci1ity where access by
vessels, vehicles and individuals should be restricted.

Security Level 1
At security level 1, the BPP should establish the security measures to
be applied which may be a combination of lighting, security guards or use
of security and surveillance equipment to allow airport and port facility
security personnel to:
1. Observe the general airport and port facility area, including shore
and water side accesses
2. To observe access points, barriers and restricted areas, and
3. Allow airport and port facility security personnel to monitor areas
and movements adjacent to using the facility, airplanes or ships
correspondingly.

Security Level 2
At security level 2, the BPP should establish the additional security
measures to be applied to enhance the monitoring and surveillance
capability, which may include:

1. Increasing the coverage and intensity of lighting and survei1lance

equipment, including the provision of additional lighting and survei1lance
coverage;
2. Increasing the frequency of foot, vehicle or waterborne patrols,
and

3. Assigning additional security personnel to monitor and patrol.

Security Level 3
At security level 3, the airport or the port facility should comply with
the instructions issued by those responding to the security incident or threat
thereof. The BPP should detail the security measures which could be taken
by the airport or the port facility, in close co operation with other
competent authorities which way include:
1. Switching on all lighting within, or illuminating the vicinity of, the
airport or the port facility;
2. Switching on all surveillance equipment capable of recording
activities within, or adjacent to, the airport or port facility;
3. Maximizing the length of time such surveillance equipment can
continue to record.

Training drills and exercises for airport and port facilities

The Airport and the Port Facility BPO senior officials should have
knowledge and receive training, in some or all of the following, as
appropriate:
1. security administration;
2. relevant

international

conventions,

codes

and

recommendations;
3. relevant Government legislation and regulations;
4. responsibilities and functions of other security organizations;
5. methodology of airport or port facility security assessment;
6. methods of ship, port facility, airplanes and airport facility
security surveys and inspections;
7. ship and port or airplane and airport facility operations and
conditions;
8. security measures;
9. emergency preparedness and response and contingency
planning;
10.instruction techniques for security training and education,
including security measures and procedures;
11.handling sensitive security related information and security
related communications;
12.knowledge of current security threats and patterns;

13.recognition and detection of weapons, dangerous substances

and devices;
14.recognition, on a non discriminatory basis, of characteristics
and behavioural patterns of persons who are likely to threaten
the security;
15.techniques used to circumvent security measures;
16.crowd management and control techniques;
17.security related communications;
18.testing, calibration and maintenance of security equipment and
systems;
19.inspection, contro1, and monitoring techniques; and
20.security

equipment

and

systems,

and

their

operational1imitations;
21.methods of conducting audits, inspection, control and
monitoring;
22.methods of physical searches and non-intrusive inspections;
23.security dri11s and exercises, including dri11s and exercises
with ships and airplanes; and methods of physical searches of
persons, personal effects, baggage, cargo, and ships stores.
24.assessment of security drills and exercises.

CHAPTER 8

Police-community relations

INTRODUCTION
The object of this chapter is to investigate the statement that the public
should be closely involved in policing. Peel's idea that the police are the
public and the public the police means that the two should pursue their
common aim of order in a close partnership.
Unfortunately because of a variety of factors, as we saw in our
discussion of the role environment in chapter 2 the public and the police
have drifted apart and now function largely as separate entities.
Effective policing also means the consolidation of relation ships whereby
cooperation and voluntary obedience to the law are maximised (Caldwell)
(B.R.No2, 21), and unfortunately the separatism that prevails is very
largely due to policing that is not geared to public involvement. The police
as the active partner cannot dissociate themselves from this problem. Their
delegated task includes the obligation of converting passivity in the passive
partner into a full and active partner ship (Van Heerden 1976 in B.R.No2,
21). Only when there is mutual co operation, aid and support, can we speak
of a full partnership.

We are living in a time of profound social change, population explosion,

urbanisation, and political and other aspirations which create tension at
virtually every level of society. Institutions and groups have drifted apart
through faulty communication, prejudice, discrimination, individual
philosophies and estrangement. It is essential for problems to be solved,
and for the conflict to be alleviated, through organised and constructive
action (Cohn & Viano 1976 B.R.No2, 21).
Sound mutual relationships between police and public are of vital
importance in this process of resolving conflict. This relationship is
determined by what the police expect from the public and the public from
the police. Hence what the police do and how they do it is important to the
general tone of the relationship. There are so many diverse perceptions and
attitudes that relational problems can safely be ascribed to clashing
perceptions and expectations. In a changing world, such conflicting views
are inevitable, but this does not mean that friction should be passively
accepted. Positive steps for the consolidation of relationships become
indispensable, particularly when a radical function such as policing is
concerned. A social role with extensive repressive and coercive powers is
automatically the subject of inordinate interest and value judgment. This
must be understood if real attempts are to be made to bring about a better
understanding of the police role in society.

DEFINITIONS
The terms "police-community relations", "public relations", "human
relations", "press relations" and "person-to-person relations" are often used
interchangably in referring to the same activities. In fact, though related,
they do not mean the same thing (Radelet 1977 in B.R.No2, 21). The term
police-community relations describes a complete concept that includes
components of the others. Faulty understanding of this may result in
counterproductiveness in programmes designed to convert public passivity
into partnership. Please take careful note of the following definitions and
differences in meaning.

Human relations
This term refers to the contact between police and specific individuals or
groups. It is associated with the idea of eliminating a brusque police
approach (B.R.No 21), and with police attitudes as reflected in the exercise
of discretions and the execution of departmental policy (B.R.No 21) find
these definitions limited. To them it is a matter of "police participation in
any activity that seeks law observance through respect and acceptance of
enforcement of laws in a positive manner".

According to this view, human relations are individual and problem-centred

and are a factor in specific crimes, in the police image, and in conditions in
specific communities(B.R.No2, 21).

Public relations
What public relations generally means is "selling the police image" (Cohn
& Viano 1976 B.R.No2) to specific, public sectors. The idea is to establish
a favourable impression of the police (Geary 1975: 213) with the emphasis
on "... looking good, not necessarily on being good..." (Radelet 1977
B.R.No2) sees it as relating to the art of winning goodwill by techniques
such as publicity, advertising, promotion and even propaganda.
The "sales action" is usually undertaken by a specific unit designed to
monitor information in such a way that only the most favourable data are
released for publication, and the most favourable image is presented of the
history and activities of individuals or of the institution as a whole. The
promotion of this image revolves around a spick and-span appearance and
precision displays such as dog parades, drill parades and other types of
parades. It is therefore a matter of general appearance and skills rather than
actual service. Niederhoffer & Smith (1974 B.R.No2, 21) are of the opinion
that this pursuit of an illusory good image is simp1y an artful trick or
falsification of the truth in an effort to pass the institution off as efficient.

This approach is of limited value in avoiding and solving problems in

promoting good relations. It does however have a function in the total
framework of police-community relations.
The following are the main features of public relations work:
(1)

Creating and maintaining a favourable environment in which the

police can operate

(2)

Supplying selected information to the public

(3)

Promoting an image

(4)

Minimising obstacles to police policy and procedures and attempting

to make these acceptable

(5)

Routine action with regard to press releases

(6)

Institution-oriented action

(7)

Keeping a one-way flow of information, that is from the police

(8)

Being an aid to organisational management and not an essential

component of an operational philosophy

(9)

Having limited participation in activities, since programmes are

handled by an administrative unit

(10) The community is not involved in any activities (Geary 1975:211222).

Police-community relations
The main purpose of police-community relations is to achieve better
relations between policemen and citizens. This is in tended to result in
harmony and cooperation between police and public. The central theme is
mutual communication, not for its own sake but for the improvement of
mutual under standing .
Moore (B.R.No2)gives the following definition: "A community-relations
program is not a public-relations program to 'sell the police image' to
people. It is not a set of expedients whose purpose is to tranquilize for a
time an angry neighbourhood... It is a long range, full scale effort to
acquaint the police and the community with each other's problems and to
stimulate action aimed at solving those problems". The main issues
emerging from this definition are

problem-solving

long-term and sustained activities

total involvement

cooperation.

This implies that police-community relations involve the mutually felt

attitudes of police and public, that the principle is accepted that the police
cannot be separated from the communities they serve, and that the
orientation is to service, administrative processes and community needs,

which pro motes mutual understanding and trust. Police-community

relations are given a preventive character by the principle that the total
organisation and all the citizens are assumed to be engaged wholeheartedly
in identifying and solving problems.
The total involvement of the police which amounts to an administrative
philosophy that integrates service with community needs emerges
plainly from the following definition: "Community-police relations is a
philosophy of administering and providing police services. which embodies
all activities within a given jurisdiction aimed at involving members of the
community and the police in determination of: (1) what police services will
be provided; (2) how they will be provided; and (3) how the police and
members of the community will resolve common problems" (Geary 1975
B.R.No2).
Other definitions emphasise

the police's attitudes to themselves and towards portions of the

community, and the attitudes of the community towards themselves and the
police

the use or misuse of power and authority

impartiality, fairness and equality in the treatment of those who are

policed

police responsibility.

The following requirements for police-community relations can be deduced

from these definitions:
(1)

the desire to unite public and police in a close partnership

(2)

supportive relations between police and citizens

(3)

activities that are not standardised or routine because of the

variety of groups making up the public, and the variety of interests in the
community, making it necessary for activities to be kept flexible in case
rapid change is required
(4)

emphasis on the needs of the public and of other institutions with

which the police come into contact

(5)

two-way communication between police and public

(6)

community involvement.

The concept of human relations comes into both public relations and
community relations. These terms do not have the same meaning, but they
are related, and the ideas some times overlap. The differences emerge in the
following comparison :
Public relations
Object:

Community relations

To achieve and maintain a good To develop police-community

environment
To inform the public

partnership
To integrate community needs
with police action

To promote image
To stimulate support
To minimise obstacles

Process:

Citizen

Routine activities
Flexible and adaptable activities
Institution-oriented services
Community-oriented services
One-way (outward) information Two-way information flow
flow
Compartmentalised responsibility

Responsibility

Consciously kept to a minimum

institution
Is actively pursued, stimulated

spread

over

involvement:
PROGRAMME ACTIVITIES
A distinction is made between
(1) Institutional programmes, that is, the development and implementation
of solutions to identified problems. These programmes are contained in
departmental policy and objectives and do not constitute specific activities.
They

relate

to

research,

personnel

selection

and

development,

communication, press liaison and the establishment of a special unit

charged with the establishment of good relations.
(2) Individual programmes, that is purposeful individual police action in
strict accordance with the principles of policing. It is not solely the task of
an isolated administrative unit to build good relations. Each policeman is
involved in this activity at all times and under all conditions. Individuals
should therefore programme their general behaviour in accordance with
this principle .

According to Radelet (1977 B.R.No2) the actualisation of the overall

objective the establishment of better relations and understanding
between police and public has three areas of activity: public relations
work, community service and community participation, and the following
are requirements for these activities:
Public relations work:
personal tidiness and good appearance
good manners, courteousness, politeness
telephone etiquette
well-cared vehicles
displays of skill, achievements and equipment
awards to policemen and members of the public
press liaison
neat facilities (charge offices, etc.).

Community service:
educational information in newspapers, journals and newsletters and, on
radio or television
security instructions with regard to vehicle handling and general security
youth programmes
meaningful procedures for laying charges

career clinics at schools

emergency facilities during demonstrations, general unrest or disaster
aid to crisis clinics
crime prevention campaigns (and distribution of literature)
visits to homes whose occupants are on holiday
tracing of missing persons
Storing of lost property
General advice and aid in social crisis (social service).

Community involvement:
The police can cooperate with the public onto a variety of boards, and can
participate in seminars on relationship problems. A police-community
board might well be very useful. Decide for yourself how you, in your
particular position and within the framework of departmental guidelines,
could involve community leaders on an ad hoc or permanent basis in the
discussion of common problems.

DIVISION CHARGED WITH RELATIONAL PROBLEMS

We have asserted that the promotion of good relations cannot be regarded
as the responsibility of a separate administrative unit it has to be the
underlying object of all police activity; but such a unit can perform

important services that are generally beyond the scope of line functionaries.
Clark (B.R.No2) provides the following suggestions for such a unit:
(1)

Programmes can be developed to foster understanding

and cooperation, support and trust within the community, with a view to
preventing crime and criminality.
(2)

The police can make links with projects and programmes of related

organisations and schools in an attempt to promote greater respect for the

police.
(3)

All special police activities can be coordinated, such as visits to

institutions, seminars, and police week.

(4)

A positive and true image can be developed of the police function in

relation to the maintenance of law and order, keeping the peace and
protecting the public.
(5)

Teaching programmes can be developed for departmental training

courses. The emphasis has to be on the consolidation of relationships.

(6)

There can be direct liaison with particular sectors of the community

and their organisations, to deal with their grievances and problems.

(7)

Programmes can be created to promote harmony between line

functionaries and the general populace.

(8)

Activities with community bodies and leaders can be introduced, to

make them fully aware of the methods, systems, reference procedures, and
procedures for laying charges that relate to the need for police services.

ADVANTAGES OF SOUND POLICE-COMMUNITY RELATIONS

Sound mutual relations between police and public have a multitude of
advantages. The following are some of the most important and most
conspicuous, to the police as well as to the public:
(1)

greater harmony between the police and all members of the

community
(2)

less crime and criminality

(3)

better control of crime through the arrest, prosecution and

rehabilitation of a greater number of offenders

(4)

established communication channels, making it possible to identify

and eliminate the problems experienced by police and public at an early

stage
(5)

a sound working relationship with the public and other professional

bodies
(6)

upgrading of basic and advanced training programmes to study

relational problems and programmes in depth

(7)

prevention of tensions between police and public, and the speedy

resolution of such as do arise

(8)

a professional and influential police force

(9)

greater mutual understanding and support

(10) a much improved police image to the outside

(11) greater professional pride arising from social acceptance
(12) crime prevention.

ATTITUDES
We cannot conclude this section without pointing out that relationships are
in fact an interaction between attitudes both police and public attitudes.
A variety of factors contributes to a variety of attitudes. An attitude is a
mental state of preparedness, moulded and transformed by knowledge and
experience in the contact situation, which has a directive and dynamic
effect on the individual's response to the objects and situations among
which he finds himself. It is logical, there fore, to expect that the
sentiments which police and public entertain towards one another, and the
expectations and obligations they impose on one another, will create
attitudes that will either ease or complicate the relational problem.
There are the public attitudes and the police attitudes.

Public attitudes
Most accusations against the police are the result of ignorance, incomplete
information, and personal preferences and prejudices that is, a tendency
to prejudge. The attitudes arising from this are generally easy to change;
but when conceptions become stereotypes, they are correspondingly more
difficult to alter.
Police stereotypes are ingrained public opinions held by the public
concerning the police. They are the culmination of attitudes in a firm belief
that police behaviour has certain characteristics:
(1) Brutality: that is, the police are considered to have an insensitive and
clumsy attitude or operational police method that ignores human dignity
(Germann et al. 1962: 238). This refers to actual physical violence in the
form of assaults and unnecessary brutality during arrest and interrogation,
and degrading of persons and status by insulting forms of address, abusive
terms, humiliating language, and a subtle or brutal discriminatory abuse of
police authority and power (Radelet 1977: 210).
(2)

Inferiority: the police service is regarded as an inferior function of

society, and the practitioner is branded as uneducated, unintelligent,

unqualified and unprofessional.
(3)

Partiality: the police are believed to differentiate between race

groups, population groups and socioeconomic classes; in other words, there

is one kind of police system for one group and a different system for
another.
(4)

Repression: it is believed that the police place the emphasis on arrest

and prosecution rather than on prevention.

Police attitudes
A policeman is not a superhuman being, it is logical that he will develop
certain attitudes. Quite apart from the external environment in which he is
constantly confronted with actual or potential danger, and the fact that he
tends to categorise (i.e. classifying persons in categories such as
criminal/non-criminal,

violent/non-violent,

antagonistic/friendly),

the

impersonal bureaucratic climate of the internal occupational environment

also has its effect on attitudes. The police, like the public, tend to form
stereotypes. There is a firm belief that public behaviour has certain
characteristics:
(1)

Indifference: that is, the public does not give the police the necessary

support and help.

(2)

Ingratitude: the public has little appreciation for the services

rendered to them.
(3)

Hostility: the public is seen as unnecessarily unfriendly and

antagonistic towards the police.

(4)

Prejudice: the public is believed to be essentially prejudiced, and

suspicious of everything done by the police.

(5)

Inaccessability: the public refuses to understand the problems

confronting the police, and every attempt to explain the need for public
involvement, and to elicit information and aid, is blocked.
(6)

Rejection: the police are thought to be socially unacceptable because

of the authority they symbolise.

CONCLUDING
Problem

solving

through

community

participation

has

important

implications. We have indicated that the idea is not to persuade people to

develop a sudden "love" for the police. This is a by-product of
programmes, because some people develop an appreciation for the police
and find them accept able. This should be seen as a dividend. The primary
objective is to clear up real problems, to improve the quality of police
services, and to engender respect for the police and for the authority
structure they personify. Of course, respect has to be earned, and in this
process the attitude and behaviour of each policeman is of decisive
importance.
The basic message is that police services should be rendered in such a way
that the image that is created is a credit to the service, that it promotes

good relations, and brings about full partnership between police and public
in the maintenance of order.
Sound police-community relations are hampered by a great many obstacles
and problems. These need to be noted and efficiently dealt with if the
advantages of relational programmes are to be realised. The advantages to
both police and public exceed the problems and obstacles. Wholehearted
cooperation and participation of the entire police force and everybody in
the community can result in a better environment for everybody. This does
not lay any new or far-fetched obligation on the police. It is historically and
philosophically routed in the true meaning of policing.

BORDER POLICE
THE FACE OF THE STATE

Since the border police personnel are the front line public servants of
the State, it is vital to be well groomed and of smart appearance, well
equipped to meet the challenges that lie ahead.
Paramount first points:
- A clean uniform and well presented at all times.
- Punctuality and prompt arriving in order duties and tasks be
undertaken.

Paying attention
Paying attention is an acquired skill and requires training. The first
step the good listening is. In order to be happened, the ears, the eyes, the
nose and the mind of the listener have to be fully engaged.
Being the front line personnel of the State will need to pay such
attention so to switch off the automatic mechanism of the passengers and
passers by, which focuses in the first word and jump up to conclusions
immediately.
The good listener border policeman will also be watching everything
fully, and picks up all the unspoken communication through facial

expressions, body language and gestures. There is also a fold of the

unspoken communication. It is what the other is saying between the lines
because when a situation is emotional, (e.g. illegal people) they rarely say
exactly what they mean.
The good listener border officer picks up all the signals and takes
them on board, without being judgmental or taking them personally.
Border police personnels body language needs to be natural and non
aggressive. Small signs like looking away, rattling loose change and
fiddling all indicate non professionalism.
Hands are also powerful communicators. Hands close in to fists
indicate tension and aggression. The single pointing finger shows a back of
listening. Hands in pockets show carelessness.

Maintaining a positive attitude

It happens very often the administration and the management is
focused on internal goals and objective and it is too easy to forget the
overall aim of the Border and Migration Police.
In order to be focused on the real target, it is helpful to remember the
difference between the function and the essence of the service. Making the
distinction between the function and the essence of your service will help
prioritizing the tasks.

When answering an incoming telephone call, be careful how you

answer the telephone. Remember, you are answering on behalf of your
service and as representative of the Border and Migration Police.

Disability Awareness
Traveling can often be difficult for many disabled people. Many
times it comes from other peoples attitudes and back of understanding.
Being disabled is not the same as being ill.
Ways in which you can help:
Always be patient and give extra help if it is needed (to illegal too).
Dont worry if you feel embarrassed because you arent sure what
to do. Have confidence, stay calm and ask to know how you can help. Wait
for your offer to be accepted, and then ask to tell you the best way you can
help.
Special cases and ways in which you can help (it concerns illegal
persons or suspects too):
Blind or partially sighted: Always speak as you approach the
person. State clearly who you are. If you offer a seat, put their hand on the
back or arm of the chair and allow them to sit by themselves.
Deaf or hard of hearing: Attract their attention with a wave of your
hand. Never shout, write everything you want down if it is needed. If an

interpreter is used for sign language speaks directly to the traveler not the
interpreter.
Difficulty in moving around: Offer help with coats, bags etc., and
open doors. Never be offended if your help is refused.
Persons in wheelchairs: Try to put yourself at their eye level, to
avoid still necks. If they need to write, offer a clipboard.
Speech and language difficulties: Be patient, look encouraging and
concentrate on listening. Listen to what is said not how it is said.
Reading and writing difficulties: Have a positive attitude be
prepared to explain more than once. Dont give up try again.
Mental Health problems: Be patient and remain calm. Be
confident, positive and professional.
Looking Different: Dont feel uncomfortable. Remember it is only
their looks, it doesnt mean they are different in any other way. Try to look
them in the eyes, concentrate on what they are saying and respond.
If you are not sure what to do: Remain confident. Ask the person
how you can help and always offer assistance, but dont impose it.
(B.R.No21, 22)

PART V
THE POLICE AND THE BORDER POLICE TRAINERS
STANDARD GUIDELINES FOR A FLEXIBLE TRAINING
SCOPE: The providing of an effective workbook tool for Albania
Border Police trainers on integrated border management matters.
OBJECTIVES: After you have studied this workbook you will be able
to:
Define the traditional, the alternative and the flexible training.
Use it as a guide, in order to train Police personnel effectively Border
Police Basic level staff included (not only for Green Borders but for
blue and azure - gray as well).
Discuss four theories of human development and the two approaches
of learning.
Explain why trainees are the centre of the training.
Develop your communication skills.
Discuss about the roles of a trainer.
Prepare and organize the training meetings.
Identify the learning difficulties of the trainees.
Describe the efficacy of every one of the pedagogical means.
Setting out a training period effectively.

Establish written training material.

Azure gray= air borders

 Discuss about the new technologies and the Police Training.

Evaluate a training programme and the relevant written material.

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER 1
The need of education
The society is always under development being more and more
complicated continuously (Emile DURKHEIM, 1858 - 1917, Sociologist,
Bordeaux and Sorbonne University professor).
In nowadays a series of evolutions on social, economical,
technological and culture domains affect more and more adults (men and
women) to acquire various knowledge and skills adaptable the changes are
conducted.
In enterprises and in services domain, the further training itself
becomes the inseparable, main element of all of these domains functions.
At he other pole the groups of the social excluded are existed and
a part of them by third countries, affect in many ways Albania and the
Schengen area broadly. All these situations drive to the conclusion that
the synchronous border police personnel ought to have a variety of
qualifications in order to earn the hypothesis, having in mind that
the half life phenomenon takes place (half life is the phenomenon
that the half knowledge been acquired by an initial training are
inactivated by the time passing by).
The labor cost is always been upgrading, and it is driving directly
to the demand of laborer further training so among employees recompenses
and their skills, a balance must be created.
The above mentioned further education or further training demands:
A general education so the synchronous policeman / policewoman
be able to understand and decode the messages of the evolutions.
Special knowledge about his / her job.

 Basic social skills like the programming, the target setting, the
personal communication development, the procedure of alternative or
flexible solutions and to learn how to learn.
The learning
Learning is a part of life. It comes up by the experience. It is a part of
the individuals development way for their whole life (please see part A,
about the learning theories). It means that the learning has an individual
character (Bibl. Report No 15 Rogers). Subsequently the learning is:
Personal and individual.
Voluntary. We learn because we want. It is not happened under
pressure.
Dynamic not passive.
(Bibl. report No 15-HOLMBERG, NOYE, PIVETEAY, ROGERS).
Basic intermediate higher.
All these constitute the grammical education or the initial one.
But there is the post initial as well, having to do with all the
mentioned about the educational needs. Albania Police Personnel has been
trained in Police Institute and in Higher Police Schools but for their
specific tasks, post initial training focused on specific needs, is always
demanded.
The conclusion is that the post initial education has to do with the
adults education. Adults education is a pedagogical approach to skills
(Piaget, please see Unit A; Section 1 bibl. rep. No 15, -Noye Piveteau).
Adults education could be transacted either traditionally (face to
face inside the classroom) or openly / alternatively (the educational
material is the central pillar, please see Unit B, Section 5) or by a

combination of the two mentioned, which is the flexible education /

training.
Borje HOLMBERG, the great Swedish professor and tutor of
distance learning, gives a piece of advice according which the combination
of traditional and alternative methods consists the best practice in post
initial education or the education / learning of adults, and Phil RACE
supports this aspect.
(Bibl. report No 15 Holmberg).
Our project, of course, concerns a procedure of a post initial
education and we try on this by Holmbergs and Races introduced method.
Consequently it is important to know how the adults feel in front of a
further training programme.
The trainees - adults in the post initial training / education
They want to start a post initial training.
They feel easily captured.
They need a help hand to start the education.
Their time is not enough.
They need tutors assistance in order to use the classic books.
They have to be persuaded that flexible training gives effective
results.
They have important reasons to wish education but according a
flexible way because of their many obligations.
(Bibl. report No 15- Race).
All the above mentioned have been inserted adults main attributes
netting that are: Development, Autonomy and Perspective.
(Bibl. report 15, Rogers).

Note: It is necessary to say that the terms Education of Adults and

Adult Education are different. The difference doesnt concern the
contents of the education but the learning procedure. The Education of
Adults includes all the projected learning activities e.g. in favour of
University Students. The Adult Education confronts the trainees as
persons who are skillful, experienced, responsible and mature. Their soul is
full from contraversional elements like ambition and lack of resoluteness
simultaneously, dreams for activity but fatigue as well, time problems, fears
about life but ready to confront everything, they have a plan of life but they
are afraid the reaction of the others. The most important is a unique
element. It is the confrontation of every new knowledge. They dont learn it
like the students by a step by step way. They see the new subject as a unity
and they motivate any piece of their knowledge and experience in order to
access it, to know about it and to affiliate it by a personal way so the new
knowledge be incorporated to the old.
(Bibl. report No 15, Rogers. More over the researches of Athens /
Greece, University Professor Mr. John MARKANTONIS about the
pedagogical psychology, 1981).
We have also to take in mind that the memory of these ages is been
declining so are very important conclusion for the Police Border Trainers is
that

TRAINER

MUST

PURSUE

THEIR

(TRAINEES)

COMPREHENSION AND NOT THEIR MEMORIZING. The Adult

learning fermentation is inductive, multiplicational, and total dressed with
willingness for more knowledge with the support of motivation due
Maslows hierarchy of Needs, as below:

Growth Needs

Self Actualization
Esteem
Social Needs

Deficiency Needs
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs
(Bibl. Report No 15, Rogers, and study of MAPEXT B.R.No31).
Poetry constitutes a symbolic language. From one poem lines,
someone learns the substance of a subject; otherwise a big scientific
research is demanded, about it.
John WOOD the poet, wrote the poem for every person in 1974. In
a not more that one page text, some one can find the psychological frame of
the adult trainees. This frame concerns all the mentioned above.
Introductory Notes
In order all the needs of the trainers training be served, according the
training Project the present workbook has been established.
It is a result of a fermentation of various knowledge and experiences
and reflects everything scientific modern about adults education and
training not only in the world.

Beyond the Introductory Unit, the present workbook consisted by

three other units:
The first unity (UNIT A) is of a general nature for a modern police
corp as the Albanias Border Police. This unity includes the educational
systems, the trainer trainees relationships, the Border Policemen stress
and the Border Police trainers roles.
The second unity (UNIT B) includes all the practical matters of
Border Policemens training and helps enough the Border Police trainer.
Not only to presentate an educational subject but to investigate difficulties,
to use techniques and pedagogical means, to create training material and to
know everything for the new technologies in education and training applied
to Police personnel too. Then the trainers acquire the necessary knowledge
for an evaluation of educational / training programmes and written material
as handbooks, workbooks, notes, etc.
The UNIT C of Annexes includes three Annexes. The first and the
second help an evaluation procedure. The last Annex (Annex III), includes
the bibliographical sources.
Establishing the present the principles included in sources reported
in Bibliography under the No 2, 3, 9, 12, 14, 15, 21, 31) have taken under
consideration by the undersigned.
In order to avoid long texts, I replaced them by figures. The material
has been developed by such way so to be piloted freely to every UNIT and
every section, without having to below a concert or ordered steps.
The essential points of this handbook, the acknowledge sources
(listed in the bibliography, alphabetically) are indicated with the reference
technique of modified Harvard system. It is done by insertion into the text
the references between brackets abbreviated by arabical numerals

indicating the position of the particular source in the list of the

Bibliography. Personally I report the name of every author.
I hope that this unity will be useful for your training tasks not only
efficiently but effectively. Every point will be explained in details during
our educational meetings.
Thank you for your cooperation.
Sincerely Yours
S. M. KYRIAKAKIS

CHAPTER 2

Sections 1-4
Section 1: The Educational systems (Traditional, Alternative, Flexible)
Section 2: The 4 Development Theories, the two approaches to learning.
Their common points and the upgrading of the Trainer
Trainees relationships.
Section 3: The Border Police personnel stress due their tasks and their
Training.
Section 4: The Tutor / Trainer Roles

Section 1
THE TRADITIONAL, THE ALTERNATIVE, THE FLEXIBLE
TRAINING SYSTEMS AND THE BORDER POLICE TRAINING
AND FURTHER TRAINING PROGRAMMES

Introductory Note: Concerning the Border Police Training and

Further Training Programmes there are two educational systems both used
in nowadays modern police training needs. They are the traditional system
(face to face training or education inside the classroom) and the alternative
system. The combination of the two systems could offer effective results.
So we are in front of the flexible system.

The Traditional System

A series of restrictions are bound together the traditional system,
concerning our hypothesis.
These restrictions have to do with:
- The trainees physical presence in a concrete classroom.
- The trainees presence during determined hours.
- The narrow spectrum of trainees ages, (e.g. the majority of
the trainees in a Police College or in a traditional university).
Differentiation between tutors presentations and training material.
This training material includes a large scale of subjects, with many details,
good for surveys or researches. The handbooks of this type affect mostly
the Cognitive and the Affective domains of the trainee (e.g. the traditional
handbooks which are used in a Police Institute or in a traditional
university). (Bibl. No 20, Vergidis and others, pages 35, 46).
The Alternative System
It is governed by a philosophy according which everyone is right to
have a life long education, fully in accordance with Border Police cadres,
need continuously seminars of further training due the continuous changes.
The trainee is the centre of every educational effort, individually.
The trainee chooses his / her rhythm and the study time.
A special planned training material is used.
This type of the training material has been characterized as learning package. It contains a tutor in a state of suspended animation. Once the
learner opens the package, that trainer is instantly at trainees service,
ready to help him/her, learn (Rowntree 1994, in bibl. report No 15).
The relationship among the trainee, the trainer and the educational
material has as the follow figure.

Trainee

Trainer

Educational Material

The educational material includes the use of the new technologies

(e.g. multimedia).
The educational material (handbooks - study guides - tutorial
letters, multimedia, DVD, video e.t.c.) affects the Cognitive, Affective and
Psychomotor Domains.
The flexible system
A paradigm of a flexible training system is this of the open education
system which uses the distance learning method of education, or this of a
traditional institute using for some lessons the distance learning method.
The trainees learn by themselves. So they are supported by:
- The educational material.
- The trainer, who sustains their self - esteem motivate and
encourage them, by letters, faxes and e-mails.
The flexible education is offered now:
By: - Open and distance learning universities. Examples:
The open University of United Kingdom, the Hellenic Open
University in Patras / Greece and others in USA, Europe, Asia, Africa and
Australia.

Historically, Illinois State University has started first the open

education system using the method of the distance learning since 1874.
In nowadays there is the European Distance Education Network
(EDEN 1991). During 1997, 60 universities from 28 European countries
were participating in EDEN. Now the members are too many. Many
individuals and other organizations offer distance lessons, participate too.
In 1987 the European Association of Distance Teaching Universities
(EADTU) was established.
Traditional Universities which offer some lessons to the students by
the method distance of learning (distance teaching) participate to EADTH,
as well.
- Some Departments (for few lessons) of Traditional Universities.
- Consortiums (Universities along other educational institutions).
- Other institutions out of the University community.
Their common characteristics are:
The special educational material.
The working groups for instructions face to face.
The use of new educational technologies (Multimedia, DVD, Video
etc.).
(Bibl. Report No 15, Vergidis - Holmberg).
This educational philosophy (open Learning) and the educational
method of distance learning could be apply (in the future) to the Police
Border cadres, through out Albania, for the theoretical parts of a post
education further training programme, saving time, expenses and in favour
of the maintaining the rhythm of the service (no extensive personnel

absence from their duties because of a training). It will be an effective

combination of the two systems. This is a real flexible training system.

Section 2
THE FOUR THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT, THE TWO
APPROACHES TO LEARNING AND THE UPGRADING OF THE
TRAINER TRAINEES RELATIONSHIPS
Introductory notes: We will examine the basical theories about
human development and learning briefly and the two approaches to it and
the communication skills which are indispensable for a flexible training.
Further more we will marks out the preparation of the training meetings.
The Theories
Theories about the influence of nature and nurture on development
can be grouped under four broad headings empiricist / behaviourist,
rationalist

nativist,

interactionist

/constructivist;

and

social

constructivist. The empiricist / behaviourist position stresses the role of the

environment (nurture). The rationalist / nativist position stresses the role of
the childs innate potential (nature). The interact ional / constructivist
position stresses the interaction of biological and environmental factors.
The social - constructivist position emphasizes the history and culture of
the social groupings which the ineractions that results in development take
place.
Every broad heading theory is represented by a key theorist.
(a) Behaviourism and B.F. Skinner.
Behaviourism has had a great impact on education.
Behaviourist theories see human beings as machines, reacting in a
predictable way to stimulation from outside them. As development

progresses, people accumulate knowledge but there is no major change in

the structure of their minds. Therefore, all changes are quantitative not
quantitative through experience, thought and behaviour change in
quantity but not in quantity.
According to Skinner, any persons behaviour can be explained by
past history, their current situation and genetic endowment.
Although Skinner acknowledged genetic endowment, he was mostly
concerned with how to external environment controls behaviour.
He believed that understanding behavioural processes would help us
to:
(a) predict what people would do in a given situation;
(b) arrange circumstances to control behaviour;
(c) interpret behaviour.
(b) Nativism and Noam Chomsky
Chomskys theory of language development.
Chomsky made the radical proposal that the principles underlying
language are not learned but are innate.
Chomskys answer to this question is that language learning depends
on innate mental structures dedicated to learning language. These innate
structures allow children to recognize and use the complex grammatical
rules of a language. Thus, by the time children are about 5 years old, their
speech is very like adults and they can create and understand an infinite
variety of new sentences.
What is crucial, according to Chomsky, is what we are all born with
what has been called a language acquisition device (LAD). All languages
have rules which enable the language user to generate new utterances
which they have never heard or spoken before. Chomsky argued (on the

basis of linguistic analysis) that since all languages share key rules, the
underlying structures must be built into the human brain as the LAD.
The LAD is programmed to recognize the universal rules that
underlie the particular language that a child hears.
(c) Constructivism and Jean Piaget.
Both Skinners and Comskys ideas have influenced the study of
development. Neither of these theorists, however, attempted to present a
comprehensive theory of human development. The most comprehensive
theory of human intellectual development was proposed by Jean Piaget
(1896 -1980), who is considered by many to be the founder of the study of
cognitive development of intellectual growth.
Piaget, who was Swiss, was originally a biologist. By the age of 10,
he had already published his first his first scientific paper (on an albino
sparrow). While still is secondary school he received an offer to become a
curator at the Museum of Natural History which he turned down in order to
finish his studies. From an early age, he was also interested in philosophy
and religion and became interested in finding a way of combining science
and philosophy.
After gaining his doctorate in biology at the age of 21, Piaget spent
two years studying philosophy and psychology at the Sorbonne, in Paris.
Here he met Theodore Simon a pioneer of intelligence testing and through
him secured a job standardizing the reasoning tests devised by Simons
colleague, Alfred Binet.
Piaget was fundamentally interested in questions of epistemology,
the study of the nature of knowledge and its origins (the embryology of
intelligence in the quotation above). The basic questions, as you have seen,
are to do with how we come t o know something and whether knowledge is

innate or acquired. This last question is what Piaget meant by the problem
of the relation between the organism and the environment, and is one
which Skinner and Chomsky also tackled. But Piaget introduced the notion
of the organism acting on the environment as well as being acted on by it.
(d) Social constructivism and Lev Vygotsky
The three theoretical perspectives we have discussed so far assume
that development arises from two sources: our biology and our
environment. Their differences lie in the weight that they assign to each of
these

sources and

how they

interact

to produce

development.

Constructivists such as Piaget emphasize the interaction between the two,

but nevertheless focus on the construction of internal, mental structures.
Social constructivists take a different approach. They argue that the
same biological or environmental factors may have very different effects,
depending on the people among whom the child grows up, both in terms of
the culture(s) of those people and their characteristics as individuals. The
seminal figure in this area is the Russian Lev S. Vygotsky (1896-1934).
Major features of Vygotskys theory, Vygotskys emphasized its role:
he believed that society was essential to human cognitive development,
beginning with interaction between the child and another person.
Like Piaget, Vygotskys saw children as active organizers of their
own knowledge, who used sign systems in a continuous interaction with
the social world. Vygotsky argued that Piaget had overlooked the major
impact of cultural sign systems on development by focusing on the child as
a solitary thinker.

Comparing Piaget and Vygotsky

The Piagetian child interacts with the environment, makes her own
discoveries and is independent. This is not to say that she develops in
isolation. The social world is important but not as important as the
independent development of the childs internal structures.
Vygotsky, on the other hand, argued that childrens minds are not
simply the products of their own discoveries. Children need the conceptual
tools and knowledge that are handed down to them by their culture. This
helps them to develop ideas that they would not do their own (Bibl. Report
No 15- OATES).
The two approaches of the learning
They concern the approaches of the Paulo FREIRE and Robert
GAGNE.
PAULO FREIRE
The writings of Freire are now very well known among adult
educators, even though some have confessed to finding him difficult to
comprehend.
The heart of his educational ideas lies of humanistic conception of
the learner but also a realization that once the learner has actually learned
he may not remain passive but become an active participant in the wider
world.
Through the process of literacy education Freire, and his colleagues,
were able to design experiential situations in which the learners were
enabled to reflect upon their own understandings of themselves within their
socio-cultural milieu.

For Freire, therefore, education is the practice of freedom in which

the learner discovers himself and achieves his humanity by acting upon the
world to transform it.
Freire places considerable emphasis on the dialogue between the
teacher - learner and the learner teacher and this is similar to the two-way
model of human interaction.
Freires approach is a model for teaching adults rather than
necessarily one for teaching children. It concentrates upon the humanity of
the learner and places great value upon the human being but it is more
structural and political in its emphasis, whereas the one discussed here is
more phenomenological and individualistic.
ROBERT M. GAGNE
Some of Gagnes work was used in the previous chapter, so that that
aspect of it will not be repeated here. Nevertheless, there is an element of
his work that is significant to adult education and this is his types of
learning. He has proposed eight types, seven of which he regards as a
hierarchy and the eight may occur at any level.
These are: signal learning; stimulus-response learning; motor and
verbal chaining; multiples discrimination; concept learning; rule learning;
problem solving.
He claims that signal learning may occur at any level of the
hierarchy and it may be understood as a form of classical conditioning
which was discussed in the previous chapter. Clearly this happens with
both children and adults and it is no doubt one of the ways in which
everyone enquires many attitudes and prejudices throughout the whole of
their life. The remaining seven types of learning are, according to Gange,
seven stages of a hierarchy and they are now elaborated upon.

Stimulus - response learning is the same as operant conditioning in

which the response is shaped by the reward. The following two types of
learning, motor and verbal chaining, Gange places at the same level in the
hierarchy: the former refers to skills learning while the latter is rote
learning.
Gange suggests that the ability to learn concepts is the next order of
the hierarchy and it may be recalled that developmental psychologists, such
as Piaget (1929), would claim that ability to think in the abstract
commences mostly during adolescence, so that is necessary to recognize
that the education of adults may be different from the education of children,
since the levels of conceptual thought in the various learning processes are
different.
One particular type of classification is that t of rules and he
maintains that the ability to respond to signals by a whole number of
responses is successful rule learning.
Problem solving is the highest order of learning in Ganges hierarchy
and this occurs when the learner draws upon his previously learned rules in
order a problematic situation (Bibl. Report No 15- Jarvis).
Theories of development and the approaches of learning common
points
o

A human been includes the learning need.

Learning affects the human behaviour.

Every human been learns according him/her particular

(private) way.

The approach of the learning is out of the obstacles, if

the education programme includes practical matters and empirical

knowledge.
o

The learning process is effective if the participants are

participated, to it, actively.
Analyzing these points we are guided directly to the principles of

Adults learning and for the upgrading of communication skills which is the
important element in Adults training.
Principles of Adults learning
The main characteristic point (the key point) is The ineraction
not the learning process
Process is a grammic line.
Interaction is a dynamic relationship.
o

Adults thoughts are close bound with action.

Adults are the centre of a training procedure.

Assimilation by the way if the path finding.

Critical way of thinking.

Interactive relations between tutors trainees.

Communication
Communication is the exchanging of messages among people.
The ideal

PERSON A

PERSON B

(SENDER RECEIVER)

(SENDER RECEIVER)
The reality
declination
_____

PERSON A
(SENDER RECEIVER)

PERSON B
(SENDER RECEIVER)

Inferences:
Messages ought to be clear distinct and complete.
Active listening directly (every what we can hear) and indirectly
(for what has not been said).
Responds (by you) must be clear and appropriate.
Take care of positioning and of body language.
The channels of communication are verbal (words of the speech)
and non verbal (intonation, body language, dresses, feelings, the way of a
person sits or stand and his/her movements).
Be an active listener not a poor listener.
The active listener:
Pays attention and shows interest.
Doesnt respond until the message is understood.
Looks for the discussion.
Core, mind, eyes, ears, nose are kept open.

 Ask open questions (this type of questions cannot be answered by a

dry yes or no.
By the other hand the poor listener try to find what he/her has to
respond, listens only for facts, reacts emotionally triggered by words and
prefers to make statements (Bibl. Report No 15, -Kokkos and others,
MAPEXT, studies).
Communication Skills
The self esteem strengthening. The elements are:
- The acceptance of the personal characteristics (ideas, sentiments,
personal skills).
- The acceptance of the personal weakness.
- The expression of the needs.
- The acceptance of the changes.
- The constant acquisition of information, knowledge, skills.
All these are described elegantly by Virginia SATIR at her poem about the
self esteem.
- The sentiments expression.
- The acceptance of the understanding of the others.
- The familiarity with the body language.
- The active exchange of the messages.
- The harmonization of thoughtssentimentsmessages and deeds.
- The encouragement of the others (e.g. the trainees).

Section 3
THE POLICEMEN STRESS IN THEIR SERVICE
AND DURING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
The word stress is derived from the Latin word stringere which
means to pull tightly or to fasten. The concept was first used in the 17 th
century, with connotations of hardship, disquiet, misfortune or tribulation.
During the second half of the 18th century the word took on broader
meanings of power, pressure and strain, more specifically related to actions,
physical or mental abilities.
Development of Border Police.
In nowadays Police, (and the Border Police), officer does not only
comprise simple measures, but has evolved into a sophisticated business.
The modern police officer and the Border Police officer is now part of a
professional team and occupation which is developing into fully fledged
science. New and greater demands are made on the worker, to ensure that
he is capable to perform the basic task of protection and loss control
effectively. The border police officer acts in the capacities, law
enforcement officer, crisis control expert, personnel manager,
psychiatrist, public relations officer, medic, criminologist and researcher.
Border police personnel often find themselves in situations where it is
expected that they assess and control threatening situations at all costs,
regardless of stress, at all times of the day or night, when the average
civilian functions less effectively. More over they have to follow various
seminars, life long in order to cover the needs due the changes. The main
characteristic of all the above is the so called stress situation.

Categories of definitions of stress

Stress deals mainly with the interaction of man / woman and his / her
environment. Many definitions of stress are found, but most can be
categorized under three headings, namely response definitions, stimulus
definitions and stimulus response definitions.
Response definitions
According to the response definitions, stress is the physiological or
psychological response to a stressor which the environment imposes on the
person. A stressor is a potentially detrimental external situation or agent,
which causes stress in individuals. The appearance of the stress response
shows that an individual is exposed to a disrupted environment. An
example of the response definition of stress is given in figure, below.

Environment

Person
Psychologica
l

Stressor

Stress

stress

Physiological
Stimulus

Response

stress

Stimulus definitions
Stimulus definitions accentuate the stimulus characteristics of the
environment which account for pressure build up or burden placed on the
person. In this context stress is defined as the power or stimulus operating
on an individual and causing a response as a result of burden or strain.
Stress is seen as an independent variable, a disruptive force acting on the
person and pressurizing him.
At this point we concentrate especially on circumstances which exert
pressure on persons. The major criticism of stimulus definitions is the fact
that certain circumstances or situations which may pressurize some
individuals will not necessarily have the same effect on others. Figure gives
a schematic representation of the stimulus definitions (Cox, Ladikos, in
No14 B.R.)

Environment
Stress
Stimulus

Person
Strain
Response

(The stimulus response definitions)

Stimulus response definitions
According to the stimulus response definitions, stress is regarded
as an internal condition or structure which acts as go between, between
stimulus and response. Stress is, in other words, the result of interaction
between an environmental stimulus and the unique response of the

individual. Therefore stress is more than a mere stimulus or response, but is

the result of a unique interaction between circumstantial stimuli in the
environment and the response following these circumstances. Theorists
following this approach are of the opinion that over and above the
interactional method of approach, this perspective is also transactional. In
this instance the individual is not only the mediator between the impact of
the environmental stimuli on the various responses, but his perceptual,
cognitive and physiological characteristics can also affect his environment
and become an important part thereof.
Cleary the stimulus response definitions are more useful than the
first two approaches since the critical role of differences between
individuals is pertinently proven (Bibl. Report No 14, Ladikos).
There are various theories on stress like these of:
Claude BERNARD (French psychologist).
Walter B. CANNON (American psychologist).
Hans SELYE (He is regarded by many, as the father or research on
stress).
LAZARUS.
Mc GRATH.
Van GRAAN.
Border Police Officers along with pilots, prison officials, military
personnel, air traffic control officials, sea men and others are stressed
associated.
University Professor Mr. T. LADIKOS (University of South Africa),
makes the point that the negative public image and poor relationship
between police and community can be cited as reasons for stress (or

stressors) in this occupation. Further that increased conflict within the

family can be linked to the social isolation experienced by police officers
and their families.
During the period 1960 1968 research conducted in the American
state of Wyoming concluded that suicide attempts among police officers
were twice as high as those by doctors, who were placed second highest oh
this list. In a study of the causes of suicide and a variety of psychosomatic
illnesses, Ellison and Genz (1983) recorded contributory factors which
could be life threatening, namely stressful incidents in everyday life.
Kroes (1976) identified the following illnesses brought on by stress:
asthma, hay fever, disturbances of the thyroid gland, skin outbreaks,
arthritis, over weight, hypertension, tuberculosis, migraine, ulcers
(including spastic colons) and diabetes. Especially gastro enteritis and
diabetes were connected to periods of great work stress and emotional
upheaval.
The following stress factors are prevalent in the police officers
career inadequacy, long working hours and shift work either a strenuous or
too light work load, court appearances and physical danger. Other sources
of stress are uncertainty of what the work entails, role conflict,
responsibility towards others and conflict regarding organizational duties.
Uncertainties vis a vis expectations may cause coronary heart diseases
or other stress related illnesses.
Research to determine sources of stress police officers gave rise to
the following manifestations:
conflict of values
insecurity regarding career development and own competence of
qualifications

 frustration caused by the judicial system and court procedure

inadequate equipment
continual exposure to other peoples problems
insufficient training opportunities
unceasing responsibility towards people and their property
existing disciplinary measures which the police officer is subjected
to, and which he regards as unreasonable and unfair.
Most occupations are subject to stress. Some occupations have
already been the subject of research and problem areas have been pointed
out and solutions proposed. Further research is necessary, especially in the
security profession.
Conclusion
By the nature of their occupation border police personnel are placed
in stressful situations which may make them vulnerable. Nowadays the
focus is clearly on security measures due to the sharp rise in crime. The
border police officers task is fraught with threatening situations, and has
increased in extent, intensity and effect. He / she may be faced with
situations which he / she cannot always handle well. The stress symptoms
in the latter are unique and in a class by itself, therefore continued research
in the field of the border police is a necessity.
The tutor trainer must anticipate the trainees burn out syndrome
and to try by all his / her effort to be proactive in situations like exhaustion,
detachment, boredom and cynicism, impatience and heightened irritability
and feelings of omnipotence (according which the person feels that nobody
but himself is capable of performing border management tasks effectively).

Section 4
TUTORS / TRAINERS ROLES
Every Tutor / Trainer has different roles.
He / she ought to perform them simultaneously.
He / she is:
Group Leader: Group leaders duties are to keep the group in a
unity situation and to keep the everyday rhythm of the training.
Tutor: It means that he / she teaches new things.
Member of the group: Because he / she accept all the group
stress.
A third person out of the group: Every member of the group acts
and performs in front of him / her pursuiting his / her approval.
Organizer of the educational programme.
All these roles are performed simultaneously.

CHAPTER 3

BORDER POLICEMENS TRAINING PRACTICAL

MATTERS

Sections 5-9
Section 5: Preparing / organizing the training meetings
Section 6: Training difficulties due to stress
Section 7: Setting out the training programme
Section 8: Establishing flexible and effective training material for
Border Police educational purposes
Section 9: The evaluation of a flexible Border Policemen training and
study material
Section 5
TRAINERS: PREPARING / ORGANIZING
THE TRAINING MEETINGS
The below consist the basic principles that the Border Police trainer
must also has under his / her consideration.
Basic principles
1st The trainer focuses on the special characteristics of the trainees
(Age and their special characteristics of the development in close
relationship with the educational programme, social, educational status,

sex, residence, educational needs. The trainer learns these data by writing a
letter to every one of them 12-15 days before the meeting asking for their
proposals or telephoning them).
2nd The trainer as soon as the training meeting starts introduces
himself and informs the trainee about the objectives of the educational
project. Subsequently the trainer expresses his / her support and
encouragement to the trainee and ask by them to present themselves (please
see Section 7, The presentation).
3rd The trainer analyses the educational needs, taking in mind that
the needs concern.
- Every trainee.
- The whole group of the trainees.
The needs either are confirmed by the trainer or are declared by the
trainees.
4th The trainer has already prepared an educational meeting plan as
the following example and apply it immediately, talking under
consideration the Notes as in figures for the use of time and the
assimilating procedure.
Example: Let us say that a training programme for a specific matter
of Border Police, has a four hours duration in one seminar day. The play
could be as below:

TARGETS

STAGE 1

STAGE 2

Cognitive

Presentation

Exploring

Domain

Method

deeply

Affective

STAGE 3

Motivation for
further
knowledge
Skills

Domain

Development

Psychomotor

Erasuring the

Domain

obstacles

Duration
Techniques

15-20 minutes
Many examples

40 minutes
Questions
Answers

Power Point

Means

Photos

Motivation

Creative

Creative

Confrontation

Use

60 minutes
STUDY CASE

30 minutes

Practical

Suggestions

Exer.
Parallel texts

Tables

Training

STAGE 4

Blackboard

Video / DVD
multi attack

Graphics

guidances
proposed
bibliography
internet

NOTE: The use of the time and the assimilating procedure

1. Necessary activities.
3
2
1

2. Useful activities.
3. Relative activities.

3
2
1

1. Desiring
2. Making
3. Assimilating
4. Feeding back
5th The trainer has been self prepared for:
The presentation.
The practical exercises.
The cases studies. It is a compound exercise. Mostly it
concerns a real event.
The performance of a scenario. The trainees perform
roles. It is like to live a case study.
Questions Answers.

 Discussion. For that purpose the trainees seats have to

be arranged properly.
Educational techniques. They are:
- The swowballing. (A subject according the educational programme
is examined. Every trainee writes down about it no more than 3-4 minutes
and compares his / her comments with these of a second trainee. Then the
same is repeated by groups of four persons. The aspects of the groups are
presented to the class).
- The brainstorming. The educational subject is examined by all
sides. All the trainees participate. Its not necessary to know about the
subject. The benefit is that the folds of the subject are welled up:
- The activity in working groups.
- The showing off by overseeing mean of teaching.
(Please see unit 7).
Meditation studies (papers).
By the papers the trainer / tutor:
- Evaluates the trainees progress.
- Encourages him / her.
- Helps the trainee to realize his / her weakness on the matter (if
there is any).
(Bibl. Rep. No 15,-Kokkos-).
Before the materialization of the educational / training programme,
the trainer has to fall upon the obstacles could be presented during the
training.
The next Section 6 concerns these difficulties.

Section 6
THE CLASSIFICATION
OF THE TRAINEES DIFFICULTIES DUE TO STRESS
AND THE OBSTACLES DURING AN ADULTS TRAINING
PROJECT
Having to do with adults in a project of Adult Training we must be
ready to see five trainees classes, for every which a differential access is
demanded. The trainers access is performed by capital letters. The classes
are:
a. The active: They want to learn immediately. They usually avoid to
study a handbook and they wish to discover the situations by themselves.
THE TRAINER HAS TO SPEAK SIMPLY AND TO PRESENT
THE SUBJECT GIVING A GENERAL VIEW.
b. The judicious. They follow the strategy of the wait and see.
They like to work with others in the classroom so to be able to collect
several pieces of information. It helps their way of thinking.
THE TRAINER ASSISTS THIS EFFORT.
c. The theoretical. They dont like the real cases. They wish the
comprehension of the totality of every subject, logically. They dont wish
the many and the different aspects.
THE TRAINER ACTS AS IN THE FIRST CASE (a)

d. The realist. They follow the strategy. This you are teaching about
maybe fits to the others but I have to examine if is it appropriate for me,
too. They are like the first reported (the active).
THE TRAINERS MAIN EFFORT IS TO AVOID THEIR
DISAPPOINTMENT.
(Bibl. Report No 15, Rogers, and the theories of HABERMAS and
David KOLB).
e. The indifferent.
THE TRAINERS MAIN EFFORT IS TO REALIZE WHICH ONE TYPE
OF THE PREVIOUS FOUR TYPES IS CLOSE TO THE INDIFFERENT.
SO THE TUTOR MUST WORK TO THAT DIRECTION. A PRIVATE
MEETING SOLVES MANY PROBLEMS CREATING BY THIS KIND
OF TRAINEES ATTITUDE.
What the trainer / tutor, has to know about the fears and the obstacles
concerning the training.

The obstacles in a Adult education / training project

Every trainee has done a sentimental investment concerning his /
her prior learning. The former teachers, tutors or handbooks writers are the
very important others. Everything new been in contradiction with them is
rejected by the trainee.
The trainees prejudices. The prejudices are different of the first
reported above. Prejudices are strong aspects without to pay attention to the
details.

 The giving up. The trainees; behavior is like a locked box.

They dont express anything and they want to escape from the reality. They
usually prefer the old knowledge and they dont wish to make a room so to
place the new data.
(Bibl. Report No 16, Rogers, pages 273-290).
More over a series of trainees fears always exist. They may be
grubbed as below during an adult education / training project.
1st group: In the beginning of the project (the first day).
They are the four W and the one H.
Who is he / she? (about the trainer).
Who are them? (the other colleagues).
Why are we here?
What will we do here?
How long shall we stay here?
THE TUTOR HAS TO GIVE THE ANALOGOUS ANSWERS BY THE
FIRST MINUTES. SO SOME FEARS WILL BE ERASURE
IMMEDIATELY. THE TUTOR PRESENTS HIMSELF AND ASKS THE
TRAINEES TO DO THE SAME. THEN THE TUTOR PRESENTS THE
PROGRAMME AND UNDERLINES THE DURATION OF THE EVERY
DAY TOPIC AND OF THE PROJECT. THE TRAINER ENCOURAGES
THE TRAINEES.
2nd group: It concerns the necessities of the trainees at the middle of
the project. Some of the trainees are boring while other feels physiological
and psychological stress. A number of trainees make self questions of the
type why have I been in such trouble.

The trainer acts proactively. He / she marks out the necessities / fears
before the middle of the training project. When the programme approaches
to the middle of its education.
THEN THE TRAINER / TUTOR REMIND TO ALL OF THEM
THAT THEY ARE NOT ALONE AND SUPPORT THEM FRIENDLY.
3rd group: It concerns the necessities and the fears by the end of the
project.
The time seems to pass quickly.
The trainees have an agony about their return to every day duties.
They are anxious about the programme evaluation.
The trainer acts preventively. He / she inform the trainees about the
above mentioned fears quite a long before the end. When the programme is
going to finish.
THEN THE TRAINER / TUTOR REMIND THEM THAT HIS /
HER ROLE IS TO SUPPORT THEM AND NOT TO CRITICIZE THEM.
THE TRAINER / TUTOR ENCOURAGE THEM AND REINFORCE
THEIR SELF ESTEEM AND THEIR SELF CONFIDENCE.

Section 7
SETTING OUT THE TRAINING PROGRAMME
It consisted by keeping of some rules during a training presentation
and its support by pedagogical means.
The presentation
It is done orally and by the support of several pedagogical means.
The below techniques must be under consideration.
There are three stages:
1st: Contact and familiarity.
2nd: Quick but important learning.
3rd: Retardation of the learning rhythm.
It is like to fly a plane.
Preparation and taking off.
The flight.
The approach and the landing after which we reverse.
a. The verbal presentation is completely different by the written
presentation. Consequently the tutor / trainer ought to avoid reading.
b. Verbal phrases must be sort, simple and independent. We must be
affirmative.
c. We have to avoid the negative phrases. A negative phrase
demands more time than an affirmative in order to be decoded.
d. The pictures help the comprehension.

e. Trainees must be seen directly.

f. Voice must be have rhythm and be steady. Use of action and effect
language.
g. Bodys steady language, remembering that one of your role is that
of a group leader.
h. Introduce yourself and invite trainees to introduce themselves.
Another way is after you have been introduced to permit a period of three
four minutes in order the trainees discuss by groups of two and then the one
to introduce the other.
i. Always start by mentioning the place, the time and the subject.
j. Use a style of action.
k. Control the trainees knowledge.
l. Check who
l. Check who learn quickly, who of them manifestate stress, who
have difficulties to express something, who of them have not interest, who
use to be absent and finally who learn late.
Use the intermission, approach them and declare that you support
them.
m. The scope and the targets are presented.
n. We keeping the principle of the three.
We repeat e.g. a term three times at least, during different training
stages of the same day.
x. We have in mind the Section 5 of the tutors preparation and for
his / her training techniques (please see all the Section 5).
The pedagogical means of the presentation support.

These means are as they presented in the follow table.

Pedagogical mean
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Written text
Pictures, photos, graphics
Tables
Slides by projector power point
Video - DVD
Multimedia

Memorizing

Analysis and

TARGETS
Acquisition of

Acquisition of

Psycho-

Comprehension

Interests

Attitudes

Motoring

Other techniques like the intervention marking on the slide during

the projection, is considered effective.

Section 8

ESTABLISHING EFFECTIVE TRAINING MATERIAL

IN THE FLEXIBLE TRAINING FRAMEWORK
FOR BORDER POLICE PURPOSES
Introductory Note: This unit concerns the third participant
introductory note in a Border Police training programme. The two know
participants are the trainer and the trainee. The third concerns the
educational material itself, which has two forms. A written form and an
electronic one.
The flexible educational material permits the trainees to learn
according their rhythm, during their own disposed time, mainly, in their
own place.
Consequently the flexible educational / training material, in order to
be corresponded to the above mentioned scope has to be established by
such way so to target to:
Instruct the trainee during the study.
Promote the trainee educational material, interaction.
Explain difficult meanings and points.
Encourage the trainee.
Permit the trainee to be piloted freely in the whole material.
It is welled up by two directions.
1st. It is created from the beginning, (originally).
2nd. It is selected by the existed handbooks but a study guide is
created. The guidance help the student / trainee to study flexibly the
handbook and to learn easily.

The planning and the development of the educational material.

It includes the next stages:
1st The study of the characteristics of the trainees users of the
training material, so to achieve all the educational objectives.
2nd The setting of the educational objectives. These have to reflect to
Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor domains. The objectives well up by
the scope and the scope is the title of the material with more words.
3rd Selection of the different forms of the educational material
(handbooks, multimedia, DVD, e.t.c.).
4th Examination of the existed educational material, so to be used as
sources.
5th Evaluation of the existed educational material in order to be
resolute if it can be used accompanied by a study guide which will facilitate
the trainees or a new material has to be established.
6th Analytical table of contents.
7th Development of the first edition.
8th Formative evaluation.
9th Development of the revised edition.
(a) The written material
It must include.
1. Prcised scope and main effort. It is the title given by more words.
2. Predicted objectives. They well up by the Scope.
3. Guidance about the way of studies.
4. Elucidatory, concrete and friendly texts (immediate and friendly
tone. e.g. me- the tutor you- the trainees).
5. Short texts and less word than traditional handbook.
Many chapters, unities and paragraphs.

The main points, the key words and the difficult meanings either are
bold or they are put inside a frame.
6. Many examples and cases studies.
7. Many exercises and activities helping the trainees self evaluation.
8. Annex with the solutions of the exercises and the directions for the
activities.
9. Bibliography and proposals for further study.
Analytically:
Not only the handbook but every important unity must contain over
headily:
The Scope. The writer reveals his / her intention giving to the
trainee a brief description of that the trainee will find after.
The scope is the title itself presented by more words.
The objectives. They concern the description of what the trainee
will able to do after having studied the text. According Benjamin
BLOOMS classification objectives have to correspond at three levels /
domains. As we have already reported these domains are: The Cognitive,
the affective and the Psychomotor Domain.
The cognitive domain includes the next
- Knowledge
- Comprehension
- Application
- Analysis
- Synthesis
- Evaluation

The affective domain includes the next

- Receiving
- Responding
- Valuing
- Organizing
- Characterizing
Every handbook of a higher education school must correspond to the
cognitive and affective domain. Every handbook of a flexible training must
correspond to all domains (cognitive, affective and psychomotor).
Psychomotor domain concerns the acquisition of special skills in the
day service performance.
The texts:
They follow the above mentioned philosophy. Prefer to put the verbs
in active voice. Use for example the verbs: make, do, classify, describe,
instead of the verbs realize, understand, estimate, etc.
Non verbal inserts, (figures) replace pieces of the written text.
The handbook closes with the summary which consists the feed
back.
The exercise and the activities
- Learn by doing something.
- Discover his / her misunderstandings.
- Assimilating everything learned.
- Reinsure everything learned.
- Be an active reader.
- Be encouraged.
- Develop him / her self esteem.

There are different types of exercises.

They are:
Multiple choice questions. Either to indicate the correct statement
or the incorrect or the most corrects statement.
EXAMPLES:
A. Question: Police science is a type of discipline indicate the
correct statement.
(1)- An unilinearly discipline.
(2)- A multifaceted discipline.
(3)- An independent discipline.
(4)- Statements (1) and (3) are correct.
(5)- None of the above.
B. Question: Indicate the incorrect answer. A characteristic of the
watchman is inter alia:
(1)- The police officer is regarded as a friend.
(2)- The community feels safe when this style is applied
(3)- Deals mainly with the suppression of riots.
(4)- Allows for discretion.
(5)- Is important for sound community relations.
C. Question: Indicate the most statement:
(1)- Relationships established in the process of service, determine the
polices image.
(2)- An unfavourable image furthers cooperation and willing
observance of the law.

(3)- Modern police activities do not require the full participation of

the community they serve.
(4)- None of the above.
(5)- All of the above.
Exercises need supplement.
Example:
QUESTION: The _____ can be as the first non military urban
police.
1. praetorian guard
2. tithing man
3. cohorts
4. vigils
5. thief takers
Corresponding exercises.
(Matching the correct phrases)
EXAMPLE:
External security barriers

Sir Robert PEEL

Protection reassurance

Boundary locks and light

The father of the organized policing

Omnipresence

Military police duties distinction

The activities

Augustus Caesar

Police institutions during the middle ages.

The trainee is requested to develop a subject

The answers of the exercises along with the directions of the
proposed activities must be included at a special Annex of the handbook so
the trainee is helped actively as we have mentioned before.
Either in the annex or on the individual papers, the tutor has to do
reward comments for the trainees for their good achievement or to direct
comments of moral strengthening for those didnt achieve.
EXAMPLES: Reward comments
- I am impressed
- Congratulations
- Bravo
- It was really difficult, that you have achieved
Comment for those didnt achieve
- Please dont be discouraged. The exercise (or the activity) was
really difficult.
- These faults are very common to many trainees
- According my experience the most trainees have the same
difficulties. The beginning is always difficult.
You, as trainers, ought to be ruled by validity, reliability and
fairness during your evaluation activity of the trainees, trained under your
tutority.

Establishing new educational written material important points

A written material used in flexible training ought to include the next

by the row they are noted:
a. In trench the subject as it is demanded by the Border Police new
needs, and find an attractive title.
b. In trench the elements of the subject. Every element will be the
title of a Unity or a chapter. As many the elements as many the unities or
the chapters.
c. Search about relevant bibliography.
d. Separate the material according the chapters.
e. Draw up a well prepared table of contents.
f. Start waiting the scope and the objectives. The objectives have to
reflect to cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.
g. Systematisate every unity or chapter, having a heading,
introductory note, definition of term and concepts (the most important).
h. Numbering the unities or the chapters, use many subheadings
paragraphs and sub paragraphs.
i. Use reference techniques. They are the footnotes that correspond to
bibliographic sources (authors name, title and editorial elements, page
number). Another system is that of Harvard. Works are referred to, by the
insertion into the text of the authors name, the year and the number of the
page. There is also the modified Harvard system. According the last one,
sources are referred in Bibliography, by an alphabetical arrangement,
according authors names and are then numbered. References can be
abbreviated by using between brackets the superscript Arabic numerals
only, followed by page references.
j. Use figures instead of written texts.

k. Use less words and not big phrases than a common text and have a
friendly style (I = the trainer, you = the trainees).
l. Introduce many examples, self-evaluation exercises and activities.
m. Use Annexes to facilitate the trainees efforts. The answers of the
self-evaluation exercises or the direction for trainees activities must be
attached, in order to serve the self-evaluation of the trainee.
n. Add the Bibliography list by a way to honor the authors. Report
also every source writing titles, names, dates like newspapers (etc.
reporting the name of the journalist for a used article by you).
o. Write the Introduction, at the end.
The reason is that your effort will be developed by a way that you
are not able to anticipate before. This careful introduction will introduce
your written work as well systematized.
The Electronic Material or the new technologies
and the Border Police Training
Introduction: A new term has been welled up concerning the
education and the training. It is the T.B.L. term (Technology Based
Learning) having the Computer as the most important tool.
From the above mentioned term a new terminology has been
developed, like CBL (Computer Based Learning), CBT (Computer Based
Training), CBI (Computer Based Instruction).
Saying about computer based, we mean the computer system.
Analytically it has to do with the computer. According their power we can
say about the next series. Supercomputers, Mainframes, Minicomputers,
Microcomputers. They includes their peripheral devices (hardware) along
with their software.

Their use began in April 1943 with the famous ENIAC in Moore
School of Pennsylvania University. (ENIAC: Electronic Numeral Integrator
and Calculator).
The Personal Computers
The Computers (personal computers) may be used by the
Universities students or by trainers in special projects like ours.
Ways of use as:
Tools of programming learning (e.g. special programmes for
Borders Check Points).
Tools of learning support (individual learning with the special
programmes use, pictures, video, etc.).
Tools of word processing.
Tools of evaluation by the help of a special programme.
Tool of bibliographic research through the Internet.
Tool of communication (e-mail).
Tool of support of students with special needs (Braille system on
the screen etc.).
Now the computer systems have been entered in the AI epoch
(Artificial Intelligence)
The tripartite relationship among trainer, trainee and personal
computer (P/C) has the following figure.
Trainee

Tutor / Trainer

P/C

The P/Cs broad use has constituted a change. Due to the new change
serious upsets have been presented to human P/C relationship.
Phenomena like the so called computer phobia and computer- anxiety
have been appeared as a negative behaviour against the new technology.
These anxieties have to do with:
The new tries to replace the traditional way according we have
learned to behalf during the every service. Its something like
someone try by a hostile way to subtract our responsibilities and
duties.
The sense that the roles have been reversed and person has been
the slave of the machine.
The lack of confidence e.g. to loose the archives.
The factors having to do with the self-concept, the experience,
the time perspective.
(Bibl. Report No15, - Prof. Mr. PANAGIOTAKOPOULOS).
The Educational Software
The educational / training use can be differentiates to the next three
kinds.
(1) Computer supported learning resources (CSLR).e.g. Electronic
library, telecommunications etc.
(2) Computer Managed Instruction (CMI). In this case the computer is
an administrative mean e.g. The keeping of the trainees records.
(3) Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI).
According this method the P/C is a drastic tool of supporting a large
scale of lessons. There are four types of this software:

 Drill and Practice (Integrating Learning System).

Tutorial.
Problem solving.
Simulations and modeling.
The Multimedia
Giving a Grosso Modo definition we can say that it is the
presentation of a piece of information by more than one ways. It is a system
of multi messages. Consequently a tutorial subjects can be presented
simultaneously by a text, sound, music, figures, pictures, mobile pictures
(video), animation. This system promotes the trainee computer
(educational material) interaction.
(Bibl. Report No15, - Prof. Mr. PANAGIOTAKOPOULOS).
The international network (Internet)
It is the biggest network of computers in the whole planet. It connect
billions of people. It is the digital sixth continent.
These are several networks like the Local Area Network (LAN). This
network concerns computers connected in the same or nearby buildings.
The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN). The connected computers
are in the same city.
The Wide Area Network. The connected computers are in a boarder
area like a continent.
The biggest of them, the internet is. For this reason is called the
network of the networks.
Its origin has as below.

By the end of 60s USAs Ministry of Defense made a project of

intelligence. It was the ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network). Through this network the e-mail began.
ARPANET was divided in two networks in 1983.
The ARPANET and the MILNET (Military Network) for military
purposes. The system of these two networks became famous as internet.
In USA, other networks were developed, simultaneously. The
CSNET (Computer Science Network) and BITNET (Because its Time
Network).
In 1986 MILNET became a separate Network and all the others were
put under the umbrella of NSF ( National Science Foundation) Network.
Since 1987 the NSF Net has been existed as a name and the term
Internet has replaced it.
Someone in order to be connected with Internet has to dispose:
A personal computer
A modem or an ISDN adapter (ISDN= Integrated Services Digital
Network)
A telephone line
An Internet Explorer or a Netscape Navigator (browser)
E-mail software like Eudora, Microsoft outlook e.t.c
The internet is not ruller by any person, by any person, organization
or government. Some clubs of a high validity like the Internet society, the
Internet Assigned Number Authority e.t.c. protect its independence.
A 5 % of the internet costs are from USA Government budget.
For exploration purposes in the Internet an access to the World Wide
Web (W.W.W.) is demanded.
W.W.W. is a function of the internet among web servers and clients.

The access is carried out by a web browser which is a programme

included in Windows 98, 2000 or Window XP.
In order to be connected with a site of the WWW it is demanded to
know the http address.
The http= hypertext transfer protocol is a very speedy protocol of
records transfer.
The information research through internet is carried out by scarch
engines. Many companies offer services of this kind of research.
The e-mail
It is the biggest innovation of the internet.
Every user disposes an individual address.
According USAS model every address is written as of the example.
spyky@ pat.themis.edu (using Latin characters).
spyky = users identity
pat = Computers name disposed for the internet use.
themis = the characteristic of the company serves the connection
with internet.
edu = The kind of the organization from which we wanted to be
served
The last three constitute called domain name.
The term edu characterizes an educational institute.
The ends up of the domain names are:
edu = educational foundation
com = commercial or industrial organization
gov = governmental service
mil = military service
org = non profit organization

The organized exchanging of messages constitutes another

innovation the so called computer conferencing.
(Bibl. Report No15, - Prof. Mr. PANAGIOTAKOPOULOS).

Section 9
THE EVALUATION OF A FLEXIBLE TRAINING SYSTEM
APPLIED TO BORDER POLICE
Scope and main effort: The evaluation of the proceedings and the
products of the flexible educational system like the present project.
Objectives: After the end of the present evaluation with the help of
the ANEX I, you will be able to:
- Define the educational evaluation
- Describe the relevant procedure and organize a similar one
- Support the necessity of the evaluation concerning any project.
Introductory note: Every human activity includes a series of sub
activities concerning the resolution, the planning, the materialization of the
activity and the evaluation of the results. The evaluation permits us to
repeat the same activity or to modify it or to reject it.
The present programme is a component to the Twinning project
and the present evaluation consist a product evaluation. Simultaneously is a
part of summative evaluation of the whole Twinning programme.
So we speak of an evaluation which is a product evaluation and an
axis evaluation simultaneously (please see ANNEX I).
The educational / training evaluation
The educational evaluation forms an independed scientific branch
but this new branch is not self - sufficient theoretically and
methodologically, because the tools which are used have been borrowed
from the field of the social and positive sciences.

Scientific research and the (scientific) evaluation have a basic

difference. Scientific research produces new knowledge, while the
scientific evaluation targets to the practical use of its products. Its a kind of
an applied scientific branch.
The necessity of the educational / training evaluation
It is absolutely necessary because of:
Social - economical factors. The narrowness of the educational
budgets guides to the choice of an effective educational method and the
relevant material, because the trainees have to be effective immediately.
Pedagogical purposes.
The objects of the educational / training evaluation
The materialization degree of a project targets.
The comparison of various teaching methods.
Support services to an educational project.
The completion of an educational programme of the abandonment
of it, by the trainees.
The quality of the educational programmes.
The trainees progress.
The new technologies use during the educational programme.
The cost and the effectiveness of an educational project.
The analytical educational programmes.
The educational material.
The tutor trainees, interaction.
The educational project support services.

The scope and the main effort of the educational evaluation

We select the object and the educational evaluation.
The object consists the evaluation target. The object or the target is
divided to several parts. Every part consists an evaluation axis. Every
axis is divided to criteria or variables (please see ANNEX I and ANNEX
II).
Evaluation Distinction:
Formative evaluation. During the development of an educational
programme. Scope: The collection of information so to revise, if it is
necessary, the project.
Note: Formative evaluation = Process evaluation.
Summative evaluation. After the toleration of the educational
project. Scope: The definition of the success degree of the project. It is the
final evaluation.
Note: Summative evaluation = Product Evaluation.
(Bibl. Report No 15).
The Measurement of Data
It is done by the quantitive method (please see ANNEX II).
The first phase of processing a questionnaire is known as editing. It
is very important to edit raw data. The need for correct raw cannot be
overemphasized, since it directly affects the analysis of the results of the
research project. Every questionnaire that is returned must be checked
before processing it.
Editing

also

includes

critical

questionnaires, using the following criteria:

examination

of

complete

 Meeting sampling requirements. Questionnaires that are

completed by respondents who fall outside the sample should not be taken
into account. In order to serve the procedure we write down every variable
correspond to every axis and we use Likerts scale as in ANNEX II from 5
to 1 for the answers.
Relevance. Make sure that the responders have not misunderstood
questions, since this could result in wrong answers.
Completeness. All questions, sections and pages of the
questionnaire must be completed.
Legibility. All answers open ended questions must be clearly
legible.
Intelligibility. A written answer must be intelligible; respondents
should not use their own abbreviations that nobody else understands.
Often researchers have to contact respondents to check on unclear
points in the completed questionnaires. If the respondents cannot be traced,
these questionnaires may have to be omitted, either partly or completely.
After editing the questionnaires have to be coded. This is a technical
process in which the researcher assigns a code to respondents answers so
as to tabulate the collected data.
Tables are usually compiled with the aid of a computer. Tabulating
entails counting responses to questions and placing them in categories. For
example, the researchers will determine how many people answered either
yes or no to a question like: Have you ever been the victim of a crime?
Persons who have been victims crime from one category and those who
have never been victims are placed in a separate category.

The purpose of tabulating data is to determine the following things:

How are the data distributed, or how gave what answers?
What is typical of the data?
How do the responses differ?
Are these any significant correlations between different sets of
data?
Tables may either be simple or one could use cross-tabulation. For
the purpose of them 4, however, we do not deal with the technicalities of
tabulation in detail.
Quantitative data are analyzed mainly by applying statistical tests
which produce certain results. When analyzing quantitative data the
researchers has to take decisions such as the following:
What will data analysis entail from a research point of view?
What still has to be done to solve the research problem?
What plan should be implemented to complete the data analysis?
(Please see ANNEX I and ANNEX II).
After answering these questions, the researchers can draw
conclusions from the data. Another goal of data analysis is to make
recommendations.

These

recommendations

could

include

possible

solutions to the research problem, practical improvements or ideas for

future research (Bibl. report No 2, Botha and others pages 31-51).
Qualitative data processing and analysis
In this case we deal with the processing and analysis of qualitative
data obtained from depth interviews. You will find that there too the
emphasis is on the research decisions that have to be taken.

One of the first steps in qualitative data processing is to write out or

type all handwritten notes. The original notes can provide guidelines for
reconstructing the contents of interviews. Revision of handwritten notes is
aimed at making them comprehensive and clear. So one will refine the
handwritten notes and add missing facts.
NOTE: Qualitative data processing and analysis can be used by
Border Police to illegal. The analysis will provide important strategical data
so the relevant resolutions are used on operational and tactical level,
upgrading the Border Police efficacy.

SECTION OF ANNEXES

I: EVALUATION STEREOTYPE FIGURE

II: EXAMPLE TABLE OF AN AXIS EVALUATION
BEING USED IN TOTAL TARGET EVALUATION
WITH ATTACHED LIST OF VARIABLES

ANNEX I
TOTAL TARGET

PROGRAMME
PRODUCT EVALUATION

EVALUATION
AXIS

TRAINING
MATERIAL

F1
EVALUATION

MID
LEVEL
OFFICIALS

EVALUATION
AXIS

TRAINER /
TRAINING
MANAGEMENT

EVALUATION
AXIS

AXIS
OPERATIONAL
STAFF
MONITORING

EVALUATION
AXIS

F2

EVERY AXIS EVALUATION =

= PRODUCT EVALUATION
AND FORMATIVE EVALUATION
(According SCRIVEN) FOR
THE TOTAL TARGET EVALUATION (T.T.E.)
T.T.E. = PRODUCT EVALUATION
F1+F2 = VARIABLES OR CRITERIA, WE ESTABLISH QUESTIONNAIRES.
EVERY QUESTION CONCERNING THE TRAINING PROGRAMME OR THE
TRAINING MATERIAL = 1 VARIABLE

ANNEX II
MODEL OF QUANTITIVE EVALUATION TABLE
Criteria /
Variables
or
Questions

5
Strongly
Agree

4
Agree

3
Neither
Agree
Nor
Disagree

2
Disagree

1
Strongly
Disagree

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

NOTES
Please mark
with Y = yes
The grade
from 5 to 1,
is according
The Likerts
scale

Please fill the mark according the attached list

EXAMPLE
VARIABLE / CRITERIA
FOR THE EVALUATION OF A TRAINING PROGRAMME AND OF
A WRITTEN EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL

A. CONCERNING A CONCRETE BORDER POLICE SEMINAR

OF FURTHER TRAINING (S.O.F.T.).
1. S.O.F.T. was transacted in a new ranguarding training
environment.
2. S.O.F.T. has helped you to confront the integrated Border
Management demands.
3. S.O.F.T. has already allowed you to pursue new empirical
knowledge fully according your educational needs.
4. S.O.F.T. has increased your interest about everything you have
learned during it.
5. S.O.F.T. has increased your ability for further acquisition of
knowledge.
6. A variety of empirical data have been acquired by you (etc. in
fully accordance with the specific elements of every training programme).

B. CONCERNING A WRITTEN EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL

(HANDBOOK, WORKBOOK, NOTES).
1. The establishment of the knowledge are offered is efficient
supported by reference techniques.
2. The texts are clear and plain.
3. There are figures which replace long texts.
4. The written material has a friendly style.
5. There are many titles.

6. The significant points are underlined of have written bold (etc.

according with other specific elements which make the written material
easy and useful for the user / trainee).

EPILOGUE / SUMMARY

The main core of this Part IV is to underline the role of a Border

Police trainer and that trainees are the centre of every training proceedings
it is like to sign a learning contract.
The learning contract: After the mentioned in the chapters of the
present, you are ready to sign a learning contract, with the trainees.
In this kind of contract three partners enter to the agreement.
The organizer.
The tutor.
The trainee.
It is a contract that every partner learns, by the group of the other
two, during the educational contacts. The evaluation is an important tool on
the service of this contract.
We as tutors must have in mind that an education project is based to
us. We have a great responsibility. If the trainees dont learn it will be our
responsibility. We must never say I have trained them but they have not
learned. It is a silly expression. It is like to say Yesterday I sold a car to
him but he refused to buy it (it has been said by Jennifer ROGERS,
University Professor and author).
So a tutor / trainer has to go
to the trainees
to live among them
to learn by them and to love them
to start with everything they dispose
and to built on the field consisted
by these all that the trainees, dispose.

PART VI
B I B LI O G R APH Y

The bibliography has a tripartite objective:

1st To support the present workbook and the knowledge included.
Consequently you will be able to use the relevant information having in
mind the fact, that you are piloting safely, on the subjects field.
2nd To motivate, for a further research in the mentioned authors works so
to step beyond the horizon, indicated by the writer / tutor.
Subsequently you will have achieved the spill-over phenomenon, which
always is the creative factor for every researched subject and for efforts like
the integrated border management, of Albania( in the Balkan region) and
the relevant method of training.
3rd

To honor all these persons, who have worked individually or

collectively, in order to explore every fold, concerning the E.U. integrated

Border Management and the Twinning Programme of 2005.
The sources are the next, alphabetically:
1. ACQUIS consolidated, cut-off-date 08 December 2004.
2. BOTHA C.J., COETZER M.R., Van VUUREN J.W.J.
Police Science (Revised) University of South Africa, 1989.
3.BORDER POLICE IN EUROPE (STUDY).

4. BORDER SURVEILLANCE: System-notes by experts (from Europe

and Albania).
5. Charte de Droits Fontamentaux de lU.E., Nice, 7 Decembre 2000.
6. CIRAM (Common Integrated Risk Analysis Model) by Expert Team,
chaired by Finland.
7. CRIMINAL PROCEDURE CODE OF THE REPUBLIC OF ALBANIA
(Law 7905 /21.03.1995).
8. DCAFs programme.
9. E.U. CARDS programme.
10. E.U. SCHENGEN CATALOGUES, Brussels, 28 FEB 2002.
11. EUROPEAN CODE OF POLICE ETHICS. Recommendation
(2001)10, adopted by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe
in 19 September 2001.
12. GUIDELINES FOR INTEGRATED BORDER MANAGEMENT IN
THE WESTERN BALKANS
13. ICMPD (international Centre for Migration Policy Development), rel.
Project Upgrading the border control system of Albania along European
Standards, Analysis and Proposals, 21st March 2003.
14.

INTRODUCTION

SECURITY

FORUM

TO
edited

SECURITY
by

Prof.

MANAGEMENT
DuPREEZ.

Institute

AND
for

Criminological Sciences. University of South Africa. Contribution of PWJ

GOETZER.
15. KYRIAKAKIS S. LIBRI STANDART 1 PUNES PER TRAJNUESIT
E POLICISE KUFITARE TIRANA MARS 2005.
16. MANUAL PER MBIKQYPJEN E KUFIJVE, KYRIAKAKIS S.,
MATZOUKAS K., K/KOMISAR RRUGJI ARIAN, ZIANIKAS H.,
DT.LAZI P., KOMISAR BAKIU B., TIRANE, KORRIK 2005
17. MANUALI I MENAXHERIT t POLICISE SE KUFIRIT the
MIGRACIONIT TE SHQIPERISE: ZIANIKAS H., MATZOUKAS K.,
K/KOMISAR RRUGJIA, KYRIAKIS S., Dr.LAZI P., KOMISAR BAKIU
B.
18. MARRI programme of action.
19. METHODOLOGY of CRIMINOLOGICAL SCIENCES. University of
South Africa. NESERJ, JOUBERT SJ, SONNEKUS SF 1995.
20. PENAL CODE /REPUBLIC OF ALBANIA PEOPLES ASSEMBLY.
Law 7895/27.01.1995.
21. PURPURA Ph. KYRIAKAKIS Sp. Manual for security and close
protection personnel.ION publications, Athens, 2005.
22. REGULATIONS BY VARIOUS SECURITY ORGANISATIONS
e.g.1st

Security

United

Kingdom,

SENTINEL

SECURITY

GROUP/Indonesia, CIVIL AVIATION SECURITY PROGRAMME,

Athens/Greece, etc.
23. SCIENCE OF POLICE LAWS by KARAKOSTAS J. Athens.
24. SCHENGEN ACQUIS (The).
i. Decisions of the Executive Committee.
a. 24 June 1997, Lisbon, (Schengen manual on Police cooperation in the
field of Public Order and Security).
b. 16 Sept. 1998, Konigswinter, (Common Manual to E.U. applicant
states.)
c. 16 Dec. 1998, Berlin, (Cross border police cooperation in the area of
crime prevention and detection).
d. 16 Dec. 1998, Luxemburg, (Handbook on cross border police
cooperation).
e. 28 April

1999,

Luxemburg,

(Schengen

acquis

relating

to

telecommunications).
f. 28 April 1999, Luxemburg, (Liqison officers).
g. 28 April 1999, Luxemburg, (Improvement of police cooperation).
h. 28 April 1999, Luxemburg, (Improvement of police cooperation in
preventing and detecting criminal offences).
ii. Decision of the Central Group, 21 March 1999, (General principles
govering the pagment of informers).

25. SOLAS' International Convention 1974 and the 2 Resolutions of the

Conference of Contracting Governments to Solas, adopted on 12 December
2002 (CHAPTERS XI-1 and XI-2). International Ships and Port Facilities
Security Code)
26. STABILITY PACT, December 2002.
27. Twinning project (the), and the relevant topics issues-Tirana, 2005.
28. WESTHUIZEN (van der) Jacob: Forensic Criminalistics2nd edition,
HEINEMANN

JOHANNESBURG,

contributions

of

Prof.

Johan

PRINSLOO and Chris BOTHA.

29. WESTHUIZEN (van der) Jacob: Vulnerability Contribution to
Security Forum Edited by Prof. G.T Du PREEZ.
30. WHITE PAPER: COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN

(UNITED

NATIONS

ENVIRONMENT

PROGRAMME).
31. Study of MAPEXT (TRAINING SKILLS- POLICIA COURSE
MANUAL Albania 2001)

EPILOGUE
Methodologicaly an epilogue in a dissertation has to summarise the
whole work. But it would be boring, because it is not a dissertation. It is a
handbook aiming to help police officers and (Border Police officers) to be
upgraded to strategical cadres, by this point of view. I report the following
allegory. It is a mathematical one includes everything we have discussed
before, even the training, because training is one of the most important
police tasks and inspires every component in policing.
We should to report only that the main effort of the different
branches/authorities in the implementation of the safe/secure border
strategy is to keep constant the next inequality.

(Co1 Co2 + Com + I) Con +RAMR > (Th + F.Co1) Sy

Co1 = Intensive cooperation (local, regional, national, international level)

Co2 = Coordination
Com = Communication
I = Intelligence (through cooperation in local, regional, national,
international level)
Con = Concilience (integration)
RAMR = Retro Active Mutual Regulation
Th = Threat (Push and Pull factors, interborder and organized crime,
terrorism.
F.Coi = Friction due the cooperation
Sy = Synergy. It is the dynamic internal element of every situation when
the 1+1=2 doesn't have power and the result (sum) maybe is more than the
two factors in addition. During these conditions, the 1+1 relationship
doesn't attribute 2, but more.

Thank you for your attention and your cooperation.

S.M.K.