Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
00
jr
OU158913>
Hydras faJ
-r.v-
HYDROSTATICS
B.Sc. Courses
BY
T. V.
Lecturer
Author of
'
VENKATACHARI,
in Physics,
AWras
MA,
Christian College,
Manual of Physics
Tambaram f
1940
(Paper
R.
1*14-0
Rt.
wrppr
1-9-0
PREFACE
This book has been written to satisfy the long-felt need
for a text-book
The
I,
is
the
topics
South
the
of
which
are
Indian
outside
the
Universities have
also
decidedly
been omitted.
The scope
Madras,
of this
Andhra,
Universities.
articles
B.Sc. students
may
14, 19.
12, 14, 19, 21, 22, 43, 58, 60, 66, 67, 68, 80, 81.
Corrections, criticisms
will
and suggestions
for
improvement
Thyagarayanagar,
July 1940.
J
)
VENKATACHARI.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
SIMPLE THEOREMS RELATING TO PRESSURE
Art.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Page
and gases
Normal force and shearing force
Thrust and pressure
Force on surface of fluid at
normal
Density and specific gravity
The pressure at a point in a fluid
same in all directions
...
Solids, liquids
rest
...
...
always
at rest
is
...
...
the
...
same at
7.
In a
8.
9.
is
horizontal
...
10.
11.
12.
...
...
10
...
Centre of pressure
Centre of pressure vertically below centre of
19
CHAPTER
II
CENTRE OF PRESSURE
13.
14.
...
19
11
Art.
15.
Page
General method of finding the centre of pres"
...
20
21
sure
16.
17.
in
the
surface
side
horizontal
...
18.
19.
20.
...
21.
on position of
...
centre of pressure
...
Resultant horizontal thrust on a surface
22.
CHAPTER
...
22
24
26
26
27
28
III
FLOATING BODIES
23.
24.
Condition of floatation
...
25.
26.
Weight of a body
27.
28.
29.
in air
...
body
...
30.
31.
part spherical
...
...
36
36
37
38
39
41
41
43
43
Ill
CHAPTER IV
THE ATMOSPHERE AND BAROMETER
Art.
33.
The atmosphere
The barometer
...
34.
Fortin's barometer
...
35.
36.
32.
...
meter
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
Page
54
54
55
...
56
...
57
...
...
...
...
...
58
59
59
60
60
...
61
...
62
CHAPTER V
PUMPS AND PRESSURE GAUGES
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
pump
50.
Sprengel's
51.
52.
53.
64.
'
...
...
...
...
68
69
71
72
...
73
73
76
77
78
79
...
81
...
...
...
...
'
...
IV
Art.
55.
56.
57.
58.
Page
The
The
The
The
air
manometer
compressed
U-tube vacuum gauge
McLeod vacuum gauge
decrement gauge
...
*
...
...
...
82
83
83
85
CHAPTER VI
SURFACE TENSION
59.
The
stretched elastic
behaves like a
membrane
...
89
liquid sur-
60.
Explanation
...
91
61.
...
62.
...
93
93
63.
64.
face
(1) at all
points
...
94
flat-
...
tened
Relation between the radius of a spherical
drop of liquid, the surface tension and the
95
65.
96
66.
...
pressure
the
between
a
radius
of
Relation
cylinder of
surface
the
tension
and
the presliquid,
...
97
67.
98
68.
69.
sure
liquid film
70.
71.
...
100
...
101
...
101
...
102
Page
72.
Experimental determination of
angle of
contact
73.
...
...
Capillarity
Rise of liquid
75.
...
between parallel plates
of
two
inclined
vertical
Rise
liquid between
76.
...
plates
Attraction or repulsion between bodies part-
74.
ly
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
immersed in liquid
and bubbles:
82.
103
104
106
106
...
107
...
108
...
...
109
110
...
110
drops
Quincke's method
...
112
115
U-tube method
...
116
APPENDIX
Points to be remembered
...
127-128
ANSWERS
...
129433
INDEX
...
134-135
CHAPTER
which
Solids, Liquids
offers
permanent
and Gases.*
solid is
a body
to alter
its
fluids
others possess very little. The former are called liquids and
the latter gases. Liquids are fluids which offer very great
resistance to forces tending to diminish their volume, and
when placed
which,
111
t t t
force
I
j>
__
Thrust
Tension
Force.
force
body so as to be perpendicular to
the surface is called a normal
Tangential
JJQ
and a
force applied
as to be
faQ surface so
stress
ing force. The normal force
tend to compregg
stress^
the
to
extend
a
or
if
it
is
body if it is a pull; the
push
body
former is called a thrust and the latter a tension (Fig. I).
'
Normal
HYDEOSTATIOS
3.
area.
thrust on a surface
or not.
A, the pressure
P on the
surface
P=
is
given by
F/A.
Flg 2
'
the surface.
If
surface smaller
Force
Normal*
must be
at rest
AB
Fig. 3
motion.
The density
of a
It is expressed in
gm. of a substance
per c. ft. If
the
density d of the subsoccupies a volume of-F c.c., then
tance is given by
grams per
c.c.
or
Ib.
= M/V gm.
M = Vd gm.
V = M/dc.c.
d
Also
The
per
c.c.
and
is
HYDEOSTATIOS
6.
TheTressure at a Point in a Fluid at rest is
the Same in All Directions.
Take any point C in
the fluid of density p.
Consider the equilibrium of a
Fig. 4.
CB
vertical.
Let
CB = a,
CA=-6,
AB = c
let
The prism
is
in equilibrium
is
uniform
following forces.
1.
Thrust on BCC'B' = P 1
al, parallel
2.
Thrust on CAA'C' = Pa
6Z,
3.
Thrust on
ABB' A' = P
to CA.
parallel to
d, at angle
CB.
e with the
hori-
zontal.
4.
The weight
of the
liquid
vertically down.
5 and 6. Thrusts on the
parallel to the line CC'
ends
BCA
and
B'C'A',
P! al
Resolving vertically,
we have
= P c sin
b pg.
\
=
P
6Z
e.,
Pbl+\ablpg
i.
4-
.e.,
prism becomes
the quantity J a pg becomes negligibly small
Hence
(on account of the factor a) in comparison with P.
so small as to approximate to the
If the
point
itself,
P P
Thus
is the
1?
same in
and
are
all
all directions.
From
into
volume,
becomes
insignificant
in
comparison
with
any
a cm., that the density of the liquid is equal to 1 gm. per c.c.
and that the pressure Pa is equal to 1 gm. wt. per sq, cm.
The volume of the prism is J a8 c.c. and its weight h as gm.
wt. The area of the face CAA'C' is a* sq. cm, and the
HYDROSTATICS
it is
Thus
comes
as a becomes smaller
and
less
and
less significant in
^_
Fig. 5
pressures at
is
A and B be P^
in equilibrium
(1) Its
and
respectively.
The
cylinder
AB.
(2)
The
thrusts
on the curved
The
P a at A
v
and
P a at B.
a
we
get
p
~ *2.
8.
in a
=jg=^=p=EiE
^lI'^E.
"
"~ ~
two
points,
Let
(Fig. 6).
AB =
h.
AB
About
of sectional area a.
at
and
^
_
-
~^~2 _~7~~"
"~
cally
The
is
in equilibrium
fluid.
under
cylinder
the action of the following forces
(1) The thrusts on the curved sur-
normal,
everywhere
hence
horizontal.
(2) Its
vertically
Fig 6
The
let p
face,
^_
(3)
and B be
down.
equal to
a acting
verti-
down.
(4)
B equal
to
a acting verti-
cally up.
Pj a
ha
p g
HYDROSTATICS
the difference
is
in
level
Corollaries :
(1) The pressure due to a liquid of density
p at depth h below the surface is given by h p g.
(2) Since the difference between the pressures at any
two given points in a liquid at rest is always equal to h p g
where h is the difference of level between the points, an increase of pressure at one.point must produce an equal increase
This
is
Bramah press,
law and
*
its
application
Manual
of Physics/
I.
9.
Let
of this
AB
The
(Fig. 7)
Fig. 7
the pressure at
vertical
right
A=
at
Taking any
section,
ABC
the pressure at B.
A = the
=
-
the pressure at B
But the pressure at C
/.
pressure at
(Art. 7).
the pressure at C.
the pressure at B =
BC Pg
(Art. 8).
.-.
Therefore,
BC p g =
AB must be
hence
BC =
horizontal.
10.
A'
-IB
Fig.
8.
PQ
Since
is
horizontal,
AA +
pa
AA' +
p2
'
.-.
P!
common
g).
i.e.,
pt
PA =
(PA'
p,
BB' +
PQ
.-.
/.
That
AB
is,
common
QB
(omitting the
- A A') =
p,
Since
p2
BB' +
(QB - BB').
7
pa
(Art. 9),
is
and
is
therefore
horizontal.
horizontal.
11.
We
now
Let a^/ewesurface
(at rest)
of density p.
by the liquid
be
the
area
of
the surface.
(alone) on the surface.
or
Divide it up into very small portions
elements. Let the
area of one such element be a and its depth below the
The thrust exerted on this element is
liquid surface h.
a (i.e., pressure x area), and is normal to the surface.
shall
Let
jr.
HYDROSTATICS
10
Hence
elements.
= 2 h p*ga = pg^a h.
be
the
A!
depth of the centre of gravity (or centre
of surface) of the plane area.
Then from definition of C. G.
resultant thrust
Let
=2 <^.
Now h$g is
of gravity.
h^
2 a = il
gS.
Hence
the thrust
liquid is
to
to the
homogeneous
equal
pressure at the centre of
the
the
area of the surface.
gravity of
surface multiplied by
The weight
8 and
height is equal
12.
T*P*
PRQS
(Fig.
9)
be
immersed
in a liquid.
Fig. 9.
11
The
vertical
components
ments
for
all
the
the
ele-
surface
is
constituting
called the resultant vertical thrust.
cylinder of
liquid
standing
>
M'IS
'N
Art.8),
verti-
in the
these
upon the
liquid.
Hence
thrust
on any
[In all the above cases, only the thrust due to the liquid
has been considered, and this is exclusive of the thrust due
to the atmosphere.]
HYDROSTATICS
12
11).
weight of this
filled
LS were
with a liquid
present, the
column, is exerted
the
part S of the vessel,
upwards upon
thus
to that extent.
is
strained
It is
which
^v
\
the
due
strain
that
The
reaction
to
this
strain here
but we
Fig. 11.
ponent
Now
consider a conical
vessel
ABC
(Fig.
12)
filled
tom
downward
_^
Fig- 12.
its
as great as
own weight ?
The volume
of
ah.
equal to f ahpg.
13
is
up with a force equal to the weight of the virtual superincumbent liquid. Hence the resultant force due to the liquid
on the whole vessel
is
is
components
of the
obviously zero.
EXAMPLES
may
be equal.
{x + (b-x)/2} ?g x a(b-x)
Equating the two thrusts, x = 6 / V2.
Fig. 13.
are equal.
HYDROSTATICS
14
The
thrust on the
The
thrust
on
be at depths, x l9 x 2
lines
x&i
etc.,
liquid.
first
(topmost) part
the whole
rectangle
x pg X ax l
l
b Pg
x ab
problem, n x $ ax?p g
By
a b1 p
Hence
g.
Vn.
Thrust
r times the
Pg.
x^
Pg a #2
first
b v'2
Vn.
x r pg ax, = \ axf
parts =
thrust on first part = r. % ax* Pg. Hence
xr = x Vr = 6 V T I Vn.
on
part.
Hence
first r
pg
3.
Fig
%bpg X
problem, i ab
By
u
Hence x
V'2.
i
9
/ b.
8
afr=J a& pg.
pg
is
15
fresh water.
its
if
depth
By problem
5.
its
xx62\ X xa
rfc/
wt.
ft.
tively in water
Ib.
A/
tf
Ib.
Let
in.
[M.U., B.A.]
ABC
A,B and C
the
at depths of
lamina.
Now DD' = (3 +
15.
From A draw
AG/AD =
.-.
.-.
AGA
horizontally.
G,G = f D.D =
+ 1 = 2 ft.
.-.
2/3.
GG' =
wt.
Hence x = 25-3
has
Ib.
2)/2
meet
2Jft.
Then G^/D/D
i (2J
1,
=1
ft.
to liquid
/.
Thrust on lamina
(14-7
x 12 x
12
2 x62-5) 4
8967 Ib. wt.
HYDROSTATICS
16
QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER
A rectangular lamina
(1)
is
immersed
Show how
to
so
plane vertical
(2)
the side
so that
and a side
in the surface.
it
the thrusts on
(3)
triangle
is
on the square
and show
that,
if
p, b (36
(5)
with
its
liquid.
2a)
p a (a
6)
axis vertical
(6)
in
liquid
on
its
surface
is
The densities
The lighter
17
pectively.
of
rests
Calculate the total thrust on one side of a rectangudock gate 45 ft. wide immersed in sea water to
(9)
lar vertical
a depth of 30
1025 ozs.
given that
ft.,
c.
ft.
of sea-water weighs
If there is fresh
An
(10)
liquid,
has
Divide
it
isosceles
its
triangle,
by a horizontal
Find
(11)
vertically in
immersed
immersed
March 1934]
the
resultant thrust on
in a liquid at rest.
water
find
Ib.
in.
March 1937]
A rectangle
is
a horizontal line
equal?
V2
18
HYDROSTATICS
Find the
(13)
immersed
resultant
thrust
on
any
pla,ne
area
in a liquid at rest.
A square is
face.
Show
placed in a liquid with one side in the surhow to draw a horizontal line in the square
dividing
it
CHAPTER
II
CENTRE OF PRESSURE
Centre of Pressure. The centre of pressure of a
plane surface immersed in a fluid is that point in it through
which passes the resultant of the thrusts on the various
13.
Let
AB
(Fig.
rfS
number
of elements
such
/
I
into a
as dS.
-v
be divided.
up
X
A
16)
may
on
resultant
of
all
these
(parallel)
Fig. 16.
elements.
of pressure
will
always be
of the
surface
HYDROSTATICS
20
passes
vertical
Pressure.
hz p g
dti.
thrust about
is
J
h pg
thrust
=H
h p g dS,
since,
by
dti.
If
is
moment of the
definition,
the
=
fh ?gd8
t
H_
(h?
dS
.
J_
hdS
CENTRE OF PRESSURE
21
16.
Centre of Pressure of a Rectangular Lamina
with one Side in the Surface.
Let ABCD (Fig 17) be a
B rectangular lamina immersed verti^A
E_
AB
its
Let
pressure.
and
AD = 6.
F
.
AB-a
Fig. 17.
h'pgadh.
The
/b
h p g a dh,
and the
moment
of this
resultant
about
/b
h pgadh, where
is
of pressure below
/b
h*p
i.e.,
Hence
AB.
gadh =
b
h*
1
$ b
"
,.
its
dh
IT
= H
B.
rb
h
pgadh
hdh.
6*.
-|ft.
points of
AB
and
CD
all
the
HYDROSTATICS
22
strips, it follows
a point in EF. Hence the centre of pressure of the rectangle lies in the straight line joining the mid-points of the
top and bottom sides at depth of $ b below the top side.
is
point of the strip. Since the areas of the strips are the same,
the centre ^q(Hp^ssure is the centre of a number of parallel
forces
unifofajjSLincreasing
in proportion to the
depth below
from E.]
^v. 17.
in the Surface
'A
ABC
be a triangular lamina
/^
\/ __r^:
"*\
~~^ c
vertex
in the surface of
BC horizontal.
BC = a and the
opposite side
Draw
MN through A
altitude
number
6.
parallel to
BC.
Let
of indefinitely
MN
CENTRE OF PRESSURE
ah I
the
b.
23
moments due
f b.
The sum
ah* pg dh
of
/ b.
The
j
hpg x dh
ah'
gdh
/ b,
this
about
MN = H
aWpgdh /
j
./
where
is
MN.
ah pgdh
Hence
-=
(*
ah* pg dh
i.e.,
h' dh
dh.
o
/.
64
H.
68
AD
its
the thrusts on
all
AD
depth of
distance of f
AD
i.e.,
at a
and
to its
depth below
to act at
its
HYDROSTATICS
24
is
whose vertex
D.
AD
from A.]
18.
BC
Ldh-^N*
N^k
UP
Fig. 19.
^e surface into a
finitely
narrow
The sum
of the
number
of inde-
each parallel to
BC and of width dh. Consider the strip of length x at
depth h below BC. The thrust on it is hpg. xdh and the
moment of this about BC is h*l>g xdh. But x/a = (b-h)/b,
a (b h) / b.
hence x
Thus
the
moment becomes
aAa
(6
-A) pg dh
/ b.
strips,
moments due
to all the
strips
C ah*(b-h) pgdh
The
on
all
/ b.
the strips
/"*/!
/t
hpg x dh
dh
(b
- h) pg dh
of this about
BC =//
ah
j
(b
h)
Pg dh
/b,
where //
is
ah* (b-h) pg dh
Hence
( ah(b-h)
Pg dh
the
CENTRE OF PRESSURE
b
C V
i.e.,
(b-h) dh
25
h (b-h) dh
68 )
H=
Hence
its
b.
AD
all
from
depth
it
AD
of \ b
below BC,
i. e.,
at a distance of \
AD
or A.
in
A
B_
__
(Fig. 20).
Let
c
E and F
and
is
its
proportional
to
AF
x FD.
Since
AF =
AE =
ED
"
is
also the
mid-
'
point of
AD.
26
HYDROSTATICS
19.
Let a circular
fully immersed
in
a
of
vertically
liquid
density p. Let
be the centre of the circle (Fig. 21),
the vertical diameter and h the depth of
AB
liquid,
not
The
base.
hemisphere
equilibrium under the
action of the following forces
is
in
Its weight
TT r p g, which may
(1)
be taken to act through the centre of
We know that OG = r in the
vertically down.
Fig. 21.
gravity G
radius drawn at right angles to the base.
(2)
may
area.)
The
all
directed towards 0.
Hence
OC =
r2
gr.
h.
CENTRE OF PRESSURE
this
to
is
increase the
27
pressure
and
thrust
this
is
of
<v
nearer the
Fl %- "*
centre of gravity
At
immersion.
infinite
by further
tal
thrust on
it
in
any
meter
etc., in
draw horizontal
HYDROSTATICS
28
component
(cf.
Art. 7),
we
of the thrust
surface
is equal to
the surface of projection ACBD. Taking all the cylinders
into account, we see that the resultant horizontal thrust on
to,
thrust on
ACBD.
latter resultant
sure.
Hence
The point
is, by
passes
ACBD
in
definition, its
22.
Resultant Thrust on
resultant thrust on
Any
Surface.
To
find the
in a liquid at rest,
we must know
(1)
The
resultant
vertical
thrust
on
the surface
any
(horizontal)
(Art. 12).
(2)
The
(3)
The
CENTRE OF PRESSURE
These three directions
one another.
29
compound
(2)
just as
sions,
Fig. 24.
EXAMPLES
ABDE is hinged so
about the upper horizontal edge AB. What
force must be applied to the middle point of DE to keep the
door shut if AB = 10 ft. and AE = 12 ft. and if the water
1.
as to rotate
level of
(fresh) rise to the
Thrust
on gate
6 x 62
AB
pressure at C. G.
x 12 x 10 = 45,000
This
centre
surface
may
of
;
x
Ib.
area
wt.
be taken to act
at the
pressure
(Fig. 25) of the
at a depth of 12 x f or 8 ft.
is
below AB.
F
Fig. 25.
The moment
45,000 x 8.
of
the
thrust about
AB =
of
HYDROSTATICS
30
2.
depth of a
the
that
2
(a -f
ah
On
ft.
resultant
b9 )
thrust
3 (a
sent
&
the
may
a from
March 1932]
let p repre-
this
(Fig. 26).
-J
(centre of pres-
distant
The
water.
apg x ac
of
height
the
=
A
ft.
of the gate.
and
ft.
be taken to act at
sure) distant
.]
Prove
B.Sc.,
of
density
thrust on the first side
*
has a
is
b) ft.
lock-gate
at
acts
[M.U., B.A.
of
side
side
act at
=
B
b from 0.
bpg x
apg x ac
Hence the
be.
i. e .,
v
3.
mersed
(a
resultant
thrust
= 3y (a" + a& + b
x i b =
apg x ac be
bpg x
6c) y.
).
3 (a
b).
of
in the surface.
AB =
a,
the altitude
density of the liquid.
Bisect
AB
and F and
and A'B'
EF.
join
at
AFand
AB',
Thrust
which
may
centre
of
31
lies
pressure
in
EF.
^ a' 6
Join
B'E.
below
p0r,
AB
(Art. 17).
Thrust on
may
A ABB' =
x $ ab =
3
j
6pgr
below
-\
AB
\atfpg,
which
(Art. 18).
The
2
i a& P0x
Hence
b (3a'
-
/0
(J
a'6 a
a)
'
2 (2a'
pgr
i-
18
in. is
[M.U., B.A.
Thrust due
may
&
B.Sc.,
March 1928]
point at distance y
side,
I x62Jx
IJxl + 33 x62xlix.
32
HYDROSTATICS
Hence y = 34
/.
The centre
at a distance of 9
45
ft.
or 9 T^ in.
of pressure
in.
line
liquid,
lairiina
to be
vertical.
(yds
tion
ion of G,
The
0.
of the liquid.
/.
the density
Let
is
=
j
(h
+ y) pg
ds.
below G.
Equating the moment of the resultant thrust to the
on the various
algebraic sum of the moments of the thrusts
elements, about the horizontal axis through
of the figure,
Y f (* + y)
i.e.,
Pg ds
C(h + y) ds
= Cy
=
(A
+ y)
pg ds,
( y (& + y) ds.
in the plane
33
i.e.,
.-.
.-.
tion
.-=
little
is
true even
0.
if ds I
varies inversely as
h Cds
//
consideration will
if
\y*ds
the lamina
not vertical.
N.B.
line of intersection is
h2 cos e pg
ds.
By
the principle of
moments,
J
Aa cos opyds
=H
h cos e py
ds.
QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER
II
ABCD
is hinged so
vertical rectangular dock -gate
(1)
as to rotate about the upper horizontal edge AB, and is
fastened at the mid-point of the lower edge CD. If
10 ft.
AB =
andBC = 15
fastener in
ft.,
on the
34
HYDROSTATICS
(2)
is
triangle
vertically
immersed
Show
ABCD
is
immersed
in a
AB
in the
liquid of density p and kept vertical with the side
free surface.
Find the positions of the centres of pressure
of the two triangles into which the rectangle is divided by
(5)
'
Define
centre of
pressure \
Define
'
horizontal.
dock-gate
12
is
wide.
ft.
There
is
fresh water
on one
point of action.
surface.
CENTRE OF PRESSURE
35
(8)
when immersed
A
62-5
Ib.
per
March 1939J
immersed
The depth
12
ft
How
(a)
face determined
(b)
thrust^^the
is
the
rewmmmt
cubic foot of
thrust
011
a curved sur-
Define
centre of pressure/
of pressure of a triangle
in the surface
gate.
^HfcfM.
Ib,
immersed
in
side horizontal.
(11)
centre of pressure.'
How
March 1940]
CHAPTER
III
FLOATING BODIES
23.
immersed
the
(supposed undisturbed
with extra liquid.
cavity
filled
meanwhile)
The liquid added
equilibrium.
liquid
added
liquid
or
The
be in
on the
will, of course,
forces acting
the
replacing
displaced liquid) are
(1) its weight, which may be taken as acting through its
C. G. vertically down and (2) the resultant hydrostatic
(called
the
and
in the
filling
the cavity,
i.
e.,
to the weight of
up through the
Condition of Floatation
We have seen that, if
in
immersed
a
wholly
liquid, the resultant hydrothrust acts vertically upwards and is equal to the
24.
a body
static
is
FLOATING BODIES
37
Conditions for
a body is
25.
Body.
When
acting on the
body are
(1)
of a Floating
a
liquid, the forces
floating
the weight of the body, which
Equilibrium
in
We
straight
resultant hydrostatic thrust
liquid displaced and passes
body,
floating
C. G. of the displaced
the
liquid.
'
satisfied
to the
(1) The weight of the dispmced liquid must be equal
weight of the floating body.
The
may
dis-
of a
equal to the weight of the body and the vertical line through
the centre of gravity of the body must pass through the
centre of gravity of the combination of the displaced liquids
own positions. This includes the case of a body
in their
38
HYDROSTATICS
when
'
'
'
'
26.
Weight of a Body
in Air.
is
A body
W and whose
whose
density
real
is
of
%fr^
in air
in a
and
W-
Wd/p =
(I
d/p).
If this
body
is
weighed
common
if
is
W,
'
we have
1.
W
= W
W=
Hence
(1
(I
-d/
+ d/p)
+dlp).
p') (1
p'
FLOATING BODIES
27.
We know
39
(a)
itself will
Fig.
b)
equilibrium,
i>!).
if
in Art. 25 are
brium
body
is
stable.
satisfied.
We
shall
first
consider
section in
floating in
it
which
is
*f9e
surface of a
called the
is
liquid
called
cuts a
plane of floatation.
Tn
(a)
(b)
Fig. 30.
Fig. 30,
(a)
and
PF and
(b) respectively.
HYDROSTATICS
40
If
it
takes up in
buoyancy
is
buoyancy.
meets the
Explanation.
Tf
is
body
to
a body floats in
equilibrium in a
Let the
line
HG
be considered fixed
in
'
metacentre.
The
distance
metacentre
is
Then
H'
is
the
30 b)
called the
**%
called the
if
(Fig.
and the
metacentric height.
Fig. 31.
FLOATING BODIES
41
up through H'
to bring the
disturbed body back
to the original posi-
tend
tion.
Hence
the
equilibrium here is
But if the
stable.
metacentre
is
below
lg
28.
(HM) between
Distance
we may
call
Ak*
where
Als* is the
moment
is
GM that is
centric height
\
> 29.
Height of a Ship.
42
HYDROSTATICS
is
known
in
'
The mass
M'
of the ship
is
found from
and
its
'.
displacement
tons,
the ship,
"i
I1V1
jWr_
~ ^er-Jj/"
*/
across
of
which
already on board
several
is
mass
moved
is
deck
the
TBiL-_:r
through a measured
/P
distance
^--^ Fig.
33).
- A
B,
Consequ-
through an angle o
(a
found by means of a
plumb-b|b suspended
Let
buoyancy,
metacentre.
original
in
the ship.
M the
Then
/.
M'g x
sin
x = ml/
M'
since
Q = mg
tan
cos o.
eml
will usually
M'
e,
be small.
to
down
at
weight of
force
B.
M'g
mg Acting down
at B.
FLO AT INC
(2)
The moment
BODIES
of the force of
43
buoyancy about
is
through M.
(4)
may
be
30.
Metacentre of Floating Body with immersed
Part Spherical.
If the portion of the floating body which
is immersed in the liquid is spherical, the centre of curvature
C of this spherical portion must be the metacentre. For,
the thrust at each element of the spherical surface is normal
hence the resultant
to the surface and so passes through C
thrust passes Ihrough 0.
We have already seen (Art. 23)
:
of
In the equilibrium position, the resultant thrust passes also through the
centre of gravity of the body.
Hence HG in the equilibrium
position and the vertical through H' in the disturbed position both pass through C, which is therefore the metaposition, but also to the disturbed position.
centre.
31.
The
Common
Hydrometer.
This
is
a variable
44
HYDROSTATICS
As
this
is
ated as follows
r=aftp-Z,)/(P-l).
Now (f 9 P-iJ/(P-l) is a quantity which
calculated from the data obtained.
can be
Represent
it
by
k.
Then V = ka.
Let the hydrometer be
of
unknown
x.
now
Let
density
the stem above this liquid.
floated in a liquid
I be the length of
Then, as before,
ponding values of
x the
corres-
(b)
Fig. 34.
more
is
clearly as follows
FLOATING BODIES
Let
CA
BA
45
the portion
V = OA.a
and the weight
of the
(OA. a
"
Hence
- BA. a) x
= OB
oc
-= (OA.
OB
,<
OC
or
CA. a) p
=T'
to densities (or speci-
fic gravities)
EXAMPLES
1.
A man
whose weight
is
150
Ib.
weight
Weight
a-
(2
ft.
24 x 62^1b.
of water displaced
x 62J
in c.
4()
HYDROSTATICS
2.
the
cylinder.
cylinder
Let
liquid.
Fig. 35.
liquid
Equating the
is
is
Then
h and
the
.)
volume
its
jc
wood
small piece of
li
(Fig. 35).
weight of the
body
we
to the
of
the
floats half
and temp,
sum
get
immersed
the
of
p.
weight
be the immersion in the upper
Then the immersion in the lower
A kp = A jcp* + .4 (h - x) p
Hence x =- h (p, - P)/(P, - P,)
>
3.
(p,
axis vertical,
its
is d.
of
in
it
10
fresh
will
ft.
be
high,
the water?
the density
Take the temper-
by Boyle's law,
JO y
34-
x (34 + 47 + x)
4 ft.
inside bell -= 34 + 47
from which x
.-.
Pressure of air
f-
85
ft.
of water.
d x 5/2.
Density of air inside bell = d x 85/34
its
wood
and
of
the
Let V be the volume
weight.
/.
FLOATING BODIES
Let y be the fraction of
water under the bell. Then
47
volume immersed
its
in the
.'.
J /
rZ)
ij
approximately.
4.
95 and length
floats
If) in.
its
Let
^4
the height of
Then
where k
floats
with
required in inches.
0-05fc = .*vl x 0-84 k
a constant.
is
Hence
5.
oil
16,1
-f
(KJ-a;)
A x
A,
'
5 in
.r
its
cylinder of radius
r/
Now
if
the cylinder
cm.
is
is
merged
= no? x J and the rise of liquid level - ?r
TT b* ~ a" / b'.
So the top of the cylinder has descended only 1 a 2 / b
Hence for immersion of A/2, the top of the cylinder must
further,
'
.be
(1
a*/b ").
beginning
=;
force at the
HYDROSTATICS
48
Work done =
6.
.*.
average force
x \h
(l-a'/ft*)
W/2.
x distance
Wh(l-a?lb
li
).
the case of a
stability in
a, floating
of
,
immersion
(Fig. 36).
Equating
the
body
to the
placed,
it'
we
Aha =
Now H M -
HG =
.-.
r*b
Ale*
lah >
>
floating
liquid
dig-
Ah'b.
o*/6.
For stability
HM >
Ah'
\h'
HG.
a
OG-OH =\hi.e., r*
7.
*'
.'.
Fig. 36.
of the
get
of the
weight
weight
I -h - r/4oA, and
ah j b
\h(b-a)lb.
\h (b-a)
OD =
37
A,
OBC
the axis
BD =
r.
OD
Let
(Fig. 37).
Let A x be the depth
FLOATING BODIES
TT/-*
,5
.-.
-y
"
For
stability of equilibrium,
f*/A">
i.e.,
>
4&
(1
3A(1 -
HM >
HG.
^/)/4.
- ^)/^.
In H. M. 8. Achilles, a ship of 9000 tons displacement, it was found that moving 20 tons from one side of the
deck to the other, a distance of 42 ft., caused the bob of a
pendulum 20 ft. long to move through 10 in. Prove that
the inetacentric height was 2*24 ft.
[Math. Tripos, 1884]
8.
= ml / M'
(Art. 29)
20 x 42
A thin
9.
cylinder, one
end of which
rounded
is
off in
throughout, find the greatest height of the cylinder consistent with stable equilibrium.
[M. U., B.Sc., Sep. 1933]
sides
and
bottom.
Here
the
centre
12
-
Fig.
;J8
of
metacentre
curvature
(Art. 30).
50
HYDROSTATICS
The
of
.1
x above
The
C. G. of
tance of
,]
Hence
below C, and
if
2ir r
x x i x
.'. x
A common
10.
p v with a length
sed when
to be the
is
=
=
at a dis-
G. of the combination,
^x
\ r.
r.
hydrometer floats
stem exposed.
in a liquid of density
of its
Z1
lies
length
12 is
expo-
in a liquid of density P 2 .
Determine the
density of the liquid in which the hydrometer will float with
a length
it floats
stem exposed.
of the
hydrometer =
(V-ali)
where p
From
is
the
Pi
(F-O
ftp,
*('i Pi
/ 2 p 2 )/
CiPi-
(V-al)
P,
HPi-P.) =
P*
first
V = a
W/ (Pi-PJ
PiPatfi-I,)/ [ft
(p t
first
p t ).
and
~
al\
i)
<> r
'.P.)
P,
third,
P,
from which
+ (/-y
PaJ
FLOATING BODIES
51
QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER
III
its
out,
'/
(1
6*)
(I
where d and
and cork.
d)>
gravities of air
6'
(M.U., B.A.
(3)
Show
&
B.Sc.,
March
1929.J
(4)
must contain
balloon
may
equal to 750 Ib. wt., the weight of 100 c. ft. of air being 8
and the sp. gr. of hydrogen referred to air 07.
be
Ib.
(5)
vertical.
J(6)
solid
cone
floats
with
axis vertical
its
and vertex
downwards
Prove
March 1934J
52
HYDROSTATICS
(7)
is
cylinder of
wood
(sp. gr. s) of
Show
that, for
greater than
B.
Sc., Sep. 1935]
[M.U.,
stability^
^2s (1~)7
of a common hydrometer is
stem is 3 mm. in diameter. The hydrometer
floats in a liquid A with 3 cm. of its stem above the surface,
and in another liquid B with 6 cm. above the surface.
(8)
15
and
c. c.,
its
Compare the
J,
with its
Find the
Derive the
(10)
floating
equilibrium of a
for stability.
cylinder of wood,
vertical in water
radius of
its
and 4
base for
it
ft.
[M.U., B. Sc.,
(11) Discuss the
floating
freely
stability
in
March 1937]
liquid.
How
is
determined?
common
equilibrium of a body
hydrometer.
FLOATING BODIES
53
its
which
cylinder
may
(14)
March 1939]
stability of
how
determined experimentally.
(15) Describe in detail
[M.U., B. A.,
may
be
March 1940J
The
exposed to the
air,
when
it is
of a common hydrometer
dipped in liquids of specific
gravities
CHAPTER
IV
rence
In the case of the atmosphere, however, the diffepressure between two points is not simply
in
for
(P
^P
mean
density of the
&)
The Barometer.
A barometer is an instrument
33.
measuring the atmospheric pressure. The first barometer
By
trough.
pressure.
Fortin's Barometer.
34.
I
tom
the cistern.
The
cistern
bottom with a
piece of chamois leather which
can be raised or lowered by the
is
closed at the
screw
S,.
The
Fig. 40
Cistern with
adjustaJbde.
"
bott
~
.
malter
Fig. 39
,be-
turaed
HYDROSTATICS
56
until the mercury level in the cistern just touches the point
of the pin P, as indicated by the point of the pin just touching
that of its image.
Then the screw S 2 is turned until the
lower edge
windows
is
fixed
vertically.
When
35:
Corrections for the Reading of Fortin's Baroof Fortin's barometer is corrected and
The reading
meter.
standardised as follows
at t'C.
on the
where a
is
of the scale.
0*C.
h(l
at) p t
g = h Q p 9 g.
Hence h
a
(1
h(l
0000019
for brass
and
variation
Correction for
(3)
57
of
= 0-000182.
The barometric
g.
g/g^
= l- 0-00259
where \
is
cos
2\- 1*96
x 10
its
height in
Owing
to capilla-
effect.
mercury
is
diameter
J*
in.
or 6
mm.
mm.
Correction for vapour pressure of mercury.
At 20"C.
(5)
the vapour pressure of mercury is only about 0*001 mm. of
mercury; so this correction ( + 0*001 mm.) may be ignored
at ordinary temperatures.
36. The Barometric Liquid. Mercury is generally
used as the barometric liquid for the following reasons
:
(1)
It
is
HYDROSTATICS
58
76 x 13 6 cm.) or 34
(i.e.,
ft. (i.e.,
(3)
glass.
(4)
It
is
clearly visible
in
It
is
it is
opaque,
(5)
pure.
that
is,
If slight variations of
is
not sensitive.
atmospheric pressure
are to be
The height
37.
It consists of a
liquid.
by a
(Fig.
diaphragm,
41.
spring,
little
ternal
is
41).
This
attached to a
thrust in or out a
pressure increases
or decreases, the extent of motion being proportional to the
59
is magnified by a system
an index.
The instrument is
with
a
standard mercury
direct
comparison
graduated by
barometer. Its indications, however, are not quite reliable.
Its chief advantages are portability and sensitiveness.
change of pressure.
of levers
This motion
and transmitted
to
38.
The
nor-
X 980-6,
per
i.e
l'013x 10
fi
dynes per
sq. cm.; or
in.
sqf.
The density
of
less
and
less as
we
sents
H
the
In
F.
P.
OQ
,5
iz
13-596
62-4,
-^7990 metres.
H x 0-001293
from which H = 26,280
S.
system,
ft.
X 624
(nearly 5
miles).
(2)
of gas
i.e.,
is
(3)
of gas
i.e.y
is
Volume being
being constant,
P oc
T.
HYDROSTATICS
60
We
40.
By
Boyle's law,
oc
when T
is
constant.
T when P is constant.
V oc T I P when both T and P vary.
That is, PV / T is constant for a given mass
By
Charles' law,
oc
.-.
This constant
is 1
gm.
is
Corollaries.
represented
Thus we
oc - for the
get
(1)
by E when
PV = R
Since P, F,
same mass, P,
pl
of a gas.
T.
= P 2 F,/T
T = P / pa T
T,
and
2.
we have two
(2) If
ing to the
where
F and T
JP,
as follows
Let F/ and
first
F a be
'
first
P
.-.
V./T, =
Pj F./T, +
PF//TandP F /T
P F /T = PF//T
2
PF/T.
A barometer
41. Vitiated Vacuum in a Barometer.
of
tube
which contains some air in the
course, give
will,
To test if there is air in a barometer tube,
faulty readings.
screw up the bottom of the cistern (Fortin's) or incline the
6l
tube
sufficiently.
filled
It
is
to
possible
atmospheric
(P
b'rom this
/,
A,)
=
is
(P
AJ
/2 .
the
k,
I,
determined.
with
pressure
(P - A
is
Then the
of the air
column respectively at
The
by
depressed, the
air.
it jat
the
62
HYDROSTATICS
upper
its
though
part,
volume
depth
is
increased.
The
contained
air.
There
is
In modern
Fig. 42
The diving
bell.
The tension
in
the
is
equal
it
dis-
places.
As the
weight of
bell sinks,
43.
ei
d*
x
l
(iron ml
Level
PQ be p.
Imagine a small cylinder described about the vertical
PQ as the axis. Let its area of cross-section be a.
Fig. 43.
line
63
Resolving the forces vertically, we get for the equilibrium of the cylinder
(p
-r
dp +
i.e.,
dp) a + a dx p g
0.
P g dx
is at constant temperature,
// the air
p/p
a constant
Then dp + kpg dx = 0,
i.e.,
dp I p + kg dx = 0.
Integrating, Iog ^> + kgx = a
k,
say.
constant.
If PI
log
i.e.,
pa,
log e
Now
-f
(/?!
kght
h^ arid
A2
log
Ip,}
= p/p =
is
at 0"C.),
As
ences in height.
[If
the
mean temperature
of
is
from
C., the density of the air at that temperature and normal pressure is to be substituted for 0'001293.
It must be remembered that p^ is the pressure at the lower
place and p 2 that at the higher place.
different
Corollary.
A2
&
The equation
may
be written as
Iog
(Pi/p*)
kgh,
where
HYDKOSTATICS
64
then
Po
since density
is
p =p
k 'y k
and
that temperature
I
e kffh
and
/>
- p
k(J }
pressure according
Hence
constant.
is
/
v k 9 fl
progression.
directly proportional to
to our assumption
Hence as
----
geometric
EXAMPLES
barometer
(of
is /,
what
is
the atmospheric
with
Let
Then,
= (P
applying
71) 3,
from
Also,
15/i!,
73) 5
2.
fc
If
= (76
73)5
= 15.
.*.
is
calculate the ascent corresponding to a fall of the barometer from 30 to 27 in., the mean temperature being 25C.
c.c.,
IM.U., B. So.]
65
= 0-00129x273/208 =
/.
Now
But
0-0018
-=
2 3026 log
log
10
(p,
10
(p
2-3026 x 0-0457
.-.
Hence h = 0-92 x
==kgh
/ p,,)
log
10'
k.
10
(30
27)
h x 0-00118
10
76 x 13 6
If the
3.
26,000
p,)
76 x 13-6 x 980 6
ft.,
Then by
definition
air in Ib.
per
c. ft.
at N. T. P.
of height of
homogeneous atmosphere
normal
38),
(Art.
atmospheric pressure V in poundals per sq.
ft. = 26,000 x p x 32.
Now
But
..
2-3026 log
log
10
(/>, / p.,)
= log
(i/i/^ a )
2-3026 x
Hence
10
iu
= kg h.
(30
26) =0-0621.
0-0621 = h / 26,000.
A= 3718
ft.
QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER
IV
Ib.
per^.
ft.
(Atm.
press., normal.)
66
HYDBOSTATICS
(2)
l; <8 ,ft.
air in it
may
be compressed to
&
[M.U., B.A.
If
B. Sc.,
March 1932]
at a height (ah l
bh^) / (a
voir.
-b) above the mercury in the reser[M.CJ., B.A. & B.Sc., Sep. 1932]
will
be lowered by 3
is
inches,
x + 15
(32
in.
when
of a correct barometer,
,v)
Show
this
Neglecting
the
effect of
&
temperature
30
[M.U., B.A.
in.
(6)
fl-
in.
[M.U., B.A.
(5)
false
&
difference,
sea- level if
the
and at sea-level
B.Sc., March 1931]
homogeneous atmosphere
is
ft.,
67
[M.U.,
|MCJ., B.Sc.,
March 1937]
Show
from 30 to 27
in.,
the
When
atmosphere are in
if
[M.U., B.Sc.,
March 1939]
CHAPTER V
PUMPS AND PRESSURE-GAUGES
Pumps^
a
a valve (V,) in the piston and another (V<?) in the exit tube,
both valves opening only inwards (towards the receiver R).
In the common bicycle pump, jvhich is an example of this
pump, the valve in the piston is a cup valve, and the valve
in the pneumatic tube is a tissue valve of rubber.
is
Now
r
xv
let
The
vacuum
is produced behind
the vessel, by its pressure,
closes the valve V u tightly.
outwards, a
air in
simply
But the
air
one Jbarrelful of
pressure
is
air
at
atmospheric
double stroke.
The Compression
pump.
<?nd,
by Boyle's
air
If
Pn
is
the
'
69
had a volume V
Hence
P n = P (nv
The density
-t-
F)
V.
same proportion.
.-.
dn
If the receiver is a
d(nv + F)/F.
= Pn V
the receiver.
of Compressed Air.
Applications
and pneumatic
Riveting
hammers
45.
ksbee's
a cylindrical barrel
(Fig. 45) in which a
sists of
tight- fitting
works.
Fig. 45.
\
bell jar
air
pump.
to be exhausted
is
The
piston P
barrel
is
con-
HYDROSTATICS
70
barrel
is
outwards.
Now
let us
of the barrel.
A vacuum
cannot open inwards. But the air from the vessel R and the
connecting tubes opens the valve V2 outwards and enters
the space. Let us now push the piston in from the outer end
The air in the barrel is compressed, but it
of the barrel.
2,
'
ment
V + v.
'
stroke
is
of the piston,
PV =
PV I (V + v).
= P [V (V +
/
v)]
Vd
.-.
By
(F +
We
+
/
v).
(F
4-
t>)]
71
P2
Fig. 46.
Tate's uir
pump.
tube in the middle of the barrel connects the barrel with the
receiver.'
There are two valves V t and V2 opening only
The principle of the
outwards, at the ends of the barrel.
instrument may be easily understood from the figure. As
{
there
pump
is
is
barrel, this
no liquid
is
(1)
There
(2)
minimum
is
unless there
is
a certain
(3) There will be some minimum space (called the clearance or dead space), between the piston and the valve-end of
the barrel, and this lowers the efficiency of the pump.
HYDROSTATICS
72
For example,
let
to
fore, if
open only
if
when compressed
mm.,
is
mm.
(4)
of
mercury nearly.
of the air
mencement
certain fraction
which occupied the vessel just before the comof that stroke.
From
defects.
ing
is
Hence
47.
The
sucked from
tube D.
The
the
receiver
exhaustion
the
through
produced by
this
'
Water-jet pump
6r filter pump, mical,
all
48.
in the following
(1)
apparatus
Vacuum
High vacuum
is
necessary
73
The X-ray
tube,
itself.
The
and reception.
(4)
tungsten
incandescent
(6)
for
the investi-
The thermos
flask.
Bunsen, Crookes,
and Lord
etc.,
Rayleigh, in
and the
latter
by
Sir J. J.
their experimental
work.
Thomson
But the
pump.
HYDROSTATICS
74
hyvac
pump
The highest
possible
vacua (about 10
~8
mm.)
are
pump
~ 2
pump
now
pump
if it is
connection,
of 10
~6
mm.
used in the diffusion pump, backingoil and grease introduce their own
vapour into the exhausted space. Their
Mercury or
oil
pump
removal
is
48).
used.
In
,this
trap
tube in the system
Fig. 48
distilled potassium,
is
available, a
trap,
lined
which
potassium
some connected
effectively absorbs
air trap,
mercury vapour (but not the oil vapours).
Instead of potassium, sodium may also be used. In any case,
the trap is subsequently sealed out.
Liqu id
75
The most efficient absorbent is cocoanut shell charcoal powder. This is introduced in a side tube attached to
the receiver system, then heated during the pumping operation,
the
pump
One
serious difficulty has been experienced in maintainvacuum in a vessel on account of the slow release
ing a high
of absorbed
vacuum.
glass
In the case of
The remedy
for this in
In the case of
metals (such as filaments, electrodes, etc.) they are previously heated in vacuo to nearly their melting point for
several hours before being introduced into the vessel. This
process of removing gas from glass and metal
'out gassing'.
is
called
HYDROSTATICS
iij
Fig.
consists of a
at the top.
There is a stop cock
below the reservoir. The vessel to
be exhausted is connected to the side-tube
D. The lower end E dips into a beaker of
mercury.
Mercury
is
cock
is
it
drives
SprengeTs pump,
falls,
it
some
of
it
and
flows
down must be
periodically
The
fold
EC)
BC, which
is
height.
77
consists of
(Fig. 50)
cylindrical
glass
to
G branching from A is
connected to the vessel (receiThe end
ver) to be exhausted.
E of the fall tube dips into a vesThe tube
sel of
mercury.
The process
pump
I
'
consists
of
in
working the
raising and
mercury
rises in
the side
tube
Fig. 60.
Toepler Pump.
On
The
is reduced by the same fraction of its value.
and
valves in the
the
of
the
here
piston
part
plays
mercury
It collects
ordinary pump (without, however, their defects).
of the gas
in the vessel at
back into F.
HYDROSTATICS
78
This flow
cury.
pump.
52.
The
'hyvac'
pump
(d)
Fig. ol.
much more
a cylindrical casing C.
in a vertical direction,
spring.
fj.
V is
The
A
is
an exhaust valve,
PtJMPS
As the
in
space
the space
rotor
is
AND PRESSURE-GAUGES
79
communication with
The two
rotated
rotors are
by an
electro- motor.
in a cast iron box filled with oil to prevent air leakage into
the high vacuum. Such u pump reduces the pressure to
~
10 3 mm.
(from the atmospheric pressure) in a few
minutes.
53.
pump
or the diffusion
pumps
.for
HIOH VACUUM
To
Receiver
ROUGH VACUUM
To Backing Pump
t^ig.
account of
its
Waran pump,
52
Waran Pump, B
simplicity
model.
combined with
efficiency,
the
HYDROSTATICS
80
The apparatus
(Fig. 52,
to
undergoes a
first
and
its
(about 8
boiler.
The condenser
also prevents
pump
is
also
known
The
mm.
Steel
Bottle
In a glass
Pump.
pump
are
pumps
there
is
Hence
coming into
use,
especially in industry.
steel bottle
This requires a
about T -J- mm. The
the same as in Waran's
pump.
fore vacuum of
principle
is
pump.
Recently
The
Fig. 53
steel bottlo
it
a heavy mineral
pump.
can
fc e
uge(j
named Apiezon,
place of mercury in
81
Pressure Gauges
A manometer or
an instrument used for measuring fluid
The open U-tube manometer is used for measurpressure.
ing pressures not much greater or smaller than the atmos54.
pressure gauge,
is
It consists of a glass
pheric pressure.
r^rto
Fluid
Zlto
Fluid
D-
U-tube mano-
Fig. 54a.
than
U-tube mano-
Fig. 54b.
than
atmosphere.
atmosphere.
of a U, as in Figs. 54a
The tube
is filled
communication with
A by means
is
of a rubber tube.
Then
B and D
in
82
HYDROSTATICS
Let us suppose for the sake of convenience in descripis due to a gas.
sq.
Let
cm.
B =
sure
=P
C at the same level ~ atmospheric pres+ pressure due to the column of liquid h (i.e., CD)
+ hd gm. weight per sq. cm. (where d is the density of
pressure on
B+
55.
This instru-
at
fixed vertically.
uniform.
Mercury
is
poured
into
the
is
Fig. 55,
The compressed
air
manometer.
pressure of the
By
enclosed air
is
applying
its original
pressure.
From
this
83
For measuring
low pressures, such as the pressure of
air left in the receiver of a piston type
air
vacuum gauge
It consists
is employed.
U-tube closed at one end and open
at the other (Fig. 06).
The whole of the
closed limb and a portion of the other
contain mercury. Let the pressure in
the receiver of an exhaust pump be
Then the open end is put in
required.
communication with the receiver. As
of a
the
The
pump
Fig. 56.
stage the
tube vacuum
will
gauge.
begin
is
mercury
to
vacuum
fall,
forming
Torri-
The pressure at
given by the height of the mercury
cellian
above.
When
the pres-
is less
such cases the McLeod vacuum gauge is used. The princivolume of the gas at the low
ple of this gauge is that a large
a
small
into
is
volume, thereby increascompressed
pressure
ing the pressure several times (maximum, 100,000). This
increase of pressure is measured with a fair degree of accuracy.
HVDBOStATlOS
84
narrow uni-
form tube
water,
are also
for
the tubes
effect,
and
The
BA
is
reservoir
just sealed
is
off
Fig. 57.
A and E
85
is
(V
v).
is
an absolute gauge.
It
can be used
sure
58.
Besides the
McLeod
which
sures.
We
are employed for measuring very low presconsider here only one of these, namely,
shall
the decrement
At moderate pressures, the viscosity of a gas is independant of the pressure. At. low pressures, however, the
viscosity is a function of the pressure, and hence a body
oscillating in a space containing gas at low pressure undergoes damping to an extent depending upon the pressure of
the gas.
The determination
86
HYDROSTATICS
two
gases,
p V
mole-
X =
where k
t2
tial pressures.
7 oscillations are
A short quartz
each end of which is
the determination of \.
fibre
(Fig.
58),
tally at the
mounted
silica
vertically
frame-work.
practically
under
tension
The tension
is
in
thus
unaffected
by changes of
minute piece of iron at
temperature.
the junction of the fibres serves to start
the oscillations of the horizontal
damping
To
of
which
is
receiver
Fig. 58.
suitable
fibre
fused
towards
gauge.
The range
pressure.
By
McLeod gauge
also
the
Light
reflected
on the
is
King's
decrement
fibre,
determined.
(cf
the falling
plate experiment).
of the instrument
is
be found.
Let a lt a e a A
[Logarithmic Decrement
successive amplitudes of an oscillating body.
be proved that a, / at = a, /a^ = at / a^ =
,
a n be the
it. can
= an _ j/ H =
Then
Then
a constant, say, C.
log e
is
called
87
the logarithmic
by \.
jan =C-l
-
'
i. e.,
G =
1) lg,,
\ =
(log c a,
logr
log e a w
) /
log
(n
ft
an
1).
EXAMPLES
The
inflated
is
pump
will
in.
long.
If,
to
atmospheric pressure
Volume
is
of inflated tyre
vol. of barrel
10
1.
Then n
P=
Hence n
10 x 2 P, where
is
20.
HYDROSTATICS
88
The
76
original pressure
i.e.,
.*.
manometer
81 cm.
p*v.2
air after
81
connecting be
x 20
p*
p%.
10,
= 162+15 =
p =
ftv
I(V -
v)
5 x 0-02
(500
In measuring
c.
mm. and
0-02)
=
0-0002
mm.
QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER V
(1)
How
"4
pump which
mm.
pump designed
mm. and explain
to
its
action.
CHAPTER
VI
SURFACE TENSION
59. The Free Surface of a Liquid behaves like a
The following phenomena
Stretched Elastic Membrane.
show that the free surface of a liquid behaves like a stretched elastic membrane
:
steel
thin,
(1) Place a new (hence slightly oiled),
needle on a small sheet of blotting paper and float the latter
on water.
on the water
surface.
If the needle is
That certain
move on the
Make a plane
(2)
,
Now
loop.
-
59
takes
it
(Fig. 59).
90
HYDROSTATICS
The
Again
tie a piece of
ring.
on
it.
membrane would
do.
The thread
will
now be
form of an arc of a
(3) If
an
elastic
air, it
Here
rise to
gravity).
Again, an
oil
alcohol, having the same density as the oil, assumes a perfectly spherical shape within the mixture.
Lead shot
lead in a fine
stream breaks up into a series of small spherical drops,
which solidify as they fall through the air. (They are
caught in a deep bath of water to prevent being knocked
out of shape when they reach the ground.)
SURFACE TENSION
91
table.
is
due to
gravity.
the brush out of the water, the hairs cling together, showing
that the water surface tends to shrink.
Float a paper boat on water and attach a piece of camphor to the stern of the boat in contact with water. The
boat will now move forward, the pull of the water surface
is
Each molecule
in a liquid
attracted
cules,
becomes
negligible.
Hence
if
we
HYDROSTATICS
(Fig. 61) by the neighbouring molecules, we have only to
consider the attraction exerted on A by the molecules lying
within the sphere constructed with A as centre and the
As the range
is
of molecular
small, the
attraction (ex-
On
cule
it
with
93
SURFACE TENSION
61.
ABC I)
work
AB,
sides
CD
is
(Fig.
AD
and
movable.
Then
CD
will
be pull-
DC)
Fig. 62.
the
DC
film
pulling up
surfaces of the
direction
(perpendicular
as in the figure.
is
2DC, as the
The length
film
exists
to
of
on
is
Consider a
ABCD
frame
(Fig. 63),
liquid film held in the light rectangular
alone can slide along
of which
D'
CD
The
where
C
C'
Fig. 63.
is
in pulling
2lTx/2lx
or
T.
HYDROSTATICS
94
Hence
tion.
the
is
produce unit
to
to
numerically equal
its
surface
tension.
63.
and
(2)
ABCD
rectangle
Fig. 64.
tensions at
and B respectively.
we
T,dl
=T
dl.
Hence T, = TM
are any two points,
.
Since
and
same
it
at all points.
ABC
Fig.
right-angled
tensions at
TCA
right
T^ and
Then the
R respectively.
forces acting on
BC,
T CA
and
T AB
Q
respectively.
angles to
CA and AB be
triangle
(shown magnified in
Let the surface
65).
CA and AB
Resolving the
95
SUBFACE TENSION
forces in the
to
AB, we
librium,
T AB = 7V BC
?>
cos
Why some
When a
follows
it
is in equilibrium, the
The
be a minimum.
in
the
must
system
energy
total potential energy (P.E.) of a drop consists of (1) the
Flattened.
mechanical system
total potential
P.E. due to gravity and (2) the P.E. due to surface tension.
Take the fase of oil dropped into a mixture of water and
Here change in the
alcohol, of the same density (Art. 59).
the P. E. of the
will
not
affect
of
the
oil
the
of
mass
shape
of
the oil is the
since
the
due
to
density
system
gravity,
same as that of the surrounding liquid. The only change in
The oil
the P.E. must, therefore, be due to surface tension.
will therefore assume the shape in which the P.E. due to
surface tension is a minimum, i. e., the shape in which the
area is a minimum. Now the sphere has the smallest surface enclosing a given volume.
Hence the drops of oil in
the liquid are spherical.
the
HYDROSTATICS
Relation between the Radius of a Spherical
65.
ABCD
on the
21).
As
own
tension,
so
brium. Let
p be
rium are
(1)
the external and (2) the pull on the edge of the circle ABCD
exerted by the edge of the other half due to surface tension.
These forces must be equal and opposite. Hence
p x
<nr*
.'.
= T x 2 TT r.
p = 2 T I r.
p x
It
= T x 4 TT
p = 4 T I r.
2
7r/
r.
Hence
SURFACE TENSION
smaller soap bubble
inside a larger one.
97
is
D)
will
smaller
66.
at right angles
to
the
axis
of the
ABCFDE.
Let
-
68
der,
the surface
The
forces
that
BEFC
pull)
(1)
the
DEF
and
HYDROSTATICS
98
DEF, which
are
all
parallel to
p x
2rh = 2
Th.
Hence
67.
has
pectively.
be
the
sections.
principal
=a
69).
and
planes
Let AA'
BB'=-.6 in
of pull
due to surface
passing
through
of
are
is
265Pcos
negligible.)
i
AO A'
X
Hence
2 bTsin \ e
tangentially.
(The
variation in the direction
their resultant
262
T
.
is
o = bT
equal
o, since
to
SURFACE TENSION
is
small.
Hence
the direction
the
Oj C,.
resultant
T b/r
--
for
Similarly,
99
if
z.
Hence the
two
the
total
curvatures
are
Hence
abp = ab T/
p--T/ ri
for equilibrium,
+ ab
+ T/r
r
T/i\,
i.e.,
(J)
and hence
p =
T/r.
The equation
(I)
as
should be
p-r/r.-T/r,
Such a surface is called an
of a saddle is an example
(2)
anticlastic surface.
of this.
The
surface
Another example
is
the
Fig. 71.
that radii of
If,
curvature of opposite curvatures (anticlastic surface) have
opposite signs, equation (2) merges in equation (1).
HYDROSTATICS
100
The
film
T/r.2
of r
0.
l
and
r2 are equal.
Let
and
glass),
7 -'
towards
is
If
is
urging
given by
F =
AT
jd.
The
surface increases
diminishes.
between
the
plates
101
SURFACE TENSION
69.
liquid
73),
(Fig.
brium
ween
(2)
ween
7:j.
(1)
C and
Fig.
liquid
Tbc
air (3)
liquids
bet-
B and
C.
taken perpendicular to the plane of the figure, the three forces (T^dl,
Tc&dl and T\^>dl), according to the law of the triangle of
dl at
possible, one of the three surface tensions being always greater than the sum of the other two.
The lighter liquid thus
always spreads over the surface of the liquid on which it
The
triangle
of
forces
referred
to
above
is,
in this
We
must
HYDROSTATICS
102
as in the case of a liquid surface, though the former is notThe process of solidification must increase, rather
mobile.
ture always
Xow
tension.
L on
T,
TJa
Air
T ls
T sa
^\y
T 19
At*
T sa
(b)
Fig. 74.
+ Tja COS = T Ha
COSO = (T sa -Tl H )/Ti a
T\ s
/.
If
If
Tsa
Tsa >
<T
is,
(1)
(2)
and 180.
If, however, T sa > (T\ B + Tj a ) (i.e., T 8a
is
Tj a ),
there cannot be equlibrium (from equation (1), or from
equation (2) as cos o must always be less than 1), and the
-T >
71.
Angle of Contact
cose = (rsa--!Fis)/Tia
In Art. 70
(Fig. 74).
Thus
we derived that
is
a constant for
SURFACE TENSION
103
solid,
wets the
If the liquid
angle of contact
is
it
the
is
solid,
nearly 0.
about 140.
72.
Pour into
diameter.
mercury
until
it is
nearly
it
clean
full,
and
object
reflected
the line of
Fig. 75
contact.
slightest curvature
Even
indicated
by the
level, concave.]
the
then be
lower level
will
would
HYDROSTATICS
104
~ AB)
of the plane
spherical bulb.
mercury
D = 2 AC)
(
of contact
of the
B can then
be obtained from.
cos (o
(ii)
Dip a
- 90^) = \dfaD =
dID.
clean, plane glass plate into mercury contained in a trough, and incline it
CB
(Fig.
7(>) is
plane right up
by absence
of distortion in reflected
ai
the line
(i)].
PJ
exact
7(
plumb-line measure
AB
is
Clamp
position,
and with a
where e
image
contact, as in
the plate in this
of
= AB/BC,
73.
liquids
may
105
SURFACE TENSION
But
is
whose angle
a capillary
is
Fig. 77
Fig. 78.
We
tube be
contact
If
r,
the density
of
the liquid
p,
e.
is
the
outside the tube, the pressure just below the concave surface (Fig. 77) is P 2T/R, and the pressure just below the
convex surface (Fig. 78) is P + 2T/R (Art. 65). The pres-
TIE + hpg = P
and
+ h pg
the case of capillary depression. Thus in each
in
-i
2T R = P
I
2T/ R = hp
g.
case,
Since
HYDROSTATICS
10(5
But
R =
cos e in elevation,
Hence
2 Tcos e
-
sion.
os
and
p g,
=-.
h p
,,
where h
is
the elevation,
where h
g,
0) in depres-
is
the depression.
The
first
second case
also, if
74.
Rise of Liquid between Parallel Plates.
Let d
be the distance between the parallel plates, other symbols
meaning the same as before. Take a horizontal length of
I
along
the
column
It
is
of this length
T 8Q> -
T\s
Tie,
Hence
).
2 Tl cos o
hid
cos
cos
h d p
p g,
Fig. 79.
Plates.
70,
i.e.,
g.
75.
(Art.
cos
d.
(The
73).
Fig. 80.
SURFACE TENSION
in contact at
107
liquid (Fig.
to the equation derived in Art.
But
?/
oc
or
?/.r is
of the
by the top
constant.
liquid
a;
of
this distance
from 0.
is
There-
which has
risen
is
rectangular
hyperbola.
76.
Immersed
F.AI
Fig. 81.
Fig. 82.
Fig. 83.
the pressure
is
also.
HYDROSTATICS
108
If,
plates takes the form shown in Fig. 83 when the plates are
very near each other. It will be seen that there is no
Consideration of
horizontal portion in the surface there.
the forces due to surface tension shows that the plates tend
to be forced
why
in this case.
on water.
Dry
the tube
if
is
not water.
scus
per position.
Fig. 84
By means
of a
SURFACE TENSION
column
109
meniscus
M and,
after
cos
hp<J
Take a
expose
finally rinse it
it
Kig.
sr>.
no
HYDROSTATICS
may
by touch.
from which T
79.
is
(I
is
t)
(I
t)
and hence
T,
calculated.
the arrange-
ment shown
AB
A small
JB tap C
(2r)
bubble
%^
Fig. 86.
is
blown at
and the
manometer
are measured
4T / r = hp
Then
g.
SURFACE TENSION
111
The
surface
tension
thrust, due
TT
rT acting
upwards,
to
atmospheric pressure
2
P, equal to TT r P upwards, and (4) thrust,
due to internal pressure P' in the plane of
(3)
the
to
equal
orifice,
TT
P'
downwards.
Hence
mff
But P'
/.
TT
-f
TT
- P = T IT
----
above)
'
is
is
P).
(Art. 66).
mg + irrT.
Ig
(P
far
Hence
from being
relation
T = mg 1 3'8
to be sufficiently accurate for
many
purposes.
liquid,
first liquid.
is
allowed to drop
HYDROSTATICS
112
Owing
mg (1
we have
where p and
to use here
is
/ p.2
of
an
Hence
equal volume of the surrounding liquid is
p!/p a
the apparent weight of the drop = mg
force of buoyancy
= mg -
my?!/?*}.
Bubbles
__
___
___ ______\
measurement
of drop.
Fig. 88
central
vertical
represents
section 01 a
Ldrcj> ciiop
01 mor*
The upper
Fig. 88
the edge.
practically horizontal except near
the tangent planes to the surface are veitical.
is
At
and
the slice
ABDCM
Fig.
8<J.
(Fig.
Fig. 90.
two
AB
SURFACE TENSION
Let
BK =
BC = H
= T.
h,
113
p,
and
its
surface tension
ABLKV
(i)
that
lies
k pg
x h
dl
tfpgdl.
=\
/.
(ii)
Hence
h*pgdJ.
BDEC
(1)
line
BD
the pull on
equal to
VK.
slice
The
equal to Tdl,
HpgxHcU,
i.e.,
(2)
JPpgdlmd
ABECM
forces to be
the
(3)
MC, on the
equation
(1)].
Hence
^
'
e)
_
2"[l+"cos"(180
.
U*pg
...
dl
...............
e)J
V8
HYDROSTATICS
114
finding 0.
may be
may
be experienced in
finding the exact
position V,
the surface
This
tical.
/\
where
is
ver-
diffi-
The
ob-
croscope
is
provi-
glass
plate
tjl
which
both reflects and transmits light. Light from a source S
is focussed by means of the converging lens L upon the
rim of the drop after reflection at P. At the exact position
of
(Fig.
thin bright
91),
The
The microscope
is
then screwed
(to
ing some
fine
powder
by thinly scatteras
lycopodium powder) on the
(such
SURFACE TENSION
From equation
(ii) it is
is
drop or bubble.
Eliminating
from equations
//
o
(i)
and
(ii),
we
</ot
sin
v/
directly
from
H and
7*.
Variation of Surface Tension with TemperaIn this method the pressure re(i) Ja*'f/vr\s Method.
a
of
bubble
to
force
air,
through a narrow orifice, into
quired
(he liquid is found at various temperatures.
82.
ture.
The apparatus
is
represented in
Fig.
orifice
tension
of
is
Fig.
92.
is
the
<>2.
surface
of
air
With stop-cock
Cj closed
1}
HYDROSTATICS
116
Let
To
Hence
2T/r.
This method is not very accurate for absolute values of T,
but is very useful for comparison of surface tensions of various
liquids or of the
(ii)
same
Tube Method.
consists of
surface tension
levels in
is
the limbs.
The tube
is
then
immersed
Fig. 93.
(Fig. 93).
thermometer and
stirrer (not
shown
in
Fig.)
117
SURFACE TENSION
TI
ra
the
P-
in level
(P
I r,
and
P-
27'/r?
respectively.
- (P-2T/r
As the difference
k p
g,
where
is
(he
Hence
is
T / r,
is h,
contact.
in the
P + 2^08(180^-0)
and
c
p +
T cosjlSO'-o)
r.
r,
--
T-27 cos(180~o)
cos (180 -0)
--'----=
r,
n
T = *P^r r /2(r -r cos (ISO - o).
2
/.
'
TT
h P
g.
J
Hence
EXAMPLES
Calculate the
1.
film in blowing a
soap-bubble from a diameter of 3 cm to one of 30 cm., if its
surface tension be 45 c. g. s. units.
[M.U., F>.A.]
Increase of area
2 x
4-rr
x 900 / 4
2 x 4,T
X 9
sq.
4.
em.
118
HYDROSTATICS
Mechanical work
done
X increase of area = 45(2 x
= 2-52 x
in
the area
increasing
^ X 900
/ 4-2 x
TT
X9/
=
4)
10' ergs.
2.
spherical drop of water of radius 1 mm. is sprayed
into a million drops, all of the same size.
Find the work
in
74
of water
ore
Surf
tension
this.
expended
doing
dynes
cm.
Let
.'.
1 /
JO 9
4
,
hence
x 10 6
1/10
-J
TT
0-001.
cm
= (4 TT 10 X 10 - 4 TT
= 4 TT (1 - 0-01) sq. cm.
Work expended = 74 x 4 ^ (1 - 0-01) =
Increase
/.
Then
in
area
X 0-01
920 ergs.
of drop
0-1
c. c.
0-1 /O-OOOl
1000
sq.
F=
AT fd
Two
cm.
x 1000 x 75/0-0001
x 10 dynes (i. e., 1-5 tons wt. nearly).
(Art. 68)
1-5
=---
[M. U., B. A.
&
B. Sc.
March 1927]
110
SURFACE TENSION
By
Law
Boyle's
for
$^
V " PV
a.
+ ? ~ T
T
l\
is
=P
P, V, + P* F,
(P
+ ^ T
^? is
rt
F,
(p + 4
-t-
4T/)
(7>
where
TT
fl )
'
cor. 2),
J TT
i.
6.,
7>
ft
3)
r/
TT
.J
8
,
the surface
tension.
Hence 4
The
5.
(r,
is
J?
a
)
- p (^ -
mm.
:1
r./),
etc.
in the two
diameter of one
and that of the other 8 mm., calculate the
limbs of a U-tnbe
limb
ra
is
0-88 cm.
If
mercury
the
tension of mercury.
Density of mercury = 13-6
of
with
walls of tube = 140.
contact
c.
c.
gm. per
Angle
surface
cos (180
e) /r,
(cos 180
e)
<2
h p g
(Art. 82,
i. e.,
Hence
cos 40
T =
0-05
cos 40
0-4
0-88
13-0
ii).
x 981.
Volume
of plate
immersed
- 72 dynes / cm.
10 < 2-54
2*54
c.c.
0*2
2.
HYDROSTATICS
120
-.
Pull
Force of buoyancy
=
=
.*.
2 (10+0-2) 72 dynes
1*50 gm. wt.
of the plate
13 21
2-54
=
+
1-50
12-17 gm.
sq. in.
bursting.
8.
If the
cylindrical boiler
is
200
Ib.
in.
200 x 12 x 12 or
28.800
Ib.
ft.
in the
this excess of internal pressure be
l (Ib. wt. per ft.)
Then
the
in
and
T,
spherical part.
2
cylindrical part
5^/3=
TJ3=
/.
SURFACE TENSION
121
978 cm.
sec."
[M.U., B.
H=
=
=
h
P
5-35
mm. =
5-35
1-50
0-535 cm.
mm. =
0'385 cm.
978.
T = J* P0,
T = x 0-385 x 0-385
= 72*5 dynes /cm.
f
x 978
40 =
H /h
V2
T = H*f>g/2(l~ cose),
sin
e = 107 / 109 = 1 nearly.
*
.'.
bubble.
is
therefore nearly O
is left
Water
10.
tube.
(i)
If the
122
HYDROSTATICS
a vertical U-tube,
of a
(ii) Into
consisting
capillary tube 10 cm. long for one lmb and a very wide
tube 15 cm. long for the other, water is slowly introduced
happens
Let
becomes equal
above the
left
Then
up
to
2T/r.
After
water overflows.
QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER VI
inside a spherical cavity
(1) Calculate the pressure
within a mass of water, if the cavity is O'OOl cm. in radius
and at a depth of 10 cm. below the surface of the water.
T = 78 c. g. s. units. Atm. pr. = 76 cm.
[M. U., B. A.
(2)
any drops.
&
drop of
SURFACE TENSION
123
&
Two
simultaneously.
March 19321
(4)
of radius 2 cm.,
which
is
(5)
25
c, g. s.
Show
at both ends
units.
March 1933]
March 1933]
Prove that the air inside a soap bubble of sufficiently large radius R would at atmospheric pressure P fill a
sphere of radius R -f 4 T / 3 P, where T is the surface ten(6)
sion.
(7)
cm.
was clamped vertically with its lower end dipping I'll cm.
below the surface of water in a beaker. It was found that,
in order just to blow air out at the bottom of the tube, the
air had to be at a pressure of 6940 dynes per sq. cm. in
Deduce the value of the surface
excess of the atmospheric.
tension of the water-air surface.
gin. / c. c.
and
accel.
due to gravity
March 1935]
HYDROSTATICS
124
Calculate the
March 1936]
boiler is built with a cylindrical body and hemisIf the common diameter be 5 ft., find the
ends.
pherical
tension in the different parts of the boiler when the pressure
of the steam inside is 200 Ib. wt. per sq. in.
(9)
mm.
0-12
will it
have a
radius equal to
=
=
=
=
c.c.
see.
of a liquid
same
is
experiments to
surface
in a state of tension.
is
the
in all directions
March 1937]
with an
SURFACE TENSION
Find an expression
125
immersed
in
mercury.
Angle of contact of
mercury
550 dynes
130.
13*6
Density of mercury
cm.
gm. per
c.c.
plates held
parallel
introduced
What
force
cm. apart.
(14) Define 'surface tension
it is
is
'
of a liquid
March 1938]
surface.
March 1938]
The limbs
of a U-tube are vertical and have interand 1 mm. respectively. If the tube
contains water, what will be the difference in the surface
nal diameters of 5
levels in the limbs
HYDROSTATICS
126
(16)
Find an expression
Two
bubble.
how
Describe
glass
may
be determined experimentally.
[M. U., B.A.,Sep. 1939]
(18) Define
surface energy,
'
angle of contact'.
for the
formation of a drop of
'
angle of contact of
angle
of
contact
'.
Describe
may
how
the
be experiment-
ally determined.
March 1940]
APPENDIX
POINTS TO BE
1
at
c. ft.
of water
REMEMBERED
weighs 62*4
Ib.
(roughly,
62*5
Ib.)
4C.
=0-001293 gm.
Density of
air
Density of
hydrogen - 0-0000899
Density of mercury
= 13*596
gm.
13-522
at
and
30C.
c.c.
C.
due to gravity
Accel,
1)78
sq.
cm. or 14*7
Ib.
or standard atmospheric
ft.
29C. = 30 mm.
at
mercury
of mere.
of
mere.
WC. = 0-01
30C. = 70 dynes/cm.
(roughly).
HYDROSTATICS
128
C.
= 550
dynes/cm.
(roughly).
= 140
air
nearly.
3-1416
0-4971
= 2-3026
loge 10
- 0-3622
log 2-3026
log 2
log 3
0-3010
log 273
0-4771
log 4
=
=
0-6021
TT
log
TT
log 5
0-6991
2-4362
= 2-8808
log 760
=
978
2-9903
log
log 0-001293
are
to the base 10
3-1116
where not
ANSWERS
CHAPTER
DE =
(2)
DC, where
is
second
DC.
cuts
(3)
ag[b(2a-b)
(4)
to the
Equal
(5)
ciilly
p 1+
sitfes.
(a-&)"p e
(9)
(10) Line
where 6
is
x 106
to
wt.
Ib.
30-38
ft.
be drawn b/qz
vertically below
vertex,
&
(12)
(13) See
example
1.
CHAPTER
II
30,326
Ib.
wt. at
4;; ft.
wt.
ft.
4' 11 ft.
3i
See example
(8)
23,676
Ib.
wt.
3.
HYDROSTATICS
130
Thrust on
Hint.
first
side
= 5 x 62] x 12 x 10
lb.
wt.
=F
Thrust on second side = 3 x 64 x 12 x 6
lb.
19
say.
wt.
=F
9,
say.
- J ,) = F, x 10/3 - Fz x 6/3.
1
(F,
(9)
40,000
wt.
lb.
4]
ft.
CHAPTER
(1) r
(2)
V2
Let
III
iepths of immersion.
Then
hsA~Axxl+A(h
h
4
(4) 10
A =A
c. ft.
y x
[Hint.
1.
Hence y
6*(1
(8) 1
(9) r
(10) 4
-)<
1-015.
>
ft.
(13) 5 in.
(15) 1-16.
hi
i/2.
and
d
x
etc.
zxS/lOO-zxSx
=
(5)
x)
750.]
0-07
100
ANSWERS
131
CHAPTER IV
132
(1)
ft.
(2) 5-06
ft.
2*5
[Hint.
6T X
(
(3) (h,
h2 ) b
(a
and
6)
x 13 6 x 8
(h,
6)1-025
h.2 )
(a
2-5
13-6
b).
the
in
(5)
h^
is
Hence
cistern
air col.
(62
(8)
=
3
Press, of air
and second
31
x).
1.
in.
28 + 3
Applying
col.
in
the
law,
Boyle's
taken to be
second case
the
of
0'84 kilometre.
h.2 .
h^) b, etc.]
(7) Hint.
is
in the problem)
col.
case.
first
second case
x a = (x + hi
By
Hence
Boyle's law,
in.
Its
x.
first case.
Length
/,
31
/.
of tube
in the
x
(I
l)0'75.
above mercury in
0'5
pressure
press, of
atm.
(62
of
x).
495 metres.
mean temp,
to be
OC.
HYDROSTATICS
132
CHAPTER
(1)
1-18
[Hint.
(2)
VI
work expended
Mechanical
2205
--
(not
+ 2 x 78
increase
0-001 .]
the
in
ergs.
Pressure inside
external pressure.
(3)
See example
(4)
2513
ergs.
(5)
The
pressure inside
4.
is
TJ2,
etc.
(6)
= P +
R.
4 TT R* 13.
Then by Boyle's
(P + 4
a*
/.
R) x 4
(P + 4 T /^}
I
ff
P-
=P
(1
x 4
-i
TT
#3 / 3.
+ 4 T//2P)
- R (I +
(I + 47 /#P)i
of 47 //?P, since R is given
=R
higher powers
TT /?
7F
1TIRP),
Hence
1
.
ignoring
to be large.
(7) 73-2
(8)
T / 0-025.]
-.
ANSWERS
(10) 24-5
cm.
176
Pl
=
p =
-
V,
(11) 41
(Hint.
13-6
133
p^v^
;
TTXO-Ol".
(a;
x OT8 +
76) 13-6
x 520 / 0-012
x 0-012\]
(12) 5-3
cm.
(13) 15
x 10 dynes, taking
(14) 25-2
0-8
10 ergs.
as 75 dynes/cm.
4.
as 75 dynes/cm.
0-7
980.]
INDEX
Numbers
refer to
pages