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AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE
ON

MODERN PURE GEOMETRY.

AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE
ON

MODEEN PUEE GEOMETEY

BY

E.

LACHLAN,

M.A.

LATE FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

pontoon:

MACMILLAN AND CO
AND NEW YORK.
1893
All Bight* reserved

Catnbrfojje:

PRINTED BY

C. J.

CLAY, M.A.,

AND SONS,

AX THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.

Q.f\

L3

PREFACE.

THE

object of this treatise

by Students

to supply the

is

want which

of a suitable text-book on geometry.

v

the study of Pure Geometry has been neglected;

is felt

Hitherto

no

chiefly,

doubt, because questions bearing on the subject have very rarely

been set in examination papers.

In the new regulations

the Cambridge Tripos, however, provision

duction of a paper on "Pure Geometry;

is

made

far

the intro-

for

namely, Euclid;

ample

properties of lines and circles; inversion; the elementary prop

of conic sections treated geometrically, not excluding the method
of

projections;

harmonic properties,

reciprocation;

In the present treatise I have brought together

propositions
circles

bearing

on the

simple

all

properties

curvatt;

the important
of

lines

that might fairly be considered within the limits

above regulation.

At

the same time

and

<>f

the

have endeavoured

treat every branch of the subject as completely as possible in

I

the hope that a larger number of students than at present may

be induced to devote themselves

much

to a science

which deserves ss

attention as any branch of Pure Mathematics.

Throughout the book a

large

number

and problems have been introduced

principles of the subject.

The

of interesting theorems

as examples to illustrate the

greater

number have been taken

or from
from examination papers set at Cambridge and Dublin;

the Educational Times.

Some

take,
are original, while others are

Sequel
from Townsend's Modern Geometry, and Casey's

to

Euclid.


PREFACE,

vi

In their selection and arrangement great care has been taken.

In

no example has been inserted which does not admit

fact,

and

of a simple

proof depending on

direct

the

propositions

immediately preceding.
solutions have been appended, especially

To some few examples

to such as appeared to involve theorems of any distinctive im-

This has been done chiefly with a view to indicate

portance.

the great advantage possessed by Pure Geometrical reasoning

Work

over the more lengthy methods of Analytical

Although Analysis may be more powerful as an instrument of

cannot be urged too forcibly that a student

who wishes

research,

it

to obtain

an intimate acquaintance with the science of Geometry,

will

make no

be

neglected.

real

advance

In

fact,

if

the use of Pure Geometrical reasoning

might well be taken

it

as

an axiom,

based upon experience, that every geometrical theorem admits of

by the principles of Pure Geometry.

a simple and direct proof

In writing

this treatise I

Townsend

Chasles, and

Taylor,

and

Mr

various papers by

published in Mathesis;

have made use of the works of Casey,

papers by

Tucker

Mr

Neuberg and Tarry,

A. Larmor,

published in the

Mr

H. M.

Quarterly Journal,

Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, or The Educational Times.

am

greatly indebted to

Clare College,

and Mr H.

my

reading the proof sheets, and for

have been

friends

Mr

A. Larmor, fellow of

F. Baker, fellow of St John's College, for

incorporated

in

many

my

especially indebted for the use

valuable suggestions which

work.

To Mr Larmor

which he has allowed

me

to

make

of his published papers.

R
Cambridge,
11th February, 1893.

am

LACHLAN.

CONTENTS.
CHAPTER

I.

INTRODUCTION.

MM
Definition of a geometrical figure

1-

Classification of curves

The
The

principle of duality

principle of continuity

Points at infinity

ft

CHAPTER

II.

MEASUREMENT OF GEOMETRICAL MAGNITUDES.

11.

L5

14.
17-

19.
!0

22.

Use of the signs + and Measurement of lengths

Measurement of angles

"
in geometry

Trigonometrical ratios of an angle

Measurement

*"

of areas

CHAPTER

III.

FUNDAMENTAL METRICAL

PROPOSITIONS.

Relations connecting the segments ol a lino

Relations connecting the angles of a pencil

Elementary theorems concerning areas

CONTENTS.

Vlll

CHAPTER

IV.

HARMONIC RANGES AND PENCILS.

SECT.

39

44.

51.
52 56.
57 59.
60 65.
45

Harmonic
Harmonic

section of a line

section of

an angle

Relations between the segments of a harmonic range

Relations between the angles of a harmonic pencil

Theorems

relating to

harmonic ranges and pencils

CHAPTER
'

66

70.

7173.

77.
78 88.
89 92.
74

Range

V.

THEORY OF INVOLUTION.

in involution

The double

points

Relations between the segments of a range in involution

Pencil in involution

Relations between the angles of a pencil in involution

CHAPTER

VI.

PROPERTIES OF THE TRIANGLE.

93.

103.
104 109.
94

110, 111.

112

117.

118122.
123
126

125.
128.

129, 130.

131133.
134, 135.

Introductory

Concurrent lines drawn through the vertices of a triangle

Pole and Polar with respect to a triangle
Special points connected with a triangle

The
The
The
The
The
The

Circumcircle
nine-point circle
inscribed

and escribed

circles

Cosine circle

Lemoine

circle

Brocard

circle

CHAPTER

VII.

RECTILINEAR FIGURES.
136138.
139146.

155.
156 159.

147

Collinear points on the sides of a triangle

Definitions

Properties of a tetrastigm

Properties of a tetragram

Some

special cases of polystigms

and polygrams

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

i\

VIII.

THE THEORY OF PERSPECTIVE.

mInangles

in perspective

....

PA0K

loo

Relations between two triangles in perspective

Pascal's

108

theorem

H~

General theory
I

CHAPTER

19

IX.

THE THEORY OF SIMILAR FIGURES.

Similar triangles

128

Properties of two figures directly similar

Properties of two figures inversely similar

135

138

Properties of three figures directly similar

Special cases of three figures directly similar

CHAPTER

140
143

X.

THE CIRCLE.
Introduction

148

Poles and Polars

151

Conjugate points and lines

Conjugate triangles

157

Tetrastigm inscribed in a circle

Tetragram circumscribed to a circle

164

Pascal's

161

168

and Brianchon's theorems

CHAPTER

171

XI.

THE THEORY OF RECIPROCATION.

290.

The principle of duality

Harmonic properties

296.

Reciprocation applied to metrical propositions

84287.
88
91

7299.

The

174
177
.

reciprocal of a circle

CHAPTER

78

181

XII.

PROPERTIES OF TWO CIRCLES.

00303.
34312.
13315.
16-322.

Power of a point with respect

to a circle

.183

Radical axis of two circles

186

Power of two

circles

189

Centres of similitude of two circles

191

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XIH.
COAXAL CIRCLES.
PAGEI

SECT.

323325.
326, 327.

333.

328

334_342.

The

20ol

limiting points

Orthogonal coaxal systems

2021

Relations between the powers of coaxal circles

Poncelet's theorem

CHAPTER

2031

209|

XIV.

THEORY OF INVERSION.
343_346.
347, 348.

349356.

362.
370.

357

363

371, 372.

376.

373

2181

Inverse points

Inverse of a straight line

2201

Inverse circles

22 ll

Corresponding properties of inverse figures

224|

Power

2281

relations connecting inverse circles

Inversion applied to coaxal circles

2331

Miscellaneous theorems

234|

CHAPTER

XV.

SYSTEMS OF CIRCLES.

379.

377

380, 381.
382.

386.

383
387
397

396.

404.

414.

405

System of three

2371

circles

Convention relating to the sign of the radius of a

circle

Circles cutting three given circles at given angles

which touch three given circles

System of four circles having a common tangent

Circles

CHAPTER

24l|

....

Properties of a circular triangle

Circular reciprocation

2381
2.391

circle

244
25l|
2571

XVI.

THEORY OF CROSS

RATIO.

425.
428432.

Involution

27S

Cross ratio properties of a circle

27t

433

Homographic ranges and pencils

27$

415

426, 427.

439.

Cross ratios of ranges and pencils

26(

Notes

283

Index

284

CHAPTER

I.

INTRODUCTION.
Definition of a Geometrical Figure.

1.

plane geometrical

)lage of points

and straight

figure

may

lines in the

ines being supposed to extend to

be defined as an assem-

same

infinity.

plane, the straight

Usually either the

)oint or the straight line is regarded as the element,

and then

igures are treated as assemblages of points or assemblages of

To

illustrate this remark let us

Imagine a point P to move so
hat its distance from a fixed point
is constant, and at the same
dme imagine a straight line PQ to be always turning about the

traight

lines

respectively.

onsider the case of a

)oint

so that the angle

ihe point
:ircle

circle.

P to

and

if

OPQ

is

a right angle.

move continuously we know that

we suppose the motion to take

it

If

we suppose

will describe a

place on a plane

and all that part of the plane which the line PQ

jasses over to become black, there will be left a white patch
>ounded by the circle which is described by the point P.
vhite surface

There are here three things to consider

The

i.

actual curve which separates the white patch from the

of the plane surface.

est

ii.

iii.

The assemblage

of all the positions of the

The assemblage

moving point P.

of all the positions of the moving line

P Q.
It is usual to say that the curve
>f

is

the locus of

the moving point, and the envelope of

noving

line.

But

it is

all

all

the positions

the positions of the

important to observe that the three things

ire distinct.

L.

NATURE OF A GEOMETRICAL FIGURE.

Let us consider now the case of any simple plane figure

Such a figure may be conceived

2.

consisting of a single curved line.

as traced out

by the motion of a

Hence we may regard a

point.

simple figure as the locus of an assemblage of positions of a

moving

point.

The conception

may be

of a curve as

an envelope

derived from the conception of

is less

obvious, but

as a locus.

it

it

It will be

necessary however to define a tangent to a curve.

Let a point P' be taken on a curve near to a given point P,

and let PT be the limiting position which the line PP' assumes
when P' is made to approach indefinitely near to P then the
straight line PT is said to touch the curve at the point P, and is
;

called the tangent at the point.

T/

If
curve,

P to describe continuously a given

every position of P we suppose the tangent to the

now we suppose a point

and

if for

curve to be drawn,

we may

evidently regard these straight lines as

the positions of a straight line which turns about the point P, as

moves along the

curve.

Thus we obtain the conception

of a curve

as the envelope of positions of a straight line.

3.

It remains to consider

suppose the point

let

is

assemblage of points, and

envelope of

exist,

Firstly, let us

in this case the

and we may say that the

the locus of the positions of the point.

us suppose the point

round

cases.

to describe a straight line

assemblage of lines does not

straight line

two special

all

to

be fixed

we may

Secondly,

in this case there

say that the point

is
is

no
the

the positions of a straight line which turns

it.

4.
It follows that any plane figure consisting of points, lines,
and curves, may be treated either as an assemblage of points
or as an assemblage of straight lines.
It is however not always

CLASSIFICATION OF CURVES.

necessary to treat a figure in this way; sometimes it is more

convenient to consider one part of a figure as an assemblage of

and another part as an assemblage of straight

points,

lines.

Classification of Curves.
Curves, regarded as

5.

loci,

number of their points which

The greatest number of points
curve

are classified according to the

lie

in

on an arbitrary straight

which a straight

Thus a

called the order of the curve.

is

assemblage of points of the

line

line.

can cut a

straight line

is

an

because no straight line

first order,

can be drawn to cut a given straight line in more than one point.

The assemblage

of points lying on two straight lines

second order, for not more than two of the points will

arbitrary straight line.

for the

On

same

of the

on any

a locus of the second order

reason.

the other hand

points of the

circle is also

is

lie

first

it is

order must

easy to see that every assemblage of

lie

on a straight

line.

Curves, regarded as envelopes, are classified according to

6.

the number of their tangents which pass through an arbitrary

The

point.

greatest

number

of straight lines

which can be drawn

from an arbitrary point to touch a given curve

of the curve.

Thus

a point

is

is

called the class

an envelope of the

first

because only one straight line can be drawn from any

class,

arbitrary

through it. A circle is a curve of the second

two tangents at most can be drawn from a point to
touch a given circle.

ipoint so as to pass
class, for

On
class

the other hand, an assemblage of straight lines of the

first

must pass through the same point; but an assemblage of

straight lines of the second class do not necessarily envelope a

circle.

The
7.

Principle of Duality.

Geometrical propositions are of two kinds,

either

refer to the relative positions of certain points or lines

with a figure, or they involve more or

measurement.

less directly

In the former case they are called

the latter metrical propositions.

The

first six

the idea of

descriptive, in

propositions contained

books of Euclid are mostly metrical in

not one that can be said to be purely descriptive.
the

they

connected

fact,

there

12

in
i^

'

PRINCIPLES OF DUALITY

There

is

a remarkable analogy between descriptive propositions

concerning figures regarded as assemblages of points and those

concerning
straight

corresponding

figures

Any two

figures,

lines.

regarded

assemblages

as

of

which the points of one

in

correspond to the lines of the other, are said to be reciprocal

figures.

for

any

may
and

It will

be found that when a proposition has been proved

figure, a corresponding proposition for the reciprocal figure

be enunciated by merely interchanging the terms

and

'line'; 'locus'

lines'

and

'

point

'envelope'; 'point of intersection of

two points'; &c.

'line of connection of

two

Such propo-

be reciprocal or dual; and the truth of the

sitions are said to

reciprocal proposition

may be

inferred from

what

is

called the

principle of duality.

The

principle of duality plays an important part in geometrical

investigations.

It is obvious

present treatise

we

tions as they occur,

from general reasoning, but in the

independently reciprocal proposi-

shall prove

and

shall reserve for

later chapter a formal

proof of the truth of the principle.

The

Principle of Continuity.

The principle of continuity, which is the vital principle of

8.
modern geometry, was first enunciated by Kepler, and afterwards
extended by Boscovich but it was not till after the publication of
Poncelet's "Traite des Proprietes Projectives" in 1822 that it was
;

universally accepted.

This principle asserts that

if

from the nature of a particular

problem we should expect a certain number of solutions, and if in

any particular case we find this number of solutions, then there
will

be the same number of solutions in

the solutions

may

be drawn to cut a

be imaginary.

all cases,

although some of

For instance, a straight

line

can

two points hence, we state that every

straight line will cut a circle in two points, although these may be
imaginary, or may coincide. Similarly, we state that two tangents
can be drawn from any point to a circle, but they may be
circle in

imaginary or coincident.

In

fact,

the principle of

concerning real points or lines

points or lines.

continuity asserts that theorems

may be extended

to

imaginary

AND CONTINUITY.

We

do not propose to discuss the truth of this principle in the

We merely call attention to it, trusting that the

present treatise.

reader will notice that certain propositions, which will be moved,

might be inferred from

by the application of

earlier propositions

the principle.

to

It is important however to observe that the change from a real

an imaginary state can only take place when some element <.t

a figure passes through either a zero- value, or an infinite value.

For instance, if a pair of points become imaginary, they must first
coincide that is, the distance between them must assume a zerovalue.
Imagine a straight line drawn through a fixed point to
cut a given circle in two real points, and let the line turn about
the fixed point
as the line turns, the two points in which it cuts
the circle gradually approach nearer and nearer, until the line
touches the circle, when the points coincide, and afterwards
;

become imaginary.
Points at infinity.
9.

time be

Let

AOA' be

an indefinite straight

drawn through

in the point Q.

If

a fixed point

now we

line,

suppose the line

(continuously about the point P, the point

position of the assemblage of points on

the position of the point

and

Q when

let

a straight

cutting the given line

will

the line

the line

PQ

PQ

is

to

A A'

revolve

assume every
be
Let

A A'.

perpendicular to

and let us suppose that PQ

by the arrow-head in the figure. Then we see thai
indefinit, v
distance OQ increases from the value zero, and becomes
When the
angle.
right
great as the angle OPQ becomes nearly a
the line

AA\

revolves in the direction

indicated

LINE AT INFINITY.

angle

OPQ is

and as the

a right angle,

line

PQ

PQ

assumes a position parallel to OA,

appears at the opposite extremity of the line A' A.

when the

line

PQ

is

P the point Q
We say then that

continues to revolve about

parallel to

as situated on the line

OA

OA, the point Q may be considered

at an infinite distance from the point

and may be considered as situated on either side of 0. That is

on the hypothesis that the line PQ always cuts the line
OA in one real point, the line OA must be considered as having
one point situated at infinity, that is at an infinite distance from
every finite point on the line.
0,

to say,

It follows also that

plane,

any system of

must be considered

infinity.

And

common

conversely every system of straight

through a point at infinity

10.

parallel lines, in the

as intersecting in a

is

Since every straight line has one

infinity, it follows that all

lines

a system of parallel straight

point

same

point at

drawn

lines.

situated

at

the points at infinity in a given plane

constitute an assemblage of points of the

first order.

Hence,

all

the points at infinity in a given plane satisfy the condition of

lying on a straight line.
infinity in the plane.

This straight line

is

called the line at

CHAPTER

II.

MEASUREMENT OF GEOMETRICAL MAGNITUDES.

Use of the signs + and In plane geometry, metrical

11.

in

Geometry.

propositions are concerned

with the magnitudes of lengths, angles, and areas.

we

shall see, is capable of being

Consequently

irections.

and
magnitudes
signs

4-

as

it

to distinguish

is

measured

in

Each of these,
two opposite

convenient to use the algebraic

between the directions

in

have to be compared are measured.

magnitudes measured in some

and those measured in the opposite

which such
It Is usual

to consider

specified direction as

positive,

direction as negative

but
is

seldom necessary to specify the positive direction, since it

always possible to use such a notation for any kind of magnitude
it is

|ks shall

indicate the direction in which

Measurement of
12.

If

it is

measured.

lengths.

A and B be two points on a straight line, the length of

AB may be measured either in the direction from A

the segment

B towards A.
measured from A towards B its length
when it is measured from B towards A

towards B, or in the opposite direction from

When
is

the segment

represented by

its

length

is

is

AB, and

represented by

BA.

Consequently, the two expressions AB and BA represent the

same magnitude measured in opposite directions. Therefore we

have

BA = - AB,

13.

that

The length

a straight line

x, is

is

AB + BA = 0.

of the perpendicular

represented by

drawn from a point A to

it is measured from

Ax when

MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES.

and by xA when
x towards the point A.

the point

the line

towards the

line,

Consequently, the two expressions Ax,

sign

when the

and

different signs

points

and

when

Bx

are on the

it is

measured from

will

have the same

same

side of the line,

the points are on opposite sides of the

line.

14.

Segments measured on the same or

parallel

lines

may

and magwhich
segments
of
lines
nitude, but it must be noticed that
are not parallel can only be compared in respect of magnitude.
evidently be compared in respect of both

Measurement of
15.

Let

A OB be

any angle, and

direction

angles.
let

circle,

whose radius

equal to the unit of length, be described with centre

OB

in the points

and B.

the length of the arc

A B.

Then the angle

A OB is

But the length of

to cut

is

OA

measured by

this arc

may

be

measured either from A towards B, or from B towards A. Consequently, an angle may be considered as capable of measurement in
either of two opposite directions.

When

the arc

of the angle

from

is

is

measured from

towards B, the magnitude

represented by AOB; and

B towards

when

the arc

A, the magnitude of the angle

is

is

measured

represented by

BOA.
Thus the expressions A OB,
measured in opposite
Therefore

BOA

directions,

represent the same magnitude

and therefore have different signs.

A OB + BOA = 0.

TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS.

Angles having different vertices may be compared in

For if through any point (/
we draw O'A' parallel to and in the same direction as CM, and
16.

respect of sign as well as magnitude.

O'B' in the

same

0B\

direction as

the angles

AOB, A' O'B

are

evidently equal, and have the same sign.

Straight lines are often represented by single letters

17.

and

the expressions ab, ba are sometimes used to represent the angles

between the

lines

a and b. But since two straight lines form two

magnitudes at their point of intersection, this

angles of different

notation

If

objectionable.

is

meeting at a point 0, and

letters a,

b,

we

represent the lines

series of lines

OA,

OB

by the

the use of the expression ab as meaning the same

thing as the expression

we

if

however we have a

shall evidently

A OB is

have ab

free

from ambiguity.

In this case

= ba.

The Trigonometrical

Ratios of an angle.

In propositions concerning angles it is very often convenient to use the names which designate in trigonometry certain
ratios, called the trigonometrical ratios of an angle.
18.

Let

A OB be

any angle,

let

PM be drawn perpendicular to

of

P be

MP OP
:

is

taken in

OB

and

let

OA.

6
The ratio

any point

AOB
AOB
angle AOB

called the sine of the angle

called the cosine of the angle

OM OP is
the ratio of MP OM is called the tangent of the
OB,
the ratio of OM MP is called the cotangent of the angle A
AOB
angle
the
the ratio of OP OM is called the secant of
AOB.
the ratio of OP MP is called the cosecant of the angle
the ratio of

These
angle

of the
six ratios are called the trigonometrical ratios

AOB.

Let us now consider the line Oil to be fixed, and

For different positions of
revolve round the point 0.

let

OB

OB

the

TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS.

10

length OP is taken to be of invariable sign, but the lengths OM

and
will vary in magnitude as well as in sign. Since OB may
be drawn so as to make the angle AOB equal to any given angle,
the trigonometrical ratios of angles are easily compared in respect
of magnitude and sign.

MP

The

19.

following useful theorems are easily proved, and

may

be found in any treatise on Trigonometry.

A OB be any angle, and let AO be produced to A'; then

sin
AOB = sin B0A = sin BOA' = sin A'OB
cos
A0B = cos BOA = cos BOA' = cos A'OB
tan A0B = tan BOA = tan
BOA' = tan A'OB
cot
A0B = cot BOA = cot BOA' = cot A'OB
sec
A0B = sec BOA = sec BOA' = sec A'OB
cosec A OB = cosec BOA =
cosec BOA' = cosec A'OB.
Let

Also

if

00 be

drawn perpendicular

to

OA,

A0B = cos COB = cos BOC

A0B = - sin COB = sin BOC
tan A0B = - cot
COB = cot BOC
cot
A0B = tan COB = tan BOC
sec
A0B = cosec COB = cosec BOC
cosec AOB =
sec
COB = sec BOC.
sin

cos

The measurement
20.

Let

ABCD

of areas.

be any contour, and

let

be any point on the contour, and

move
round
the contour in the direction
to

it.

Let

enclosed by the contour

OP.

For

if

is

be a point within
let

said to be traced out

we take consecutive

radii

be supposed

ABCD.

such as

The area
by the radius
OP, OP' the

MEASUREMENT OF AREAS.
magnitude of the area
elementary areas

OPP

ABCD

is

evidently

11

sum

the

of

th.-

/
.

p.

Now
and
OP.

let

suppose the point

OB,

OD

The area

to lie without the contour

enclosed by the contour

difference of the area

ODAB

OBGD

traced out by

direction from the position

is

traced out by

in one direction from the position

the area

A BCD;

be the extreme positions of the revolving

OP

OB

OD
as

it

now

OP

line

evidently the
as

it

to the position

revolves

OB, and

revolves in the opposite

to the position

OD.

We may thus regard the magnitude of the area enclosed by

any contour such as ABCD, as capable of measurement in either
And if we represent the magnitude of
of two opposite directions.
when the point P is supposed
{ABGD)
expression
the area by the
direction ABCD, and by the
the
in
to move round the contour
expression
direction

(ADCB) when

ADCB

we

the point

shall

P is supposed

to

move

in

have

(ABCD) + (ADCB) =

0.

evidently be compared in respect to sign as well

magnitude wherever they may be situated in the same plane.

Areas

may

It should

In-

be noticed that the expression

for the

its

magnitude of

AREA OF TRIANGLE.

12

an area

have the same meaning

will

if

the letters be interchanged

in cyclical order.

by a

If a closed contour be formed

21.
d,

the magnitude of the area enclosed by

...,

series of straight lines a, b,

c,

them may be represented by the

expression {abed...), without giving rise to ambiguity, provided that (abed) be

understood to

mean the

area traced out

by a point which starting from the

point da moves along the line a towards the point ab, and then along the line
b towards the point

Let

22.

Through

be,

and so

on.

ABC be any triangle,

and

let

AD be drawn

perpendicular to BC.

HAK be drawn parallel to BC, and let the rectangle BHKC be

let

completed.

proved in Euclid (Book

It is

i.,

prop. 41) that the area of the triangle

ABC is half the area of the rectangle HBCK.

That

(ABC) = h (HBCK).

is

Therefore the area (ABC)

And

since

(ABC)

the area

is

equal in magnitude to

\HB.BC, i.e., \AD.BC.

DA = BA sin CAB,
is

equal in magnitude to

\BA.BC.amABC;
or

by symmetry

AB

to

A C. sin BAC.

It is often necessary to use these expressions for the area of a triangle,

but when the areas of several triangles have to be compared

it is

occur frequently

When

(i)

shall

cases

several triangles are described on the

same

straight line,

we

(ABC) = \AD BC,

have

where each of the lengths AD,

(ii)

generally

Two

necessary to be careful that the signs of the areas are preserved.

When

BC is

to be considered as affected

several triangles have a

common

vertex A,

we

by

shall

sign.

have

(ABC)=$AB. AC. sin BAC,

where the lengths AB,
angle

BA C as

From
theorem

affected

AC are to be considered as of
by

invariable sign, but the

sign.

these two values for the area of the triangle

AD. BC=AB. AC. am BAC,

ABC, we have

the

AREA OF TRIANGLE.

13

which is very useful for deriving theorems concerning the

angle* formed
by several lines meeting in a point, from theorems concerning

the segment*

)f

line.

Thus

md

let

let

any

line cut the lines

ON be drawn

OA, OB,

OC,..., in the points

Then we

perpendicular to the line AB.

A, B,

C,...,

have,

AB 0N= OA.OB. sin AOB,

AC. 0X= OA OC. sin AOC,
.

where the segments AB, AC, &c...., of the line AB, and the angles AOB,
AOC,..., are affected by sign, but the lengths OX, OA, OB,... are of invariable
ign.

Ex. 1. If A, B, C, D be any four points in a plane, and if AM, Bit !

Irawn parallel to any given straight line meeting CM,
drawn peri>eniicular to the given straight line, in
and X, show that

DX

{ABCD) = \ (AM.
Ex.

2.

On

parallelograms

the sides AB,

AFMB, AEXC.

AC
If

XD + XB

MC).

of the triangle

ABC

XE meet

in //,

MF,

are def*criled any

and

if

HI),

irawn parallel and equal to HA, show that the sum of the areas
ACXE) will be equal to the area (BDKC).

\*

Ah'Mil

CHAPTER

III.

FUNDAMENTAL METRICAL PROPOSITIONS.

Relations between the segments of a line.

If A, B, C

23.

lengths

the

relation

of

any

three points on the

BC, CA,

AB

same

straight line,

are connected by the

BC+ CA+AB = 0.

Let the point

BC,

be

the segments

between the points A and C. Then AB,

the same direction, and

lie

AC represent lengths measured in

AC=AB + BC.
AC+CA=0,

But

BC+CA+AB =

therefore

Since this

is

a symmetrical relation,

(1).

it is

obvious that

be true when the points have any other relative positions.

fore the relation

This relation

24.

Ex.

1.

straight line,

must hold

may

If A, B, C,

must

There-

in all cases.

be stated in the forms

also

it

BC = AC-AB

(2).

BC=BA+AC

(3).

...

H,

be any number of points on the same

show that

AB + BC+...+HK+KA=0.
Ex.

2.

If A, B,

C be any

three points on the

be the middle point of BC, show that

AB + AC=2A0.

same

straight line,

and

if

METRICAL PROPERTIES OF RANGES.

Ex.

If A, B, C,

3.

be points on the same

CD

AB,

middle points of

respectively,

line,

15

and

if

,\',

}'

Um

1*

show that

2XV=AC+ BD = AD + BC.
Ex.

A, B,

be points on the same line, and if A', B, C 1*

respectively the middle points of the segments BC, CA, AB, show
that
If

4.

BC' = C'A = A'B.

of

Show
CC.

also that the middle point of

A'B

coincides with the middle

be any four points on the same straight Hue,

If A, B, C,
lengths of the six segments of the line are connected by the
relation
+
+
.CD = 0.
25.

the

CA BD

BC .AD

By

the formulae (2) and (3) of

AB

23,

we have

BD = AD-AB,
CD = CA+AD.
Hence

CA BD + A

CD = CA A D + AB AD = AD
CA .BD + AB.CD = AD.CB\
BC. AD + CA.BD + AB. CD = 0.

Therefore
that

is

This result

Book

II.,

prop.

26.

may

also

(CA + AB).

be very easily proved by means of Euclid,

1.

number

of points on the

same

straight line are said

Instead of saying that the points A, B,

form a range.

the same straight line,

Thus the proposition

The lengths of

it is

usual to speak of the range [A

in the last article

the six

C ...

is

t<

are on

/>''

usually stated

segments of any range {A BCD} are

connected by the relation

BC.AD + CA.BD + AB.CD = 0.

27.

Ex.

1.

If

show that
Ex.

2.

{ABCD} be a range such that C is

DA.DB = DC* - A C %

the middle

j*.ii>t

of

Show

also that

DA'i -DB1 = 4DC.CA.

Ex.

3.

If

{ABCD} be any range, show that

BC. AD2 + CA BD2 + AB.CD*= -BC. CA AB.
.

Ex.

4.

Show

that the last result

straight line as A, B,

and

C.

is also

true

when

is

not on the

A B.

METRICAL PROPERTIES OF RANGES

16
Ex.

be
{AA'BBCC'P} be any range, and if L, M,
A A', BE, CC, show that
PA PA' MX+ PB PB'. NL+PC. PC. LM

If

5.

the middle

points of the segments

.

has the same value whatever the position of the point

By
Ex.

3,

Ex.
is

we have

1,

P on

Hence

the

this

line.

expression,

by

independent of the position of P.

If [ABC]

28.

PA PA' = PL - AL 2

be

any range, and if a

be

any

straight line, then

Ax.BC + Bx.CA + Cx.AB = 0.

Let the straight

line

AB

cut the given straight line x in the

point 0.

Then, by

25,

we have

OA.BG+OB.CA + OC.AB = 0.
But

Ax, Bx, Cx are

since

parallel to each other,

:

Therefore
Ex.

1.

If

we have

Ax:Bx:Cx = OA OB OC.
Ax.BG + Bx. CA + Cx.AB = Q.

C be

the middle point of

AB, show

that

2Cx=Ax + Bx.
Ex.

2.

If

points A, B,

G
...

be the centre of gravity of equal masses placed at the n

K, show that

Gx= Ax + Bx + ... + Kx,

where x denotes any straight

Ex.

3.

points L,

If

M,

any straight
show that

line.

line

cut the sides of the triangle

ABC in

the

If,

Bx.Cx.

MA + Cx.Ax. NL+Ax Bx LM=Q.

T

[Trim

Coll., 1892.]

Relations connecting the angles of a pencil.

29.

If several straight

lines

be drawn in the same plane

through a point 0, they are said to form a pencil.

rays of the pencil.
is

The

point

is

and the straight lines are called the

The pencil formed by the rays OA, OB, 00,...

called the vertex of the pencil,

usually spoken of as the pencil

{ABC ...}.

AND

PENCILS.

17

The six angles of any pencil of four rays

30.

\ABCD)

art

connected by the relation

sin

BOC

sin

A OD + sin CO A

sin 110

1>

+ sin AOB. sin COD -0.

O

Let any straight

in

line

the points A, B, C, D.

be drawn cutting the rays of the pencil

Then, by 25, we have

BC. AD + CA
But

if

ON

on the line

BD + AB CD = 0.
.

be the perpendicular from the vertex of the pencil

have, from 22,

AB, we

and similar values

N0.AB = 0A. OB. sinAOB,

for NO AD, NO CD, &c.
.

AB, AC,

Substituting these expressions for the segments

In the
sin

&c.,

above relation, we obtain the relation

BOC

sin

A OD + sin CO A

This relation

is

of great use.

sin

BOD + sin A OB

sin

COD = 0.

It includes moreover as particular

cases several important trigonometrical formulae.

31.

Ex.

If

1.

sin

Let

OD be

drawn at

pencil, prove that

cos

B0C+ sin BOC .cos AOB.

right angles to OB.

Then we have

AOD=sin (?+AOB\= cos AOB,

sin

and

{ABC} be any

A 0C= sin A OB

sin

COD = sin

sin

B0D=

1,

fe - B0C\ = cos BOC.

Making these substitutions in the general formula for the pencil

the required result is obtained.
Ex.

2.

In the same way deduce that

cos

L.

0{ABCD\

AOC =coz AOB

cos

BOC- sin A OB

sin

BOC.
2

ELEMENTARY THEOREMS

18

0{ABCD}

If in the pencil

Ex.3.

OC

the ray

bisect the angle

AOB,\

prove that
sin

Ex.

sin

BOD = sin 2 COB - sin2 A OC.

{ABCD} be any

If

4.

A OD

and
Ex.

BOC

If a,

5.

prove that

pencil,

A OD sin COA
cos BOC. cos A OD - cos COA
sin

cos

cos

cos

denote any three rays

b, c

BOD sin A OB cos COD = 0,

500 + sin A OB sin COD = 0.
of a pencil, and if P be any point,
.

show that

Pa

sin (be)

+ Pb

sin (ca)

+ Pc

sin (ab)

0.

Elementary theorems concerning areas.

If

32.

ABC

be

any

(ABC)

plane, the area

is

triangle,

equal

and if

to the

be

sum of

any point in

the

(0BC)A

the areas

(OCA), (OAB).

That

(ABC) = (0BC) + (0CA) + (0AB)

is

(1).

This result evidently follows at once from the definition of an

may

area considered as a magnitude which

be measured in a I

specified direction.

If A, B,

C,

be

any four points in

the

same plane, then

(ABC) - (BCD) + (CDA) - (DAB) =

This result

is

.'

(2).

merely another form of the previous

result, since

(CDA) = - (CAD) = - (DCA).

33.

The second

relation given in the last article

may

be]

obtained otherwise.
(i)

Let us suppose that the points

side of the line

AB.

Then the

expression

sents the area of the quadrilateral

ABCD.

and

lie

(ABCD)

on the same

clearly repre-

CONCERNING AREAS.

up

l:

But the quadrilateral A BCD, may be regarded either as made

of the two triangles ABC, CDA or as made up of the two
;

BCD, DAB.

triangles

(ABCD) = (ABC) + {CD A)

Hence, we have

= (BCD) + (DAB).
(ABC) - (BCD) + (CDA) - (DAB) =

Therefore
(ii)

AB,

let

AB

cut

C and

If the points

CD

is

triangles

(AHD) and (HCB).

0.

on opposite sides of the

the point H.

in

(ABCD)

That

lie

line

Then the expn

clearly equal to the difference of the areas of the

(ABCD) = (A HD) - (HCB)

= (ABD) - (DCB)
= (ABD) + (DBC).

is

Similarly

we may show

that

(ABCD) = (ABC) + (CDA).

Hence, as before,

(ABC) + (CDA) = (ABD) + (DBC)

that

is,

Ex.

34.

1.

If a,

b, c,

d be any
(abed)

that
Ex.

(ABC) - (BCD) + (CDA) - (DAB) = 0.

2.

Show

same

plane,

how

straight

line,

and

four straight lines in the

= (abc) + (cda).

also that
(abc)

= (dbc) + (dca) + (dab).

// A, B, C be any three points on a

P, Q any other points in the same plane with
35.

them,

(APQ).BC + (BPQ).CA+(CPQ).AB = 0.
Let x denote the straight

But, by

line

PQ.

Then, by

28,

we have

Ax.BC + Bx.CA + Cx.AB = 0.

(APQ) = hAx.PQ.
21,
22

ELEMENTARY THEOREMS

20
Therefore

Ax Bx Cx = (APQ) (BPQ) (CPQ).

(APQ) BG + (BPQ) GA + (CPQ) .AB =
:

Hence

.(1).

may also be written in the forms

(APQ).BC = (BPQ).AG + (CPQ).BA
(APQ).BC = (BPQ).AG-(CPQ).AB

This relation

Ex.

36.

C be any three points on a straight

any given point ; show that

If J, B,

1.

straight line,

and

(2),
(3).

line,

x any other

(OBC) Ax+(OCA) Bx+(OAB) Cx = Q.

.

Ex.

same

If

2.

ABCD

be a parallelogram, and

if

be any point in the

show that

plane,

(OAC)=-(OAB) + (OAD).

Let the diagonals meet in G.

by

35

(2),

we have

But

since

Ex.

3.

number

AB

Then G

Prove the following construction for finding the sum of any

(POB), (POC), &c. From A draw

of triangular areas (POA),

Then (POE) is equal

(POA) + (POB) + (POC); and so on.
4.

BD. Hence,

2 (OA G) = (OAB) + {OAD).

equal and parallel to OB, from

Ex.

the middle point of

AC=2AG, (OAC)=2 (OAG).

OC, and so on.

to

is

If

to

draw

EC

equal and parallel to

(POA) + (POB)

A, B, C,...K be n points in a plane, and

equal masses placed at them, show that

2(P0A)=n(P0G).

if

(POC)

is

equal

be the centroid of

CONCERNING AREAS.
Ex.
line

5.

CD

If A,

B,C,Dbe

any four points

21

in a plane, find a point />

such that the area (PAB) shall be equal to the

sum

on the

umm

of the

(CAB), (DAB).
Ex.

6.

If three points D, E,

F be

taken on the sides BC, CA,

(DEF), (ABC) is equal to

AB

of

triangle, prove that the ratio of the areas

BD.CE AF-CD .AE. BF

.

BC.CA.AB

By

35

(3)

we have

(DEF)
But
and

BC= (CEF) BD - (BEF)

.

CD.

(CAF)=CE CA,
(ABC) = AF AB.
CEF) (ABC) = CE AF CA AB.
(BEF) (ABC)=BF. AE BA AC.
(DBF) _ BD CE. AF- CD BF. AE
(ABC)
BC.CA.AB
(CEF)
(CAF)

Therefore

Similarly

Hence
It follows

from

this result, that

BD
and conversely, that

CE.

when the

F aro collinear,

points D, E,

AF= CD.BF.AE;

this relation

if

hold,

the points D,

E F
}

must be

collinear.

Ex.

Show

7.

Points

that the

Ex.

8.

P and Q are taken on two straight lines

AP :PB=CQ:QD.

sum

The

of the areas (PCD),

sides

points D, E, F.

BC, CA,

Show

point,

A, B, C,

If

9.

is

that

constant.

AB of a triangle meet any straight line in the

P can be found in the line DEF such th*t

that a point

the areas (PAD), (PBE),

Ex.

(QAB)

AB, CD, such

(PCF)

[St John's Coll. 1889.]

are equal.

be any four points on a

and

circle

be any given

show that

PA* (BCD) - PB2 (CDA )+PC2 (DA B)-PDi

.

Let AC,

BD meet in

and apply the theorem given

of the ranges {AOC}, {BOD}.
0,

(A BC) - 0.

in 27, Ex. 4, to each

ELEMENTARY THEOREMS

22
Ex. 10.
that

Let

and

Hence
or

If A, B, C, D be any four points, and x any straight

{BCD). Ax-(CDA). Bx+(DAB) Cx-(ABC) Dx=0.
.

AD cut BC in the point 0, then, by

prove

28,

we have

BG. Ox+CO.Bx+OB. Cx=0,

AD.Ox + DO. Ax+OA. Dx = 0.
DO. BC .Ax-CO AD. Bx-OB.AD .Cx+OA BC.Dx=0
DO BC Ax+DA CO Bx- BO DA Cx-BC AO Dx=0.
(BCD)=$D0 BC. sin BOD,
(CDA)=$DA CO sin AOC,
(DAB)=\DA BO sin AOC,
(ABC) =\BC A
sin BOD.
sin BOD = - sin A OC.
.

But

line,

Also

Hence we have the required

37.

If A, B,

C,

D be

a straight

result.

any four points in a plane, the locus of a

sum of the areas (PAB), (PCD) is

point P, which moves so that the

constant, is

line.

CONCERNING AREAS.

and

23

Let the straight lines AB, CD meet in the point 0, an<l let SI
be two points on these lines respectively, such that
= AB, and ON=CD.

OM

Then we have

(PAB) = (POM), and (PCD) = (PON).

MN. Then, by
2 (POQ) = (POM) + (PON).
2 (POQ) = (PA B) + (PCD)

be the middle point of

Let

Therefore
that

Hence the

locus of

Ex.

Let A, B,

C,

38.

E, and AC,

1.

(2),

we have

the area represented by

is,

35

BD in

F.

Then

is

(POQ)

is

constant.

a straight line parallel to OQ.

D be any four points, and let AB, CD meet

P be the middle point of EF, show that

in

if

(PAB) - (PCD) = | ( ABDC).

Ex.

2.

Show

that the line joining the middle points of

AD and BC passes

through P, the middle point of EF.

Ex. 3. If A, B, C,Dbe any four points, show that the locus of a point
which moves so that the ratio of the areas (PAB), (PCD) is constant,
a straight line passing through the point of intersection of AB and CD.
Ex.

4.

If

ABCD be a quadrilateral

line joining the

:

circumscribing a

middle points of the diagonals AC,

centre of the circle.

circle,

BD

/',

is

show that the

passes through the

CHAPTER

IV.

HARMONIC RANGES AND PENCILS.

Harmonic Section of a

When

39.

the straight line joining the points A,

ratio,

is

divided

AB

the segment

P and

the points

and externally in the point Q, in the

is said to be divided harmonically in

internally in the point P,

same

line.

Q.

Q
Thus, the segment

P and

The

points

AB

is

divided harmonically in the points

AP PB = AQ

when

Q,

and

and

said to be harmonically separated

by

// the segment

40.

the segment

For by

Thus,

and

or,

the points

P and

and

are

Q.

the points

divided harmonically in the points

is

P
A

we have

AP:PB=AQ:BQ;
PB BQ = A P A Q.

and therefore
and

AB is divided harmonically in

PQ

definition,

BQ.

are said to be harmonic conjugate points

with respect to the points

and Q,
and B.

are harmonic conjugate points with respect to

Q.

When

41.

the segment

AB

is

divided harmonically in the

points
Q, the range {AB, PQ] is called a harmonic range
and the pairs of points A, B, P, Q; are called conjugate points of
the range.

and

HARMONIC RANGE.

-2r,

{AB, PQ\ for a

being inserted to distinguish the pairs

It will be found convenient to use the notation

comma

harmonic range, the

of conjugate points.
42.

Ex.

ABC

If

1.

BAC divide the

base

be any triangle, show that the bisectors of the angle

BC harmonically.

Ex. 2. If tangents OP, OQ be drawn to a circle from any point 0, and if

cut the circle in the points 11
any straight line drawn through the point
and S and the chord PQ in the point V, show that {0 V, RS} is a harmonic
range.

^\

/
/

c'--

-'

yi

Let C be the centre of the circle, and let OG cut PQ in the point If.
Then we have OR 0S= 0P*= ON OG. Therefore the points S, R, iV, G are
But G is evidently the middle point of the arc SNR therefore
concyclic.
NC, iVP bisect the angle SNR. Hence {0 V, RS) is a harmonic range.
.

43.

If {ABP}

P with respect

be

to the

any range,

points A, B.

to

find the harmonic conjugate of

HARMONIC RANGE.

26

Through A and B draw a pair of parallel lines AF, BH. And

through P draw a straight line FPG in any direction meeting AF
In BH take the point #, so that B is the
in F and BH in G.
middle point of GH, and join FH.

Then

jFi7 will

meet

AB

in the point Q,

which

will

be the

point required.

AQ:BQ=AF:BH

For

= AF: GB
= AP:PB.
That

{AB, PQ}

is

It should
is

is

a harmonic range.

be noticed that the solution is unique, that

Q which corresponds to a given point P.

there

is,

only one point

Ex.

44.

point

1.

If

be the middle point of AB, show that the conjugate

at infinity.

is

In this case

it is

easy to see that

FH is parallel to AB.

range, and if P be the harmonic conjugate of A

and C, Q the harmonic conjugate of B with respect to G
and A, and M the harmonic conjugate of C with respect to A and B show
that A will be the harmonic conjugate of P with respect to Q and R.

Ex.

If

2.

{ABC} be any

with respect to

Harmonic Section

of

an angle.

A OB is divided by the rays

sin A OP sin POB = sin AOQ sin BOQ,

When

45.

that

the angle
:

the angle

A OB

is

OP,

OQ

so

said to be divided harmonically

by the rays

OP, OQ.

The

rays

OP,

OQ

respect to the rays

are said to be harmonic conjugate rays with

OA, OB.

A OB be divided harmonically by the rays OP,

POQ is divided harmonically by the rays OA, OB.
For since OP, OQ divide the angle AOB harmonically,
sin A OP
sin POB = sin A OQ sin BOQ.
sin POB sin BOQ = sin A OP sin A OQ.
Therefore
Thus, the rays OA, OB are harmonic conjugate rays with respect
to OP and OQ.
46.

OQ,

If the angle

the angle

HARMONIC PENCIL.

When

47.

OQ

the rays OP,

27

{ABPQ

of the pencil

.in-

harmonic conjugates with respect to the rays OA, OB, the pencil
is called a harmonic pencil; and each pair of rays, namely OA,

OB

and OP,

OQ

are called conjugate rays of the pencil.

[AB, PQ]

be found convenient to use the notation

It will

comma

a harmonic pencil, the

for

being inserted to distinguish the

pairs of conjugate rays.

Ex.

48.

If the rays

1.

{AB, PQ}

pencil

Ex.

If the pencil

2.

right angle,

OP,

OQ

AOB, show

bisect the angle

that the

harmonic.

is

{AB, PQ} be harmonic, and

OB

show that OA,

if

the angle

AOB be

POQ.

are the bisectors of the angle

3.
If the pencil
{AB, PQ} be harmonic, and the angle AOB a right
and if a line be drawn perpendicular to OP meeting OA, OB in A' and
B, show that the line drawn through
perpendicular to OQ will bisect A'B

Ex.

angle,

'

Ex.

If A, B, C, D,

4.

0{AB, CD}
the pencil
Ex.

is

be

harmonic, and

P {AB,

CD}

will be

if

five points

intersect the tangent at the point

Hence

this

49.

if

circle,

show that

the tangents at A, B,

where H

is

1
,

C,

and

D respectively,

the centre of the

show that the angles A'HC, A PC are equal

theorem follows from the

Any

the same

in the points A',

the pencil H{A'B', CD'} will be harmonic

It is easy to

such that the pencil

circle,

harmonic.

In the same case, show that,

5.

on a

P be any point on

circle.

or supplementary.

last.

straight line is cut harmonically by the rays of a

harmonic pencil.

Let any straight line cut the rays of the harmonic pencil
{AB, PQ] in the points A, B,P,Q; then the range {AB, PQ} is
harmonic.

Let

ON be

drawn perpendicular

to the line

AB, then we have

NO AP = OA OP sin AOP,
NO. AQ = A. OQ sin AOQ,
NO.PB = OP. OB sin POB,
NO. BQ = OB. OQ sin BOQ.
.

HARMONIC PENCIL.

28

But

{AB, PQ]

since

sin

is

a harmonic pencil,

POB = sin AOQ

AP PB = AQ BQ.

A OP

sin

Therefore

Hence, {AB, PQ}

is

sin

BOQ.

a harmonic range.

Conversely, we may prove that if {AB, PQ] be a harmonic range,

and if
be any point not on the same line, then the pencil
{AB, PQ] will be harmonic.
Ex.

50.

1.

Ex.

2.

drawn

If a straight line be

show that the conjugate ray

other two rays.
pencil,

Hence show that when a pair

any ray of a harmonic

segment intercepted by the

parallel to

will bisect the

of conjugate rays of a harmonic

pencil are at right angles, they bisect the angles between the other pair of

conjugate rays.

Ex. 3. If P, Q' be respectively the harmonic conjugate points of P and

with respect to A and B, show that the segments PQ, Q'P' subtend equal
or supplementary angles at any point on the circle described on AB as

diameter.

Ex. 4. If P, Q, R, S be any four points on the line AB, and if P', Q R',
show that when
S' be their harmonic conjugates with respect to A and B
the range {PQ, RS} is harmonic, so also is the range {PQ', R'tf}.
1

Take any point

BX

X on the circle described on AB

are the bisectors of each of the angles

easily

shown that when the

pencil

X{PQ,R'S'}.

51.

If

ABP)

OP

gate to the ray

pencil

any

be

X {PQ,

PXP,

RS}

is

as diameter.

QXQf, &c.

harmonic, so also

pencil, to find the

with respect

to the

Then AX,
Hence it is

ray which

is

is

the

conju-

rays OA, OB.

aV"

Draw any straight

OA,

OQ

OB
will

in

A' and

be the

my

For A'B' meets

line parallel to the ray

B'.

Let

OP, meeting the rays

be the middle point of A'B', then

conjugate to OP.

OP

at infinity,

and the point conjugate to the

is the middle

point at infinity with respect to the points A'B'

point of the segment
Therefore,

by

A'B

49,

that

{A B,

is

PQ]

the point Q.
is

a harmonic pencil.

METRICAL PROPERTIES.

29

Relations between the segments of a harmonic range.

If

52.

{AB, PQ] be a harmonic range, we have by

definition

AP:PB = AQ:BQ,
that

AP.BQ = PB.AQ,
AP.BQ + AQ.BP = 0.

is

or

But since A, B, P, Q are four points on the same

straight line,

we

have, by 25,

AB.PQ + AP.QB + AQ.BP = 0.

Hence we have

AB PQ = 2AP BQ = 2AQ
.

when segments

Conversely,

by

this relation,

of the range

obvious that the range

PB.

{ABPQ} are connected

{AB,PQ} is harmonic.

Again, since

53.

AP.BQ + AQ.BP = 0,
AP(AQ-AB) + AQ(AP-AB) = 0.
2AP.AQ = AB.(AQ + AP),

we have
Therefore
.

it is

11

AB IP + AQ-

thatls
Similarly

we may obtain the

relations

2_

J_

BA~BP + BQ'
1

PQ~PA
2

QP~QA

+ PB'
1

+ QB-

when the segments of the range {ABPQ} are

any
one of these four relations, it follows that the
connected by
range {AB, PQ] is harmonic.
Conversely,

Ex.

54.

point of

1.

If

{AB, PQ} be a harmonic range, and

AB, show that

Ex.2.

Show

that

Ex.3.

Show

that

Ex.

If

R be

PA.PB=PQ.PC.
PA PB+QA.QB=PQ*.
CP CQ=AP* AQ2
.

the middle point of

PQ, show that

PQ2+AB*=4CR?.

if

be the middle

METRICAL PROPERTIES OF

30
Ex.

Show

5.

that

AP AQ = CP AC=AC
:

Ex.

PQ} be a harmonic

If {AB,

6.

OB_

AB
Show

7.

any point on the same

and

range,

OP

OQ

AP + AQ'

also that

OA

BP+OB AQ+OP .QB+OQ PA = Q.

.

If {AB, PQ}

55.

CQ.

show that

straight line,

Ex.

be

a harmonic range, and if

be the

middle

point of AB, then

CP.CQ = CA =CR:
AP PB = AQ BQ,
For since
therefore
AP + PB AP - PB = AQ + BQ AQ - BQ
AB:AP + BP = AQ+BQ:AB.
that is
2

But

since

is

the middle point of

AB,

AP + BP = 2GP, AQ + BQ = 2CQ,
AB=2AC.
A C CP = CQ AC
CP.CQ = AC\

and
Therefore
that

is

Conversely,
the range [AB,
56.

Ex.

If

1.

{AB, PQ} be a harmonic range, and

2.

If

proved that

if

and

be the

PQ, show that

CAZ + PIT-^CR2
Ex.

easily

harmonic.

is

AB and

middle points of

may be

relation holds, it

if this

PQ]

be any point on the same line as the range, show that

OA OB+OP. OQ=20R.OC.
.

{AB, PQ} be a harmonic range, and if

be the harmonic
conjugate of any point
with respect to A, B, and T the harmonic conjugate
of
with respect to P, Q show that
Ex.

3.

If

OA .OB + OP.OQ~ OB.

OT

Let C, R be the middle points of AB, PQ. Then, by

OA.OB=OE.OC, and OP.OQ=OT.OR, consequently

deduced from that in Ex.

Ex.

4.

respect to

If

1
,

A and

Of

54,

Ex.

1,

this result

we have

may

be

2.

be the harmonic conjugates of P,

B, prove that

PQ.PQ PQ.FQ: = AF

AP'*.

respectively with

A HARMONIC RANGE.

C be the

Let

middle point of

A B,

81

then

cp.cp=cq.cq=CA\
CP CQ = CQ CP = PQ QP.

Hence

CP:CQ' = PQ:Q'P.

Also
Therefore

PQ.PQ' QP.Q'P = CP CQ.C$ = CP:CP.

:

Whence, by
Ex.

Ex.

54,

Show

5.

3,

the result follows.

also that

AP. AQ
Ex.

If

6.

AP.Aq = PQ qP.
:

{AB, PQ} be a harmonic range, then every circle which passes

Q is cut orthogonally by the circle described on AB as

through the points P,

diameter.

Let the

circle described

the circle described on

which passes through

and

with centre

AB

as diameter in the point

P and
let

Q, cut

be the

middle point of AB.

Then we

have, by 55,

CX*=CA* = CP.CQ.
Therefore

CX

touches the circle

PXQ

CXO

and therefore

is

a right

angle.

Ex.

7.

If

two

circles cut orthogonally,

show that any diameter

of either

is

divided harmonically by the other.

Relations between the angles of a harmonic pencil.

57.

A OB

we have by

is

30,

sin

de-

But, by
sin

pencil,

sin A OP sin POB = sin A OQ sm BOQ

sin A OP sin BOQ = sin POB sin A OQ.

finition

that

[AB, PQ] be a harmonic

If

we have

POQ + sin A OP

sin

QOB + sin A OQ

sin

BOP = 0.

'

PROPERTIES OF A HARMONIC PENCIL.

32

Hence

A OB

sin

sin

POQ = 2 sin A OP

sin

BOQ

= 2 sin AOQ. sin POB.

when

Conversely,

between the angles of the

this relation holds

pencil, it follows that the pencil is harmonic.

AOB internally, then

tan COP tan OOQ = tan CO A = tan* COB.

If OC

58.

angle

bisect the

For by definition

A OP sin POB = sin A OQ sin BOQ.

sin A OP + sin P OB _ sin AOQ + sin BOQ
sin

sinAO p_ sinPOB ~ s in AOQ-siiiBOQ'

inereiore
that

tan

is

A OC cot COP = tan COQ cot AOC,

tan COP tan COQ = tan A OC.
.

or

The same

relation

true

is

OC

if

bisect the angle

A OB

exter-

nally.

Conversely,

{AB, PQ]
59.

Ex.

when

{AB, PQ} be a harmonic

If

1.

this relation is true,

2 cot

Ex.

Ex.

ray to

3.

If

OX

with respect to OA, OB, and

{AB, PQ} be a harmonic

respect to OP, OQ,

Ex.

XOA
If

4.

cot

and

pencil,

OT

if

OE be

the conjugate

the conjugate ray to

OX

XOB

cot

XOP

cot

XOQ

2 cot

{AB, PQ} be a harmonic pencil, and

XOE. cot XOT.

if

OC

bisect the angle

that

2C0P

sin

2C0#=sin2 AOP

sin 2 AOQ.

If the rays OP', OQ/ be the conjugate rays respectively of

5.

OP,

with respect to OA, OB, show that

sin

Ex.

with

show that

sin

Ex.

pencil, prove that

OX be any other ray, show that

sin BOX _ sin POX
sin QOX
~ sin AOP + sin A OQ
sin A OB

If

AOB, show

follows that the pencil

AOB=cot AOP+cot AOQ.

2.

cot

it

harmonic.

is

POQ.

sin

6.

Show

sin

AOP

POQ;

sin

POQ

sin

P'Og = sin2 .4 0P

sin 2

40P'.

also that
.

sin

AOQ

sin

AOP

sin

AOQ/ = sin P0

sin O/OP'.

OQ

PROPERTY OF TWO RANGES.

Theorems

relating to

Harmonic Ranges and

If {AB, PQ), {AB', P'Q)

60.

be

and

the lines BB', PQ',

P'Q

Pencils.

two harmonic range* on

different straight lines, then the lines BB',

current

33

PP', QQ' will

be con-

will be concurrent.

Let PP', BB' intersect in 0, and join 0A, OQ. Then since
{AB, PQ] is a harmonic pencil, the line AB' will be divided

OP

harmonically by OP, OQ.

But

must cut AB' in

respect to A, B'.

point which

AB'

is

in P'.

conjugate

Hence
to

OQ

P' with

let

O'P must pass through

61.

cuts

P'Q cut BB' in 0', and join O'A, O'P. Then the
{AB, PQ] is harmonic. Hence it follows as above that

Again,
pencil 0'

Q' the

Q'.

This theorem furnishes an easy construction for obtaining

the harmonic conjugate of a point with respect to a given pair of

points.

Let A,
that

we

be any given points on a straight

require the

respect to

and B.

line,

and Buppose

harmonic conjugate of the point

with

PROPERTY OF TWO PENCILS.

34

Let

and

B be

be drawn through

AD, BG, and

Join

By

of

and

joined to any point 0, and let a straight line

cutting

let

them

OA,

OB

in

G and

respectively.

intersect in 0'.

the last article, the line joining the harmonic conjugates

with respect to A, B; and G,

D; must

pass through

0'.

Hence,

00' meet

if

conjugate of

AB

in

with respect to

Q,

Q must

be the harmonic

and B.

{AB, PQ), 0' {A'B', P'Q) have one ray

and O'A' are coincident, the three points in
which the rays OB, OP, OQ intersect the rays O'B', O'P',O'Q' respectively, are collinear and likewise the three points in
which the rays OB, OP, OQ intersect the rays O'B', O'Q', O'P'
If the pencils

62.

common,

if

i.e.

OA

respectively, are collinear.

Let OB, OP,

respectively

{AB, PQ]
which

is

is

OQ

cut O'B', O'P', O'Q' in the points b, p,

q
bp cut 00' in A. Then because the pencil
harmonic, OQ must cut the line Ab in the point

and

let

the conjugate of

with respect to A,

b.

Similarly O'Q'

must cut A b in the same point. Hence q the point of intersection

of OQ, and O'Q', must lie on Ab.
That is, the points p, b, q are
collinear.

In the same way,

if

OQ

we can show

cut O'P' in p', then p'

b, q'

that if

will

OP

cut O'Q' in

q',

and

be collinear.

Ex. 1. Show that if A, B, C,

63.
be any four points in a plane, and if
the six lines joining these points meet in the points E, F, G then the two
;

POINTS CONJUGATE TO TWO POINT-PAIRS.

86

any one of these points are harmonically conjugate with

EFG which meet in the same point
This follows from 60.

lines

which meet

in

the two sides of the triangle

Ex.

Deduce from

2.

corresponding theorem when four straight

62, the

lines are given.

Ex.

two

of the point of intersection of

Ex.

two straight lines be drawn intersecting

and C, D respectively, show that the locus
and DC is a straight line.

If through a fixed point 0,

3.

fixed lines in the points A,

4.

Show how

to

AD

draw (with the

aid of a ruler only) a straight line

from a given point which shall pass through the point of intersection of two
given straight lines which do not meet on the paper.
64.

Given any two pairs of points A,

B and

0,

D on

a straight

find a pair of points P, Q ivhich shall be harmonically

conjugate with respect to each of the given pairs of points.
line, to

Take any point

circles

XAB, XGD

Let the
lie

not on the straight

line joining

within the

circles,

line,

and describe the

intersecting again in the point Y.

X,

Y, cut

AB in R Then if R does not

RZ to either, and with centre
cutting AB in P and Q.

draw a tangent

R and radius RZ describe a circle

Then P and Q will divide each

of the segments

AB, CD

harmonically.

For

RP> = RZ* = RX.RY=RA.RB = RC.RD.

32

PROPERTIES OF A HARMONIC RANGE.

36

The problem only admits

without each of the

CD

that

circles,

solution when R lies

when the segments AB and

of a real
is

do not overlap.
Ex.

65.

1.

If A, B, C,

D be four points taken in

order on a straight

show that the locus of a point at which the segments AB,

angles

is

Let P,
locus

is

Ex.

CD

circle.

Show

2.

D and B,

be harmonic conjugates with respect to A,

the circle described on

that

if

A, B, C,

D be four points taken

in order

two points can be found at each of which the segments AB,

equal angles, and the segments AD, BC supplementary angles.
If the points P,

3.

then the

C,

PQ as diameter.

line,

Ex.

line,

subtend equal

on a straight
CD subtend

be harmonically conjugate with respect to the

points A, B, and also with respect to the points C,

middle points of the segments PQ, AB,

CD

and

if

0,

H,

K be

the

show that

XA XB - XC XD + 2HK XO = 0,
.

where
Ex.
to A,

4.

is

Show

B and

C,

also that if If,

any point on the same

line.

X be

the conjugate points of

D respectively,
NP PM MX_
0E + 0K + OP

with respect

CHAPTER

V.

THEORY OF INVOLUTION.

Range

When

66.

in Involution.

several pairs of points

A, A'; B, B'

C,

&c.

lying on a straight line are such that their distances from a fixed

are connected

point

by the

relations

OA OA' = OB.
.

OB' = OC.

OC = &c.

the points are said to form a range in involution.

The point

is

called the centre,

A, A', are

points, such as

and any pair of corresponding

called conjugate points or couples of the

involution.

The most convenient notation

{AA',
67.

Ex.

If A', B',

1.

C',...

BF,

for

a range in involution

CG',.

be respectively the harmonic conjugates of

the points A, B, C,..., with respect to the points S, S'

{A A', BB', CG',...}

is

.show that the range

is in involution.

Ex. 2. If a system of circles be drawn through two fixed points A and />'.
on the line A D will be
show that any straight line drawn through a point
cut by the circles in points which form a range in involution, the point
being the centre of the involution.

Ex.

3.

If the range {AA',

BB

CC'} be in involution, and

show that

the middle points of the segments AA', BB',

PA
where

PA' 2LV+ PB.PB!

.

P is any point on the same line.

CC

if

XL + PC PC LM= 0,
.

L,

M,

N be

CONSTRUCTION OF A RANGE

38

By

27,

Ex.

5,

OA
where

the expression on the left-hand side must be equal to

.

OA'

MN+ OB

OB'

the centre of the involution

is

NL+OC OC
.

and

LM,

this expression

= 0A 0A'.{MN+NL+MP =0.
.

Ex.

Show

4.

also that

LA* MIV+ MB2

.

NL + JVC LM= -MN.NL. LM.

2

This result follows from the previous result, by applying the theorem of
27, Ex. 3.

68.

Any

two pairs of points on a straight line determine a

range in involution.
Q.

Let A, A'; B, B' be two pairs of points on a straight line.

Through A and B draw any two lines AP, BP intersecting in P
and through A', B' draw A'Q, B'Q parallel to BP, AP respectively,
meeting in Q. Let PQ meet AB in 0.
;

Then
we have

since

AP
OA

parallel to B'Q,

is

and

BP

parallel

to A'Q,

OB =OP:OQ = OB:OA':
/

and therefore

OA OA' = OB
.

OB'.

is the centre of a range in involution of which A, A'

Hence,
and B, B' are conjugate couples.

When

the centre

has been found,

corresponding to any given point

we can

on the

find a point

line

by a similar

construction.

Thus, join CP, and draw

and RC parallel

to

PA

A'R

meeting

parallel to

AB in

C.

CP

meeting

OP

in R,

IN INVOLUTION.

Then we

shall

have

OC OC = OA
.

We may

69.

39

OA'.

also proceed otherwise.

Let any two

circles

In-

drawn passing through the points A, A', and the points B, Bf

respectively; and let these circles intersect in the points X and 1".
Then if the line
meet the given straight line in the point 0,

XY

this point will

be the centre of the range.

For evidently

OA

OA' =

OX 0Y= OB

To obtain the conjugate point

draw the
will cut

70.

OC
Ex.

1.

between

segments

A A',

OB'.

any point C, we have merely

This

to

circle

C, the required point.

For

lies

to

passing through the points X, Y, C.

circle

AB in

If

.OG'

= OX

.OY=OA

{AA\ BB', CC'...) be a range

A', show that there are two

and
BB',

CC,

...

OA'.

in involution,

whose centre

points at which each of the

subtends a right angle.

{AA' BB"} be any range such that the circles described on the
as diameters meet in the point P, and if two points
be taken on the line AB such that CPC is a right angle, show that
{AA', BB', CC'} will be a range in involution.
Ex.

2.

segments

Ex.

3.

If

A A', BB'

If {AA', BB'} be

points of the segments

in involution.

a harmonic range, and

A A', BR, show

if

that {.LI', BB',

Z,

M be

LM\

will

the middle

be a range

DOUBLE

40
Ex.

If {A A', BB'} be

4.

QQ }

a harmonic range, and

P with respect to the

conjugates of any point

that {A A', BB',

POINTS.

will

if

Q,

Q be the harmonic

point-pairs A, A'

B, B'

show

be a range in involution.

Ex. 5. If A, A' be any pair of conjugate points of a range in involution

and if the perpendiculars drawn to OA, OA' at A and A' meet in P, where
is any point not on the same straight line, show that P lies on a fixed straight
line.

{A A', BB',...} be the range, the locus of

If

P is a straight line parallel to

the line joining the centres of the circles OAA', OBB',....

The Double
When

71.

the points constituting any conjugate couple of a

range in involution,

two

points,

Points.

lie

on the same side of the centre, there exist

one on either side of the centre, each of which

coincides with

own

its

These points are called the

conjugate.

double points of the involution.

To
Then

AA'

OT

find the double points, let

be a tangent from

to

any

passing through a pair of conjugate points, such as A, A'.

circle

if

with centre 0, and radius OT, a

in the points

S and

S' (see

circle

we

69),

fig.

0& = 0S'*=0T> = 0A
Therefore

When

$ and

the

be drawn cutting

shall

have

OA'.

8' are the double points.

a conjugate

constituting

points

couple

lie

on

opposite sides of the centre, the double points are imaginary.

any pair of conjugate points of a range

harmonic conjugates with respect to the double

It is evident that

72.

in involution are

points of the involution.

We may
which are

also notice that there exists

but one pair of points

once harmonically conjugate with respect to each

at,

pair of conjugate points of a range in involution.

73.

Ex.

1.

If S, S' be the double points of a range in involution; A, A',

and B, B', conjugate couples; and

show that

if

PA PA' FS+1>B
.

where
Ex.

P is
2.

any point on the

Show

E,

Fhe

PB'

the middle points of

SE= PS*

3.

Show

FE,

also that

PA PA' .SS'^PS'K SE- P&

Ex.

line.

also that

SA SA' SF= SB SB' SE.

.

S'E.

A A',

BB';

INVOLUTIONS DETERMINED BY FOUR POINTS.

41

Ex. 4. Show that four given points on a straight line determine three
ranges in involution, and that the double points of any one range, are Imrmonically conjugate with the double points of the other two ranges.

Let A, B, C,
which A, B and

D be the four given points.

C, D are conjugate couples;

Then we
a range

are conjugate couples; and a range in which A,

in

have a range
which A, C and /;.

shall

and B,

in

arc conjugate

Let F, F' G, G' ; and H, H'; be the double points of these three
and suppose A, B, C, D occur in order. Then by 64, we see that
F, F' and H, H' are real points, but G, G' imaginary.

couples.

ranges

Let the

by

PH bisects

CPD

But

are equal.

is

on

the angles

HPF'. Therefore PH, PH are the

FPF'; and hence {HH, FF') is a harmonic range.

equal to the angle

angle

Again,
I

PF

FPB is

therefore the angle

HH'

and FF' as diameters meet in /'. Then

BPC, APD. Hence the angles .1 /'/;,
bisects the angle APB, and PF' the angle CPD
equal to the angle CPF'. Hence the angle /'/'//

circles described

48, Ex. 2,

Hence by

5.

70,

If

A PC, BPD is a right angle.

{AC, BD, FF', HH'} is a range in involution and
and {HH, GG'} are harmonic ranges.

easy to see that each of the angles

it is

therefore {FF',

Ex.

Ex.

GG
M,

'}
t

2,

are the centres of

{AD, BC), show that {MN, AB, CD)

Ex.

6.

If

that {QR, BC,

Ex.

7.

bisectors of the

is

the involutions

{RP, CA, BD) and {PQ, AB, CD) be ranges

AD)

will be

{AC,

BD) and

a range in involution.
in involution,

show

a range in involution.

Show that any two ranges in involution on the same straight

common and show how to find them.

have one pair of conjugate points

lino

Relations between the segments of a range in involution.

74.

of

the

If [A A', BB', GC'\

be

any range

in involution, the segments

range are connected by the relation

AB'
Let

BC .CA'+A'B. B'C CA
.

be the centre of the range.

Then

0A.0A'=0B.0B\

= 0.

RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SEGMENTS

42
that

OA:OB = OB':OA'.
OA:OB= OB' -OA:OA'-OB

is,

Therefore

= AB:BA'.
Similarly

we

have

shall

OB:OC = BC:CB',
OC:OA = CA':AC.
Hence, compounding these

AB BC
.

which

ratios,

CA'

we have

= BA' .CB .AC

equivalent to

is

AB'.BC
In the same way,

+ A'B BC. CA = 0.

CA'

we may deduce

A'B'.

the relations

BC CA + AB
.

B'C

CA' = 0,

AB.B'C CA' + A'B'. BC CA =0,

BC CA' + A'B B'C CA = 0.
.

AB'.

Conversely, if any one of these relations hold, then the

75.

range [A A', BB',

CC)

be in involution.

will

For if not, let a range in involution be formed so that A, A',

and B, B', are conjugate couples and let C" be the point conjugate
;

to the point C.

Then

if

we have given the

AB'
we

shall also

B'C CA,
.

AB'.BC" .CA' = - A'B. B'C. CA.

BC:CA= BC" C"A
:

must coincide with

[AA\
is

have the relation

Therefore

Hence

relation

BC .CA' = - A'B

that

BB',

the range

is,

CC]

in involution.
76.

If {AA', BB', CC]

AB
Let

be

any range in

involution, then

AB' A'B A'B = AC.AC:A'C. A'C.

:

be the centre of involution.

Then

as in 73,

0A:0B = AB:BA'.
Similarly

Hence

we

shall

have

0A:0B' = AB:B'A'.
OA-iOB .OB = AB AB' BA'
.

B'A'.

we have

"

OF A RANGE IN INVOLUTION.

OB

Therefore, since

OB' =

OA

OA',

OA OA' = AB.AF: A'B

:

we

Similarly

43

A'R.

have

shall

OA:OA'=AC.AC:A'C.A'C.

AB

Hence

Conversely,

range [A A',
used in

AC

if this relation is true, it

BE,

CC'}

in involution,

is

A'C A'C.
.

may

be proved that

by a similar method

tht>

to that

75.

Ex.

77.

{AA',

AB' A'B A'B' = AC

BC}

BB',

If {.LI',

1.

CC)

be any range in involution, and

if

be a harmonic range, show that {AA', B'C) will be a harnioni<-

range.

Ex.

{AA', BC},

If

2.

{AA', BB', CC'} and {AA',

Show

also that if F,

{AA', B'C'}

BC,

B'C}

be

will

harmonic

be ranges

F' and G, G' be the double points of these ranges,

then each of the ranges {AA', FF'}, {A A', GG'}, {FF, GG'}
Ex.

If {A A', BC), {A A',

3.

B'C} be harmonic

centres of the ranges in involution {AA', BB',

that {AA',

Ex.

4.

MN}

will

If [A A',

show that

ranges,

in involution.

ranges,

CC) and

will

and

{AA',

be harmonic.

if

M,

X be

the

BC, BC), show

be a harmonic range.

BC], {BB', CA), {CC, AB) be harmonic ranges, show that

{A A', BB', CC'} will be in involution.

Pencil in involution.
78.

&c.

they

When

several pairs of rays

OA, OA'

OB, OB'

OC, (X

through a point 0, are such that the angles which

drawn

make with a
tan

fixed ray

XOA

tan

OX are

connected by the relation

XOA' = tan XOB

= tan XOG
= &c;

tan

XOB'

tan XOC

they are said to form a pencil in involution.

If

OX' be

the ray at right angles to OX,

tan X'OA tan X'OA' = tan X'OB

.

it is

tan

easy to see that

X'OF = &c.

are called the principal rays of the involuarttion, and any pair of corresponding rays, such as OA, OA'

The

rays

OX, OX'

called conjugate rays of the pencil.

The notation used

for

a pencil which

0{AA',BB',...}.

is

in involution

is

PENCILS IN

44

OX does

If

79.

not

pair of conjugate rays

it is

own

its

AOA'

formed by any

evident that there will be two rays

OX, such that each

lying on opposite sides of

with

within the angle

lie

of

them

coincides

These rays are called the double rays of

conjugate.

the pencil.

Let OS, OS' be the double

tan

XOS =

Hence by

58,

tan 2

we

rays,

then we have

XOS' = tan XOA

tan

XOA' =

&c.

see that the double rays form with any pair

and also that the principal

rays are the bisectors of the angle between the double rays.
of conjugate rays a harmonic pencil;

be noticed that the principal rays themselves consti-

It should

tute a pair of conjugate rays of a pencil in involution.

Ex

80.

Show

1.

that the rays drawn at right angles to the rays of a

pencil in involution constitute another pencil in involution having the

same

principal rays.

Ex.

OB...

{A A', BB',...} be any pencil in involution, and

If

2.

point

if

through any

rays (/A, O'A', O'B,... be drawn perpendicular to the rays OA, OA',

show that the pencil

0' {AA', BB,...} will be in involution.

harmonic conjugate rays of OA, OB,... with

show that
{A A', BB',...} will be a pencil
in involution, the double rays of which are OS and OS'.
Ex.

If OA', OB',... be the

3.

respect to the pair of rays OS, OS',

Ex.

the angle
Ex.

{AA', BB', CC'} be in involution, and

If the pencil

4.

BOB

AOA',

have the same

bisectors,

show that these

if

the angles

lines will also bisect

COC.

When

5.

show that they

the double rays of a pencil in involution are at right angles,

bisect the angle between each pair of conjugate rays of the

pencil.

Ex.

Show

6.

that any two pencils in involution which have a

vertex, have one pair of conjugate rays in

common

common.

Ex. 7. Show that any pencil in involution has in general one and only
one pair of conjugate rays which are parallel to a pair of conjugate rays of any
other pencil in involution.

Ex.

OA,

Show

8.

If

AOA'

have, tan

is

if

rays OA', Off,... be drawn perpendicular to the rays

0{AA',

BB',...} will

be in involution.

a right angle, then whatever the position of the line OA' we

XOA tan X0A'=

81.
is

that

OB,..., the pencil

When

1.

the double rays of a pencil in involution are

real, it

easy to see that the rays of the pencil will cut any straight line

in points

which form a range in involution.

'

INVOLUTION.

45

0{AA',

BB',...} be the pencil, and if OS, OS' l the

any straight line be drawn cutting the rays of the
pencil in the points A, A', B, B',... and the double rays in the
points S, and 8'. Then since
{A A', SS'} is a harmonic pencil, it

For,

if

double rays,

let

follows from 49, that {AA', SS')

is

{BB', SS'} is a harmonic range.

Hence {A A',

a harmonic range.

whose double points are S and

in involution

The converse

of this theorem

S".

also true,

is

Similarly

BB',...} is a range

and follows immedi-

ately from 49.

By

82.

theorem

we could

the principle of continuity

infer that this

always true, whether the double rays are real or imagiThe converse theorem, in fact, is often taken as the basis of

nary.

is

the definition of a pencil in involution, and the properties of a pencil

in involution are then derived
Ex.

83.

This
used in
Ex.

{AA', BB',

If

1.

AOB'

sin

sin

is easily

BOG'

sin

from the properties of a range.

CC)

be any pencil

COA' + sin A' OB

obtained from the theorem in

sin

in involution,

show that

BOG. sin C'OA = 0.

74,

by applying the methyl

49.
2.

If

0{AA', BB', CC) be any

sm AOB.smAOB' _
sin A' OB

sin A' OB'

pencil in involution

Bin

AOC

show that

AOC

sin

~ smA'OC. sin A'OC

If 0{AA', BC), 0{AA', EC) be harmonic pencils, show that the

0{AA', BB', CC'} and {AA', BC', B'C} will be in involution, and that
if OF, OF' and OG, OG' be the double rays of these pencils, then each of the
pencils 0{AA', FF'}, 0{AA', GG'}, 0{FF', GG'} will be harmonic.

Ex.

3.

pencils

84.

Instead of obtaining the connection between a pencil

in

and deducing the properties

involution and
of the pencil from the range, we may proceed otherwise, and obtain
a range in involution,

the properties of a pencil in involution directly from the definition

given in

78.

It will

two chords

be convenient

first

A A', BB',

circle

of a

to prove the following

KA KA' = AB
:

Since the triangles

lemma

meet in K, then
.

AB' A'B
:

KAB, KB'A'

A'B'.

are similar; therefore

KA:KB'=AB:B'A'.
Again, since the triangles

KAB',

KBA' are

KA:KB = AB':BA'.

similar

then

If

A
CONSTRUCTION OF

46

Hence
But
Therefore
that

'

'

is

Again,

:KB KB' = AB AB' B'A' BA'.

KB.KB' = KA.KA'.
KA KA = A B A B' B'A BA
KA :KA' = AB. AB' A'B A'B'.
2

if

KS be

drawn

'

',

we

to touch the circle,

shall

have

KA:KA' = A&:A'S\

For the triangles

KAS, KSA'

are similar,

and therefore

KA:KS = AS:SA';
that

KA' KS' = ^1 8A\

KS = KA KA',
KA KA' = AS A'8\
2

is

But

therefore

If [A A', BB', CG',...} be any pencil in involution, and if

drawn through the point
cutting the rays of the pencil
points A, A', B, B', ..., the chords AA', BB', ...of this circle

85.

circle be

in the
will

pass through a fixed point.

Let the

X, X', and

circle
let

cut the principal rays of the pencil in the points

XX'

meet

A A'

in the point

K.

'

THE PRINCIPAL RAYS.

By

84,

we have

KX
But

if

47

R be

KX' = XA XA' X'A

the radius of the

XA

00 _

X'A'.

circle,

XA'

XOA ~ sin X OA' ~

sin

'

KX^ _ sinAU4 sinXOA'

sin X'OA. sin X'O A'
.

KX'

= tan XOA tan XOA'.

if BB' meet XX' in the point K', we
.

Again,

J^,
But by

XOA

tan

tan XOB'.

XOA' = tan XOB tan

#X' = K'X Z'X',
.

KX
K and iT must coincide.

Therefore
is

have

definition,

tan

that

= tan XOB

shall

XOB'.

Given any two pairs of conjugate rays of a pencil in

and the double rays.

86.

in-

volution, to find the principal rays,

Let OA, OA' and OB, OB' be the given pairs of conjugate
Draw a circle passing through
and cutting these rays in

rays.

the points A, A', and B, B' respectively.

Let

A A'

meet BB'

OX, OX'

By

will

84,

be the principal rays of the pencil.

we have

KX KX - XA

XA' X'A X'A'

= XB.XB':X'B.X'B'.

XO;T _ sin XOB sin XOR

" sin X'OB sin X'OB'
sin X'OA sin XOA'
since XOX' is a right angle,
tan XOA tan XOA' = tan XOB tan XOR.
sin

Ce

K, and let the diameter of the

meet the circle in X, A". Then

in the point

which passes through

circle

X(L1.

sin

Therefore,

therefore

To
circle.

OX, OX'

are the principal rays.

find the double rays,

By

84,

draw the tangents KS, KS'

we have

KX:KX' = XS*:X'&,
= XA.XA':X'A.X'A'.

to the

THE DOUBLE RAYS.

48

XOS _

sin2

ere ore
sin

that

XO A. sm X OA'
.

XOS = tan XOA

tan 2

is

sin

X'OS ~ sin X'OA

sin

X'OA'

XOA'.

tan

we may prove

Similarly

tan

that

XOS' = tan XOA

tan

Hence, 08, OS' are the double rays of the

The double rays

will

without or within the

BB' without

pencil.

be real or imaginary according as

circle

that

is

according as

AA'

lies

intersects

or within the circle.

We

87.

XOA'.

infer

from the above construction that a pencil in

involution has in general one and only one pair of conjugate rays
at right angles.

the centre of the

is
The exceptional case occurs when the point
that is when the two given pairs of conju-

circle,

gate rays are at right angles.

will

In this case every

line

through A'

be a diameter, and hence every pair of conjugate rays

will

be

at right angles.
It follows that

any pencil of rays 0{AA', BB',...}, in which

each of the angles AOA',

involution, of

BOB, ...

is

a right angle,

is

a pencil in

which any pair of conjugate rays may be considered

as the principal rays.

88.

Ex.

1.

Show

that

if

two pencils in involution have the same

there exists one pair and only one pair of conjugate rays

common

vertex,

to each

pencil.

When
Ex.

is

2.

this pair of rays real

Show

that any two pencils in involution have in general one and

only one pair of conjugate rays which are parallel

these rays.

and show how to construct

''

PROPERTIES OF A PENCIL IN INVOLUTION.

Ex.

Show

3.

49

that the straight line joining the feet of the i>eri)endicularH

in involution from a fixed point,

drawn to a pair of conjugate rays of a pencil

passes through another fixed point.

If 0{AA', BR, CC]

89.

be

any pencil in

involution,

AOB. sin APR _ sin AOG sin AOC

sin A' OB sin A' OB' ~ sin A' 00. sin A '00'
sin

Let any

be drawn passing through 0, cutting the rays of

Then by 85, A A',

circle

the pencil in the points A, A', B, B', 0, C.

BR,

CC will

By

84,

meet in the same point K.

we have

KA KA' = AB.AB':A'B. A'R,

:

= AC. AC: A'C. A'C.

AB .AB' A'B A'R = AC .AC A'C

Therefore

But

if

R be

the radius of the

2R =
sin

Hence

sin

AB
sin AOB

A'C.

circle,

AB'
j7=&C.
sin AOB'

AOB. sin AOB' _ sin A 00

~ sin A'OO
sin A'OR

A'OB

sin

A PC

sin

A'OC

The rays of any pencil in involution cut any straight

in a series of points which form a range in involution.
90.

Let any straight

[AA\ BR, CC)

Then

if

line

be drawn cutting the rays of the pencil

in the points

A, A', B, &c.

the pencil be in involution,

sin^QJg.sin^Q^ _
"
sin A'OB sin A'OB'
.

line

we have by

sin

AOC

sin

A'OC

89,

sin

AOC

sin

A'OC

PROPERTIES OF A PENCIL IN INVOLUTION.

50

on the

Let 02V be the perpendicular from

line

A A'.

Then

we have

Ann = N0 AB
smA0B
6A70B>

AnTy NO.AB'
SmA0B
=6AJ)B.

and similar values

for sin

AOG,

&c.

Hence, we obtain the relation

AB^AB' _ AG. AC
A'B.A'B'~~A'G.A'C'
Therefore, by

Conversely,

it

76,

the range \AA', BB', GG'}

may be proved

in a similar

is

in involution.

manner that

if

the

points of a range in involution be joined to any point not on the

same straight

these lines will form a system of rays in involu-

line,

tion.

Let [AA' BB', CC'} be any range in involution, then by

we have AB' BC GA' + A'B B'G G'A = 0.
If now the points of the range be joined to any point 0, it
91.

74,

by the method used in the last article that the angles of

any pencil in involution
[A A', BB', GG'\ are connected by the

follows

relation
sin

AOB'

sin

BOG'

sin

GO A' + sin

A' OB sin B'OC sin

.

Conversely, by 75, if this relation holds,

pencil
{AA\ BB', CC\ will be in involution.
92.

point

Ex.

1.

If

A BCD be

a square, and

if

parallel to the sides of the square,

we

COA = 0.

infer that the

OX, OY be drawn through auy

show that 0{XY, AC, BD) is a

pencil in involution.
2.
If ABC be a triangle, and if through any point 0, rays OX, OY
be drawn parallel to the sides BC, CA, AB, show that 0{XA, YB, ZC)

Ex.

OZ

will be a pencil in involution.

CHAPTER

VI.

PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES.

In Euclid a triangle is defined to be a plane figure

93.
bounded by three straight lines, that is to say, a triangle is
regarded as an area. In modern geometry, any group of three
points, which are not collinear, is called a triangle.
Since three
straight lines which are not concurrent intersect in three points,
a group of three straight lines may also be called a triangle
without causing any ambiguity.
into two parts.
We shall
some theorems relating to lines drawn through the
of a triangle which are concurrent, and also some theorems

The present chapter may be divided

first

discuss

vertices

relating to points taken on the sides of a triangle which

are

Secondly we propose to deal with certain special

points which have important properties in connection with a
collinear.

triangle,

and the more important

circles

connected with a triangle.

In recent years the geometry of the triangle has received

considerable attention, and various circles have been discovered

which have so many interesting properties, that special nanus

We shall however at present merely

have been given them.

consider their

more elementary

properties, reserving for a later

chapter the complete discussion of them.

Concurrent lines drawn through the vertices

of a triangle.
94.

If

the straight lines

a triangle with any point

in the points

X,

which connect the

equal

A,

B,C

Y, Z, the product of the ratios

BX.XG, GY:
is

vertices

of

meet the opposite sides of the triangle

YA,

AZ: ZB

to unity.

42

CONCURRENT LINES DRAWN

52

Through A draw the straight

cut BO, CO in
and N.

NAM

line

parallel to

BC, and

let it

By

similar triangles,

BX XC = AM
:

NA,

CY YA = BC AM,
:

AZ:ZB=NA BC
:

Hence we

have,

BX CY AZ

~XCYAZB~
If X,

95.

Y,

Z are points

on the sides of a triangle such that

XC YA ZB~
"

the lines

AX, BY, CZ will

let BY, CZ meet

Then we have

For
X'.

'

"

'

be concurrent.
in the point 0,

and

let

AO

meet

BC in

BX' CY AZ
X'C YA ZB
'

'

BX' X'C = BX

Therefore

XC

Therefore X' must coincide with X, or what

AX must pass through

96.

Ex.1.

Show

2.

Show

the same thing,

that the lines joining the vertices A, B,

to the middle points of the sides

Ex.

is

0.

BC, CA,

C of a

triangle

AB are concurrent.

that the perpendiculars drawn from the vertices of a triangle

to the opposite sides are concurrent.

Ex.
in

3.

Y and Z,

If a straight line be

and

if

drawn

BY, CZ intersect

parallel to

in 0,

BC, cutting the sides AC,

AO will bisect BC.

show that

AB

THROUGH THE VERTICES OF A TRIANGLE.

Ex.

ABC,

4.

so that

be taken on the

CY: YA = BZ:AZ, show

AO

such that
Ex.

Y and Z

If points

is

that

AB

AC,

.sides

BY, CZ

58
of a triangle

will intersect in

a point

BC.

parallel to

Show that the straight lines drawn through the vertices B and C
ABC, parallel respectively to the sides CA, AB, intersect in a

5.

of the triangle

point on the line which connects the point

Ex.

to the middle point of BC.

If the inscribed circle of a triangle touch the sides in the i>oint*

6.

X, Y, Z, show that the

Ex.

AX, BY, CZ a.re

lines

concurrent.

If the escribed circle of the triangle

7.

ABC,

touch the sides in the points X, Y, Z, show that

Ex.

{A A', BC)
{A A', BB', CC'}

If the pencils

8.

show that the

pencil

This follows from Ex.

Ex.

If

9.

any

{BE, CA},

by the

6, 7,

will

opposite to the angle A,

AX, BY, CZ arc

concurrent

{CC, A B) be harmonic,

be in involution.

aid of 85.

be drawn touching the sides of the triangle

circle

ABC in

the points X, Y, Z, show that the lines joining the middle points of BC, CA,
AB to the middle points of AX, BY, CZ respectively, are concurrent

A circle is drawn cutting the sides of a triangle BC in the points

Ex. 10.

,-1

X, X'; Y, Y'; Z, Z'

AX', BY, CZ'.

show that

if

AX, BY, CZ

are concurrent, so also are

If the lines connecting the vertices of

Ex. 11.

any

triangle

ABC

to

any

point 0, meet the opposite sides in the points D, E, F, show that the pencil

D{AC, EF}

is

Conversely,

harmonic.
if

D, E,

such that the pencil

F be

three points on the sides of the triangle

D {AC, EF}

is

AD, BE,

harmonic, show that

ABC,

CF

are

concurrent.

97.

The theorem

of 94

may be

proved otherwise.

BX XC=(AB0)

(AOC)

= (A0B)
CY: YA = {B0C)
AZ:ZB=(C0A)

(COA),

have

(AOB),
(BOC).

AZ
BX CY
^> y-. =1.

a
Hence,
as before,
Ex.

We

AO, BO, CO meet

If the lines

the sides of the triangle

points X, Y, Z, show that

AO

BO

CO =9.
a

AX^BX^CX
98.

If ABC

be

any

sin

BAO

sin

OA G

-I

triangle,

sin
'

sin

and

CBO
OBA

sin
'

sin

any

point, then

A CO =
0GB

1.

ABC

in the

CONCURRENT LINES DRAWN

54

From

BOG, we have

the triangle

CBO

sin

sin

Similarly from the triangles

OB.

CO A, AOB,

OAG = OA OC,
sin 054 = OB OA
sin^^O sin GB O sin ACQ _
^^ QCB - 1.
QAQ

AGO
sin BAO
sin

Hence,

If points X,

99.

OGB = OC

sin

Z be

Y,

taken on the sides of a triangle

ABC,

such that

sin4X
sin
the lines

Let

XAC

s in
'

sin

CBY smACZ _
YBA sin ZCB ~
'

AX, BY, CZ will be concurrent.

BY, CZ meet in the point 0. Then by

'

the last article

we

have

sin&AO sinC^F suiACZ =

"
sin ZCB
sin OAC sbTYBA
'

'

Therefore
sin

Hence

AO

that

sin

OAG = sin BAX

it

follows that the line

is,

the lines

Ex.

100.

BAO

Show

1.

sin

X^IC.

AX must coincide with the

AX, BY, CZ are

line

concurrent.

that the internal bisectors of the angles of a triangle

are concurrent.

Ex.

2.

Show

that the internal bisector of one angle of a triangle, and the

external bisectors of the other angles are concurrent.

Ex.
points

3.

The tangents

B and

C,

meet
sin

to the circle circumscribing the triangle

in the point L.

BAL

sin

Show

that

LAC= sin ACB

sin

CBA.

ABC,

at the

THROUGH THE VERTICES OF A TRIANGLE.

Ex.

If the

4.

CN will

BM,

Ex.

meet

in the points L,

the circle circum-

to

M, N, show that

tho linos

AL,

be concurrent.

If

5.

NAB

MCA,

tangents at the points H, B,

scribing the triangle,

.V

on the sides of a triangle

ABC similar

isosceles triangles

be described, show that the lines AL,

BM,

CN

LUC,

will l>o con-

current.

Ex.

If the perpendiculars

6.

C'A',

A'B

from

A', B',

will also

of the triangle

A'B'C

C perpendicular

to

drawn from the points A, B, C to sides BC,

are concurrent, show that the lines drawn
the sides BC, CA, AB of the triangle ABC

be concurrent.

Ex. 7. Show that, connected with a triangle ABC, a point

such that the angles BA 0, A CO, CBO are equal.

Denoting the angle

C,

we have from

BAO

by

a>,

and the angles BAC, ACB,

can be found

CBA

by A, B,

98,

sin 3

o)

= sin (A - a>) sin (B - <o) sin C - a)

(

whence by trigonometry,
cot a = cot

A + cot B + cot

Thus there is but one value for the angle

which satisfies the given condition.
point
There

BCC

C.

and consequently only one

such that the angles

obviously another point
same angle >.

CAO, ABO",

are each equal to the

Ex.

The
A'B'C

8.

triangle
lines

is

a>,

vertices of a triangle
is

constructed having

be drawn through

triangle

ABC; show

101.

A',

B,

ABC are joined

Any two

parallel to the corresponding sides of the

lines

AX, AX', drawn

has the same bisectors as the angle

BAG
BAG.

ABC

so that the angle

XAX'

are said to be isogonal

the straight lines connecting the vertices

GZ be
to any point 0, and let AX', BY',

AX, BY, GZbe

of the triangle

and a
any point
AG, BO, Co. It

that these lines will be concurrent.

conjugates with respect to the angle

Let

to

its sides parallel to

'

ISOGONAL CONJUGATE POINTS.

56

conjugates with respect to the

isogonal

their

the

of

angles

triangle.

We

have then
sin

sin

BAX smCBY
XAG sin YBA

'

'

_ mnX'AC
~
sin BAX'

si
'

sin

ACZ

sin

ZGB

n Y'BA

sin

GBY'

'

sin

Z'GB

sin

AGZ

But

since

AX, BY, CZ
Hence by

equal to unity.

are concurrent, the latter product

that

99, it follows

is

AX', BY', CZ' are

also concurrent.

Thus

when

three lines

drawn through

the vertices

are concurrent, their isogonal conjugates with respect

of a triangle
to the

angles

at these vertices are also concurrent.

If the lines

AX, BY, GZ meet

isogonal conjugates in the point

in the point 0, and their

the points 0, 0' are called

',

isogonal conjugate points with respect to the triangle

Ex.

102.

Show

1.

ABC.

that the orthocentre of a triangle and the circunicentre

are isogonal conjugate points.

Ex.

If 0,

2.

triangle

ABC, and

perpendicular to

be any isogonal conjugate points, with respect to the

OL, OL' be drawn perpendicular to BC; OM, OM'

if

CA

and ON, ON' perpendicular to AB; show

OL OL'=0M. &M'=0N. ON'.

that

Show
centre

Ex.

is

also that the six points L,

the middle point of

3.

If D, E,

F be

OO, and

MN

is

lie

on a

of

AD with

respect to the angle

to the point of intersection of the tangents at

circle circumscribing

circle

perpendicular to

ABC

whose

AO.

the middle points of the sides of the triangle

show that the isogonal conjugate

line joining

M, N, L, M', N'
that

BAC,

ABC,
is

the

B and C to the

IS013MIC CONJUGATE POINTS.

.',7

two points X, X' be taken on the lino DC so that the segment*

have the same middle point, the points X, X' are called Uotomi-conjugates with respect to the segment BC.
If

103.

XX',

BC

Ex.

F,

Z be any three

if

AX, BY, CZ are

AX, BY, CZ meet

and

the points
triangle

Ex.

points on the sides of a triangle

Z the isotomic conjugate points

show that

tively,

If

X,

If

1.

X', Y',

& are

with respect to BC, CA,

concurrent so also are AX',

in the point 0,

and AX', BY', CZ'

.1

BC, and

AB

BY,

reHpec-

CZ'.

in the point (/,

called isotomic conjugate points with respect to the

ABC.
If the inscribed circle of the triangle

2.

ABC

touch the sides

show that the isotomic conjugate points with

points X, Y, Z,

in the

respect to the

sides of the triangle, are points of contact of the escribed circles of the
triangle.

Ex.

In Ex.

3.

1,

(BOC)

show that the

.

areas

(BO'C) = (COA)

(X YZ), (X'Y'Z')

are equal, and that

(CaA) = (A0B) {AOB).

.

Collinear points on the sides of a triangle.

If a straight line intersect the sides of a

the points X, Y, Z, the product of the ratios
104.

triangle

ABG in

BX.CX; GY-.AY; AZ.BZ;

is

equal

to unity.

\X'

Through

XYZ in

draw

AX'

parallel to

BG

to cut the straight line

the point X'.

Then by

similar triangles,

GY:GX=AY:AX';
BX:BZ = AX':AZ.
T
Therefore
_

or

BX GY_AY.
CX'BZ'AZ'
GY AZ
BX
-=-= = 1.
-?-=-.
CX' AY' BZ
-

TRANSVERSALS OF

58
This formula

may

be written

also

BX CY AZ__,
XC YA ZB~
'

'

'

and should be compared with the formula given

When

in 94.

a straight line cuts the sides of a triangle

it is often called a
be collinear points on the sides BC, CA, AB,
respectively, of the triangle ABC, the line on which they lie is referred to as

Thus,

transversal.

X, Y,

XTZ.

the transversal

If X,

105.

if

Y,

are points on the sides of a triangle

ABC

such that

BX CY AZ_
CX AY' BZ~
'

the points

X,

Let the

By

X'.

Y,

Z are

'

collinear.

line joining the points

the last article,

and

cut

BC

in the point

we have

BX CY AZ =

CX' AY' BZ~

Hence, we must have

BX':CX' = BX:GX.
Therefore

must

coincide with X'; that

is,

the point

lies

on the line YZ.

106.
the points

If any straight
X, Y, Z, then

sin^X
sin(L!X

line cut the sides

sin
*

sin

CBY
ABY'

sin
sin

of the triangle

ABC in

ACZ = 1.
BCZ

This relation

is easily

deduced from that given in

have

BX: CX = AB. sin BAX AC. sin CAX,

CY:AY=BC. sin CBY BA sin ABY,
AZ:BZ = CA sin ACZ CB sin BCZ.
:

104, for

we

A TRIANGLE.

59

Hence,

BX CY AZ _ sin BAX
OX AY BZ sin VAX
'

But by

"

104,

the theorem

ABC,

BAX
CAX

Show

1.

W2
Therefore

taken on the sides of a

'

sin

CBY

sin

ABY sWBCZ ~

ACZ

sin
'

X,

'

Z must

Y,

be

collinear.

in collinear points.

The tangents

2.

ACZ

sin

that the external bisectors of the angles of a triangle

meet the opposite sides

Ex.

sin

equal to unity.

Z be

points X, Y,

if

follows from 105, that the points

Ex.

is

'

so that

sin

108.

CBY

ABY

the former product

sin

it

sin

sin

is true.

Conversely,

107.
triangle

'

to the circumcircle of a triangle at the angular

points cut the opposite sides of the triangle in three collinear points.

Ex. 3. The lines drawn through any point

OA, OB, OC, meet the sides of the triangle ABC
Ex.

The tangents from the vertices of a triangle

X' Y, T' and Z, Z'

4.

opposite sides in the points X,

that

if

Ex.

Z; the

Z are collinear,

X, Y,

If

5.

any

to
;

any

circle

meet the

respectively.

Prove

in the points

so also are X', Y', Z'.

line cut the sides of the triangle

isogonal conjugates of

triangle will

perpendicular to the lines

in three collinear points.

AX, BY,

meet the opposite

ABC

V.

CZ, with respect to the angles of the

sides in collinear points.

a straight line cut the sides of the triangle ABC in the points
X, Y, Z; the isotomic points with respect to the sides will be collinear.
Ex.

6.

If

Ex.

7.

If

D, E,

F are

Z the feet of the

X, Y,

the middle points of the sides of a triangle, and

perpendiculars drawn from the vertices to the opposite

XY

sides,

tively,

and if YZ, ZX,

meet EF, FD, DE in the points P, Q, It respecshow that DP, EQ, FR are concurrent, and also that XP, Y<<>, ZIl are

concurrent.

Ex.

8.

Z are taken on the sides of a triangle

BX XC= CY YA =AZ: ZB.

Points X, Y,

AX, BY, CZ intersect

in the points P, Q, R,

AQ AR=BR BP=CP
:

Ex.

9.

The

DE is joined.

sides

AB,

AC

show that
CQ.

of a triangle are produced to

I)

and h\ ami

F be taken on BC so that
BF FC=AB AE AC. AD,

If a point

show that

so that

If

ABC,

AF will bisect DE.

[St

Ex. 10. The sides BC, CA, AB

F; through D, E, F three straight

Johns

Coll. 1887.]

of a triangle cut a straight line in

lines

DLOO, ElIOM,

FKON

S,

having the

TRANSVERSALS.

60

common
M,

H;

AB

are drawn, cutting the sides CA,

point

CA

BC,

in

in L,

AB,

BC

in

Prove that

X, K.

AK.BG.CH _ AG.BE.CK _
AM.BN.CL ~ AL BM CX ~

GD.HE.KF _
LB ME. NF ~

HD.KE.GF
XD LE. MF'

[Math. Tripos, 1878.]

vertices of a triangle

Through the

Ex. 11.

BE,
BE,

ABC,

CF are drawn to cut the opposite sides in the

CF intersect in A'; CF, AD intersect in B'
:

that

DB' EC FA' (CD

DC' EA' FB ~ \BD
'

AE

(AC

BF\*

BE in

and AD,

CE AFj 7 \AB'
'

'

'

CR\-

BAf^
'

BC'

'

CA' )

[De Rocquigny.
Ex. 12.

XYZ, X'Y'Z'

If

show that the

lines YZ',

AD,
The lines
C. Show

three straight lines

points D, E, F.

'

Mathesis IX.]

be any two transversals of the triangle ABC,

ZX',

XY'

will cut the sides

AB

BC, CA,

in three

collinear points.

Ex.

109.

point,

ABC

If the lines joining the vertices of a triangle

1.

point cut the opposite sides in the points X, Y, Z, and

if

to

any

be any arbitrary

show that
sin

sin

We have

BOX
XOC

COY smAOZ
sin Z0B~

sin
'

YOA

sin

BX. OC XC. 0B=sin BOX

:

Hence the theorem follows from

Ex.

2.

If

X, Y, Z, and

sin

XOC.

any straight line cut the sides of a triangle

be any arbitrary point, show that
sin

3.

94.

ABC

in the points

if

sin

Ex.

'

If

of the triangle

X, Y,

BOX
COX

Z be

ABC, and

"

sin

COY

sin

A Y

sin
'

sin

A0Z _
B0Z~

the points in which any straight line cuts the sides

if

be any point, show that the pencil

0{AX,BY,CZ]
is

in involution.

Ex.

4.

The

ABC cut any straight line in the points

Z are three points on this straight line. If AX, BY, CZ

sides of the triangle

P,Q,R; and X,

Y,

are concurrent, show that

QX RY PZ
XR' YP' zq
Show
Ex.

5.

also that

{PX, QY, RZ}

is

If in the last example,

collinear points,

'

a range in involution.

AX, BY, CZ exit

the sides BC, CA,

show that

QX RY PZ
RX' PY' QZ
Ex.

6.

Prove the converse theorems of those in examples

5.

AB in

POLAR WITH RESPECT TO A TRIANGLE.

Ex.

and

if

If

7.

YZ',

XYZ, X'Y'Z'

Y'Z meet

AP, BQ, CR cut the

in

sides

til

be any two transversals of the triangle Ml<\

ZX',

Z'X

BC, CA,

in

AB in

Q and

A'}",

X'Y

in It

show

that

three collinear points.

Pole and Polar with respect to a triangle.

If X,

110.

such that

XYZ ivill

Y,

be 'points on the sides

of

the triangle

are concurrent, the sides of

ABC in

meet the sides of the triangle

tJie

ABC,

triangle

collinear points.

XY meet BC, GA, AB respectively in the

Let YZ, ZX,

X,

AX, BY, CZ

points

Y', Z'.

Since X', Y,

Z are

collinear

we have by

104,

GY AZ

BIT

GX'AY'BZ
But

since

AX, BY, GZ are

we have by

concurrent,

94,

BX GY AZ =
XG YA'ZB
BX XG = BX GX'.
'

Therefore
Similarly,

we

shall

have

GY:YA = CY':AY',
AZ:ZB = AZ'.BZ\

and
Consequently,

BX' GY' AZ' BX GY AZ

GX' 'AY' BZ'~ XG' YA ZB
'

'

Hence, A", Y', Z' are collinear points.

Ex.

1.

If the lines

points X, Y,

Z, and

if

AO, BO, CO cut the

the points A", Y',

sides of the triangle

ABC

in the

be the harmonic conjugate points

POLAR WITH RESPECT TO A TRIAXGLE.

62
of

X, Y,

that

with respect to B,

C,

and A, B;

prove

respectively,

:
(i)

The points

(ii)

The

points X', Y,

(iii)

The

lines

Ex.

X', Y', Z' are collinear.

Z are collinear.

AX, BY', CZ'

are concurrent.

If the inscribed circle of the triangle

2.

points X, Y, Z, show that the lines YZ,

ZX,

ABC touch the sides in

the

XY cut the sides BC, CA, AB in

collinear points.

Ex

If

3.

XYZ be

AX, BY, CZ form

any transversal of the triangle ABC, and if the lines

PQR, show that the lines AP, BQ, CR are

the triangle

concurrent.

If the lines

111.

X'Y'Z' (see figure

AX, BY, CZ meet

110)

respect to the triangle

is

in the point 0, the line

with

called the polar of the point

ABC;

and the point

is

called the pole of

the line X'Y'Z' with respect to the triangle.

we can

Given any point

find its polar

CO, and then joining the points X, Y,

the sides of the triangle

ABC.

The

Z in
lines

by joining AO, BO,

which these
YZ, ZX,

lines cut

XY will

cut

the corresponding sides of the triangle in the points X', Y',

which

on the polar of

lie

Given any straight

Z',

0.

line

X'Y'Z' to find

pole with respect to

its

P, Q, R be the vertices of the triangle formed

by the lines AX', BY', CZ'. Then AP, BQ, CR will meet in a

a triangle

ABC;

let

point ( 110, Ex. 3) which will be the pole of the line X'Y'Z'.
Ex.

If

ABC, show

x denote the

with respect to the triangle

polar of the point

that

(OBC) Ax=(0CA) Bx=(0AB) Cx.

.

Special points connected with a triangle.

112.

The

lines

drawn through the

bisect the opposite sides are called the

The medians

vertices of a triangle to

medians of the

triangle.

of a triangle are concurrent ( 96, Ex.

point in which they intersect

is

called the

The

1).

median point of the

triangle.

The

isogonal conjugates of the medians with respect to the

angles of a triangle are called the symmedians of the triangle.

point in which they intersect

101)

is

called the

symmedian

The

point.

SYMMEDIAN POINT.
The median point

of a triangle

but the name median point

connection of the point with

The median point

is

68

also called the centroid of the triangle

preferred in geometry from the important

its isogonal conjugate, the symmedian point

is

of a triangle is usually denoted

by G, and tho symmedian

point by K.

Triangles which have the same median lines are called comedian triangles ; and triangles which have the same symmedimi
lines are said to be co-symmedian.

In connection with the symmedian point

113.

to define here

what

meant by a

is

it is

convenient

line antiparallel to a side of a

triangle.

If

AB

ABG

be any triangle, any

in Z, so that the angle

the angle

AZY equal

to the side

to

BG

is

to the angle

the tangent at
1.

If

2.

is

cuts

AG in Y and

equal to the angle

BGA,

is

CBA, and

said to be antiparallel

is antiparallel

and that the

line

through

to the circumcircle of

(AGB)

areas (BKC), (CKA),

BG, the points

antiparallel

ABC.

are equal.

K be the symmedian point of the triangle

If

to

be the median point of the triangle ABC, show that

the areas (BGC), (CGA),

Ex.

when YZ

are concyclic

Ex.

114.

AYZ

YZ which

BG.

It is obvious that

Y, Z, B,

line

(AKB)

ABC, show

that the

and
are in the ratio of the squares on BC, CA,

AB.
Ex.

3.

If

in the points

any

circle

be drawn through

M and N, show that AK

and

will bisect

C cutting
MX.

the sides AC, A

11

SYMMEDIAN

64
Ex.

If the inscribed circle touch the sides of the triangle

4.

points X, Y, Z,

the triangle

Ex.

POINT.

ABC in the

in the syniruedian point of

XYZ.
D, E,

If

5.

show that AX, BY, CZwill meet

F be

C to

the feet of the perpendiculars from A, B,

ABC, show that the lines drawn from A,

of EF, FD, DE are concurrent.

opposite sides of the triangle

to the middle points

The point

of concurrence

Show

is

the

B,

the symmedian point.

be drawn through the symmedian point of a

triangle antiparallel to the sides, the segments intercepted on them are equal.
Ex.

6.

Ex.

that

if lines

The perpendiculars from

7.

on the sides of the triangle are

proportional to the sides.

Ex.

Ex.

If

8.

KX, KY,

show that

triangle,

If

9.

is

KZ

be drawn perpendicular to the sides of the

the median point of the triangle

XYZ.

AD be drawn perpendicular to the side BC of the triangle ABC,

line joining the middle point of AD to the middle point of BC

show that the

passes through the

symmedian point

of the triangle

ABC.

If from the symmedian (or median) point of a triangle, perpendrawn to the sides, the lines joining their feet are perpendicular to
the medians (or symmedians) of the triangle.

Ex. 10.

diculars be

Ex.

11.

Show that
ABC,

if

be the median point, and

K the symmedian point

of the triangle

GA KA BC+ GB KB CA + GC KC
.

AB=--BC. CA AB.
.

[St John's Coll., 1886.]

Ex. 12.
the sides

Through a point

A B, A C

the lines

of the triangle

ABC,

XPY, X'PZ are drawn

cutting the side

BC in

parallel to

the points X,

X' and the sides AC, AB in Y and Z. If the points X, X, Y, Zaxe concyclic
show that the locus of the point P is a straight line.
Ex.

13.

Any

point

P is taken

on the

a triangle internally, and PA', PB',

Show

of the triangle.

that

A 'P

line

which bisects the angle

BAC of

PC are drawn perpendicular to the

intersects

B'C

in a point

on the median

sides
line

which passes through A.

Ex. 14.

The

lines

A A', BB',

CC connecting the

vertices of

two

triangles

A' B'C are divided in the points P, Q, R in the same ratio,

n. Show
that the median point of the triangle
divides the line joining the median

ABC,

PQR

points of the triangles

ABC, A'B'C"

in the ratio

The perpendiculars from the vertices of a triangle on

the opposite sides meet in a point ( 9G, Ex. 2), which is called
115.

the orthocentre of the triangle.

If

ABC

be the triangle, and

the orthocentre,

from the figure that each of the four points A,

it is

B, C,

orthocentre of the triangle formed by the other three.

evident
is

the

THE BROCARD

POINTS.

65

R;

\\ ^AQ

^^

N.

\\

B
Ex.

1.

the triangle
Ex.

AOB,
Ex.

Show that if AP, BQ, CR be the perpendiculars on

ABC, QR will be antiparallel to BC.

Show

2.

ABC

that the circles circumscribing the triangles BOC,

Show
ABC.

that the triangles

Ex.

4.

Show

Ex.

5.

If A, B, C,

that

CC

DD'

116.
so as to
(

If

will

100, Ex.

7).

circle,

and

if A',

BCD, CD A, DAB, ABC, show

B\ C, D'
that

.1.1

lines AX, BY, CZ, drawn

BAX, ACY, GBZ equal, are concurrent

be any triangle, the

the angles

The

point in which these lines intersect

a Brocard point of the triangle

by

are each similar to the

be concurrent.

ABG

make

AQR, PBR, PQC

AP bisects the angle QPR.

D be any four points on a

be the orthocentres of the triangles

BE,

CO A,

are equal.

3.

triangle

the sides of

ABG, and

is

is

called

usually denote

a
If IT

be the point such that the angles CAfl', ABO.', BCQ.'

are equal, Of

By

100,

equal to

co,

is

also called a Brocard point of the triangle

Ex.

7,

we

see that each of the angles BACl,

where
cot

to

= cot A + cot B + cot C.

ABC.

9.

AC

is

THE CIRCUMCIRCLE

66

The angle

From

co is

Brocard angle of the

called the
follows

101, it

that the

triangle.

Brocard points H,

fl'

are

isogonal conjugate points with respect to the triangle.

Ex.

117.

touches
touches

Show that

1.

AC at C,
AB at B.

the circle

and that the

circle

circumscribing the triangle

circumscribing the triangle

This theorem gives a simple construction for finding

Q and

2.

Show

that the triangles AQ'B, AQ.C are similar.

Ex.

3.

Show

that the areas of the triangles

Ex.

4.

Show

that

Ex.

AQ.BQ.

The
The

118.

angle

circle

C'Q

= AQ'. Bq!

AqB, Cq'A

Q.'.

are equal.

CO.'.

Circumcircle.

which passes through the vertices of a triand the centre of

called the circumcircle of the triangle

is

BQC
Bq!C

this circle is called the circumcentre.

If

ABC be the

triangle,

F the middle points of the

F perpendicular to the sides

and D, E,

sides,

the lines drawn through D, E,

meet

in the circumcentre (Euclid iv.. Prop. 5).

Since the tangent at

AB, AC,

Prop. 32),

III.,

side

it

BC

makes the same angles with the lines

makes with AC, AB respectively (Euclid

follows that the tangent at

is

antiparallel to the

BC.

Since

SA

as the side

is

SA

is

perpendicular to the tangent at A,

perpendicular to any line which

side BC.

is

we

antiparallel

see that
to

the

OF A TRIANGLE.

ASB

The angle
Hence

if

respect

double the angle

BAS

ACB (Euclid in., Prop. 20),

the complement of the angle ACB.

be perpendicular to BG, the angle BAS is equal to

therefore the angle

the angle

is

67

AP
PAG

Thus

the angle

to

is

AS and AP
BAG.

are isogonal conjugates with

Hence the circumcentre and the

orthocentre are isogonal conjugate points

with respect to the

triangle.

The circumcentre

of a triangle is usually denoted

by S, and the orthocentre

by

Ex.

119.

Ex.

If

1.

AO

2.

If

3.

Show

D be the middle point of BC, show that A0=2SD.

in P, show that OP is bisected

meet the circumcircle

by.BC.
Ex.

that the line joining the circumcentre to the orthocentre

passes through the median point of the triangle.

Ex.

Show

4.

that the circle which passes through the middle points of

the sides of a triangle passes through the feet of the perpendiculars from the
opposite vertices on the sides.

This follows from the fact that

( 102,

Ex.

and

are isogonal conjugate points

2).

Ex. 5. Show that if P, Q, R be the feet of the perpendiculars from A, B,

on the opposite sides of the triangle, then the perpendiculars from A, B, C
to QR, RP, PQ respectively are concurrent.

Ex.

CA,

If from any point P on the circumcircle of the triangle ABC, PL,

be drawn perpendicular to PA, PB, PC respectively to meet BC,
show that L, M,
lie on a straight line which passes
in L, M,

6.

PM, PjY

AB

[St John's Coll., 1889.]

through the circumcentre of the triangle.

Ex.

7.

If

be any

point on the circumcircle of the triangle

ABC, show

that the isogonal conjugate point will be on the line at infinity.

Ex.

8.

Perpendiculars are drawn to the symmedians of a triangle, at

angular points, forming another triangle.

former
Ex.

is
9.

Show

its

that the circumcentre of the

the median point of the latter.

If

symmedian point
in the points

be any point on the circumcircle of a

is

X, Y,

K, show that

PK

triangle

whose

will cut the sides of the triangle

so that

PK~ PX* P7 + PZ'

[d'Ocagne, E. T. Reprint, Vol. xlii.,

p. 26.]

120.
If from any point P on the circumcircle of the triangle
ABC, PX, PY, PZ be drawn perpendicular to the sides, the points

X,

Y,

Z will

be collinear.

52

PROPERTIES OF THE
Join ZX,
the angle

Then

YX.

PXZ is the

since the points P,

X are concyclic, the angle YXP

P, Y,

C,

angle

YGP, and

equal to the angle

is

X, Z,

is

are concyclic,

ABP.

supplement of the angle

And

since

the supplement of the

ABP,

because P, C, A,

are concyclic.

fore

Hence the angles PXZ, YXP are supplementary

ZX, XY are in the same straight line.

line XYZ is called the Simson line or the pedal

P with respect to the triangle ABC.

The
point

Ex.

121.

point

circle of

Ex.
line of

that

if

the feet of the perpendiculars

collinear, the locus of

line of the

drawn from a

P is the circum-

the triangle.
If

2.

be the orthocentre of the triangle ABC, show that the Simson

P on the circumcircle bisects the line OP.

any point

Ex.
lines of

Ex.

Show

1.

on the sides of a triangle be

and there-

Show that if PQ be any diameter

P and Q are perpendicular.

3.

Show

4.

of the circumcircle, the

that the Simson line of any point

isogonal conjugate line to

AP with

Simson

[Trinity Coll., 1889.]

is

respect to the angle

perpendicular to the

BAC.

PN

PL, PM,
be the perpendiculars drawn from a point P on a
BC, CA, AB of an inscribed triangle, and if straight lines
PI, Pm, Pn be drawn meeting the sides in I, m, n and making the angles
LPl, MPm, NPn equal, when measured in the same sense, then the points I,
Ex.

If

5.

circle to the sides

m,

will

Ex.

be collinear.

6.

from A, B,

[Trinity Coll., 1890.]

triangle

C to the

ABC

is

inscribed in a circle

and the perpendiculars

opposite sides meet the circle in A', B',

C B'E, CF are
AB E
;

CA', A'B respectively, meeting AC,

in
and FShow that the pedal line of the point A with respect to the triangle A'B'C

drawn perpendicular
bisects

EF.

to

[St John's Coll., 1890.]

SIMSOX LIXE.

69

Ex. 7. If P, Q be opposite extremities of a diameter of the circumcircle of

a triangle, the lines drawn from P and Q perpendicular to their pedal lines
respectively will intersect in a point It on the circle.

Show

also that the pedal line of the point

will

be parallel to PQ.
[Clare Coll., 1889.]

Ex.

If A, B, C,

8.

D be four points on a

circle,

prove that the pedal lines

of each point with respect to the triangle formed by the other three meet in

a point 0.
If a fifth point

be taken on the

circle,

prove that the

five points

belonging to the five groups of four points formed from A, B,C, D,

circle of half

Ex.

the linear dimensions.

If A,

9.

projections of

B, C,

any point

be any four points on a circle, show that the

on the circle, on the Simson lines of the point

with respect to the triangles

BCD, CDA, DAB, ABC,

If this line be called the

tetrastigm

E lie on a

[Math. Tripos, 1886.]

Simson

lie

on a straight

line.

with respect to the

line of the point

if any fifth point E be taken on the circle, show that

on the Simson lines of the tetrastigms BCDE, CDEA,
ABCD also lie on a straight line.

ABCD, and

the projections of

DEAD, EABC,
Show

that the theorem

may

be extended.
[E.

122.

point

Ex.

1.

M. Langley, E.

T. Reprint, Vol. ll, p. 77.]

If the lines connecting the vertices of

cut the circumcircle in the points A',

B',

the perpendiculars on the sides of the triangle

a triangle

C, and

if

ABC to any

OX, OY,

then the triangles

OZ

be

A'BC,

XYZ are similar.

It is easy to prove that the angles

difference of the angles

Since the triangles

BOC, BAC.

BOC, COB are

BC

B'A'C,

YXZ

are each equal to the

Hence the theorem

similar,

we have

OB'=BC\CO.

follows at once.

THE NINE-POINT CIRCLE

70
mL

AO.BC = AO.CO.BO

-^-

Therefore

Hence,

be the centre of the circumcircle, and R

COA, A OB by a, (3, y, we have

if

(J QB>

its radius,

and

we

if

denote the angles BOC,

CO.AB = 2R AO BO CO
AO.BC _ BO.CA
sm(a-A)~sin(P-B)~sin(y-C)~
R?-OS 2
Again, since J", Z, 0, A are coney clic we have YZOA sin J..
the radius of the circle XYZ, we have
YZ
OA sin A
=
.

be

''

Hence,

if

2p

_
,
Therefore
From

(1)

sin (a -.4)

OA.BC
A

pR
r = ^-.

sinM(a-

and

(2)

Show

that the point

isogonal conjugate point of

Ex.

3.

and

If

ABC, and

triangle

OC.AB
OB.CA = -^.
~
^

(2).

sm(y-(7)

sin (-2?)

we have
_

2.

.4)

jt= -rj-

A)

2p=
Ex.

sin (a

if

C
S

A O.BO.CO
ip-os*

...

(3)

XYZ

for the triangle

for the triangle

corresponds to the

A'B'C.

be isogonal conjugate points with respect to the

be the circumcentre, show that

AO.BO.CO RZ-OS2
AO.BO' .CO'~ m-os*'
By

102,

Ex.

2,

we know that if perpendiculars be drawn from and O

ABC, their feet lie on the same circle. Hence this

to the sides of the triangle

result follows

from Ex.

Show

4.

See

117, Ex. 3.

Ex.

5.

and C be a pair of isogonal conjugate points with respect to

show that

If

a triangle

1, (3).

that the Brocard points Q, Q' are equidistant from S.

Ex.

A BC,

AO. AO BC+BO. BCCA+CO.

.

Ex.

6.

If in Ex. 1 the point

show that B'C

Ex.

BE,

7.

If

is antiparallel

CO'

AB=BC. CA

be the orthocentre of the triangle

be the symmedian point of the triangle

meet the circumcircle of the triangle in

triangles ABC, A'B'C are co-symmedian.

KX, KY,

KZ be

AB.

ABC,

to the side BC.

CK

Let

A', B',

drawn perpendicular to the

XYZ

is

the median point of the triangle

is

the symmedian point of the triangle A'B'C.

( 114,

Ex.

ABC, and if AK,

C, show that the

sides of

8).

ABC.

Then

Therefore (Ex. 2)

K
K

medians of the triangle A'B'C are proportional to

and therefore they are proportional to the sides of the triangle

It is evident that the

KX, KY,

KZ

ABC.

The Nine-Point
123.

triangle

If

ABC

circle.

be the circumcentre, and

;

D, E,

the orthocentre, of the

the middle points of the sides

P, Q,

OF A TRIANGLE.

71

the feet of the perpendiculars from the vertices on the opposite

sides; and X, Y, Z the middle points of AG, BO, CO; the nine
points D, E, F, P, Q, R, X, Y, Z lie on the same circle, which is
called the nine-point circle of the triangle.

^R^x

//-'' \ pa

V\e

fI

/\^^\^\o
Since

S and
ABC,

it

zj\

follows that a circle can be

F (

the points P, Q, R, D, E,
orthocentre of the triangle

/ls^

are isogonal conjugate points with respect to

the triangle

P, Q, R, Y, Z,

102, Ex.

BOC (

on the same

lie

orthocentre of the triangle

2).

the

is

114), it follows that the points

Similarly, since

circle.

AOC,

drawn through

Again, since

it

follows that

lies

the

is

on the

PQR.

circle

Since

S and

nine-point circle

are isogonal conjugate points, the centre of the

N will be the middle point of SO

102, Ex.

2).

124. The theorem of the last article may be proved in a more elementary
manner as follows. It is easy to show that XZDF and XED Y are rectangles,
having the common diagonal DX. And since XPD, YQE, ZRF are right
angles, it follows at once that the nine points

circle,

whose centre
Ex.

125.

Show

1.

X, Y, Z, D, E, F, P, Q,

lie

on

the middle point of OS.

is

that the diameter of the nine-point circle

is

equal to

the radius of the circumcircle.

Ex.

2.

circle of

Ex.
is

The

nine-point circle of the triangle

each of the triangles BCO, CAO,

3.

bisected

Show

that

if

P be any point on

by the nine-point

ABC

is

also the nine-point

ABO.
the circumcircle of a triangle,

OP

circle.

Ex. 4. Show that the Simson lines of the extremities of any diameter <>f
the circumcircle of a triangle intersect at right angles on the nine-point circle
of the triangle.

[Trim ColL, 1888.]

Ex. 5. If D, E, Fhe, the middle points of the sides of the triangle A B(

show that the nine-point circles of the triangles AEF, BED, CDE touch the
nine-point circle of the triangle DEF at the middle points of EF, FD, DE
'.

respectively.

THE INSCRIBED AND ESCRIBED

72

The
The

126.

concurrent

they meet

inscribed and escribed circles.

internal bisectors of the angles of a triangle are

( 100, Ex.
is

It is evident that the point in

1).

which

Therefore

equidistant from the sides of the triangle.

the circle which has this point for centre and which touches one
side will touch the other sides (Euclid iv., Prop. 4).
is called the inscribed circle, or briefly the in-circle.

This

circle

Its centre is

often called the in-centre.

LT

B
If L, M, N be the points of
AM = AN, BL = BN, CL = CM.

contact of the sides,

Hence, denoting the lengths of the sides by

perimeter by

BL
CL
The

and the

we have

2s,

AM = AN = s

127.

a, b, c,

we have

=BN = s-b,
=CM = s-c.

internal bisector of the angle

bisectors of the angles

'

a,

ABC, ACB,

BAC, and

are concurrent.

the external

Let the point

which they meet be denoted by II

This point is the centre of
which
a
can be drawn to touch the sides of the triangle, but
it is on the side of BC remote to A.
This circle is called an
in

circle

escribed circle.
is

To

distinguish

it

from the other escribed

circles it

often called the A-escribed circle.

If

L lt

il/j,

iVj

be the points of contact of the sides with this

circle, it follows at

once that

AM^AN^s,
BL =BN =s-c,
CL, =CM = s-b.
l

rr

CIRCLES OF A TRIANGLE.

73

Similarly, if the internal bisector of the angle

ABC

external bisectors of the other angles in the point I2

the centre of the 5-escribed

AGB meet

of the angle
in

I3 I3

Ex.

128.

1.

Show

Ex.

Show

2.

and

i?

that

and H.

will

be

circle.

that the circumcircle of the triangle

ABC

is

the nine-

if r, r t , r2 , r3

be the radii of the inscribed and escribed

the radius of the circumcircle,

rl

Let

the internal bisector

the external bisectors of the other angles

point circle of the triangle IiI2I3

circles,

if

be the centre of the C-escribed

will

And,

circle.

meet the

+ r2 + r3 -r = 4R.

be the middle point of BC, and let SD meet the circumcircle in G

It follows from Ex. 1, that Q is the middle point of // and II the

middle point of I2 I3

2HD=r2 + a 2DG = r
R = 2EG = rj + 2 + r3 -

Hence

r.

-r.

Therefore

PROPERTIES OF THE INSCRIBED CIRCLE.

74
Ex.
If

Show

3.

SP=R?-2Rr.

that

IM be drawn

perpendicular to AC,

easy to show that the triangles

it is

IM AI= GC
AI.IG=1M.GH, that is &- SI* = 2Rr.
Ex. 4. Show that
/j = R? + 2Rr
AIM, IICG

Therefore

are similar.

GH. But

GC= GI.

Hence

Ex.

5.

If

be the in-centre of the triangle ABC, and

i"

if

AI

cut

BC in

and the circumcircle in G, show that

GI 2 =GX.GA.
Ex.

6.

If Z> be the middle point of

from A, and

BC,

the foot of the perpendicular

the point of contact of the inscribed circle with BC, show that
DL- = DX.DP.

Ex.

7.

Show

that the nine-point circle of a triangle touches the inscribed

circle.

Let L, M,

N be the points of contact of the inscribed circle with

of the triangle.

Let

perpendicular from A.

BC

be the middle point of BC, and

Let the line joining

the sides

the foot of the

to the centre of the inscribed

X, and let XL' be the other tangent drawn from

to this
circle.
Join DL, and let it cut the^inscribed circle in Tj Then T is a point
on the nine-point circle, and the two circles will touch at T.
circle cut

in

The tangent

to the nine-point circle at D,

since each of the angles

CBA, ACB.
By Ex. 6, we have

T are concyclic, and

is

to the angle

HDB, L'XB
2

Therefore

DH suppose, is parallel

DT.

Hence the points P, X,

T is a point on

the nine-point

HTD

This proof was given by

Ex

8.

Mr

J.

L',

DTP is equal to the angle L'XB, that

circle.

Also a line through T, making with TD an angle

equal to
tangent to both circles, proving that the circles touch at T.
Reprint, Vol.

to XL',

equal to the difference of the angles

DX DP=DL =DL'

therefore the angle

HDB.

is

Young

in the Educational

TDH, is

Times (see E. T.

li., p. 58).

Show

escribed circles.

that the nine-point circle of a triangle touches each of the

THE COSINE CIRCLE.

The Cosine
If through the

129.

drawn

circle.

symmedian point

antiparallel to the sides, the six

intersect the sides lie

centre of this circle

which

circle,

K be

is

is

which thev

in

called

the cosine

the symmedian point.

v
x ^^____^^'X'

Let

on a

of a triangle lines be

points

the triangle.

circle of

The

75

the symmedian point of the triangle

XKY'

TKZ', ZKX',

ABC, and

let

be drawn antiparallel to the sides BC, CA,

AB respectively.
The

angles

KXX', KX'X

KX = KX'.

therefore

are each equal to the angle

Similarly

we have

BAC

KY = KY', and

KZ=KZ'.
But

AK bisects

KY= KZ.

Similarly,

Hence the
centre

is

all lines antiparallel to

KZ=KX\

KX = KY'.

X', Y, Y', Z, Z'

lie

on a

circle

whose

K.

It is evident that the

segments

cosines of the opposite angles

is

X,

six points

and

the side BC, therefore

XX,

YY',

ZZ

hence the name cosine

are proportional to the

circle.

The

cosine circle

the only circle which possesses the property of cutting the sides of the

triangle at the extremities of three diameters.

Ex.

130.

the triangle

Ex.

2.

that the triangles

YZX, Z'X'Y'

are each similar to

If YZ', ZX',

XY'

be any three diameters of a

circle,

show that the

the cosine circle of the triangle formed by the lines XX',

circle is

Ex.

Show

1.

ABC.

3.

intersect in

through

If the tangents at

x,

and

circle

ZZ'

show that the circle whose centre is K and which passes

will cut AB, AC in two points which are extremities of a
x

diameter.

This

YY,

B and C to the circumcircle of the triangle ABC

has been called an ex-cosine

circle.

THE LEMOINE CIRCLE.

76

The Lemoine

symmedian point

If through the

131.

drawn

circle.
of a triangle, lines be

parallel to the sides, the six points in

the sides

on a

lie

circle,

which

called the

is

which they intersect

Lemoine

circle of the

triangle.

Let
be the symmedian point of the triangle ABC, and let
YKZ', ZKX', XKY' be drawn parallel to the sides BG, CA,
respectively.
Let 8 be the circumcentre of the triangle, and L

AB

the middle point of

AK

Let

gram, A'

is

SK.

meet Y'Z

Then

in A'.

the middle point of

KY'AZ is

since

a parallelo-

AK.

8A = 2LA'.

Hence

Again,

AK

ZY'; therefore ZY'

bisects

BG, and therefore

side

LA', which

is parallel

Again, since

BG,

it

ZK

follows that

to

118)

SA,

SA
is

is

ZY'

is

antiparallel to the

perpendicular to

ZY'

AC, and ZY'

is

antiparallel to

equal to the radius of the cosine

4L Y'- = R +
2

R is the radius of the

Hence

perpendicular to ZY'.

parallel to

is

Hence we have
where

is

circle.

p-,

circumcircle,

and p the radius of the

cosine circle.
It follows

whose centre
Ex.

132.

by symmetry that X, X',

is

1.

L, the middle point of

Y, Y', Z, Z' lie

In the figure, show that the chords Y'Z, Z'X,

equal.

Ex.

2.

If the

on a

Lemoine

circle cut

BC in

X and X', show that

BX XX' X'C=BA* BC
:

circle

SK.

2
:

CA*.

X'Y

are


THE TUCKER CIRCLES.
Ex.

3.

Show

that

XX'

YT

ZZ' = BC 3

On

account of this property the

by Mr Tucker.

circle

Ex.

Show that the

ABC.

4.

triangle

Ex.

5.

SD

If

77

triangles

CA 3 AB3

has been called the

circle

ZXY, Y'Z'X'

be drawn perpendicular to

triplicate ratio

are each similar to the

YZ\ show

that

Z'D

is

equal to

KY.
133.

ABC

If on the line

A', B',

SK joining

the circumcentre of a triangle

symmedian point any point

to its

be taken, and

if

points

C be taken on the lines KA, KB, KG respectively, so

that

KA':KB':KC'.KT=KA:KB:KG:KS,
then lines drawn through A',

B',

C antiparallel

BC, CA, AB,

to

/V!

/
Z/r~

'T'A

^y^B"
\b'

'

V"
C"\N

c"/.

X
will

meet the

sides of the triangle in six points which

lie

on a

circle.

The system of circles obtained by taking different

K8 is known as Tucker's system of circles.

points

on

the line

The proof that the

that given in 131.
to

six points lie

ZY', and that TA', TB',

respectively.

on a

circle is

It is easy to see that

TC

TA'

Also, the chords Y'Z, Z'X,

X'Y are

Tucker's circles include as particular cases

(i)

(iii)

perpendicular

are proportional to

and are proportional to the radius of the cosine

six points lie on a circle, whose centre is T.

(ii)

very similar to
is

SA, SB.

Si

evidently equal,

circle.

Hence, the

The circumcircle, when T coincides with S.

The cosine circle, when T coincides with K.
The Lemoine circle, when T is the middle point

of

SK.

PROPERTIES OF THE TUCKER CIRCLES.

78
1.

Ex.
:
(

Ex.

are parallel to the sides of the

the sides YZ',

lie

that the vertices of the triangle formed by the lines Y'Z,

Show

3.

XT

Z'X,

XT'

Show that the vertices of the triangle formed by

on the symmedian lines AK, BK, CK.

2.

XY'

ZX',

that the lines YZ', ZX',

Show
ABC.

Ex.
triangle

lie

on the symmedian

lines

AK, BK, CK.

Ex. 4. If through any point A' on the symmedian AK, lines be drawn
parallel to the sides AB, AC, meeting the symmedians BK, CK in the points
B', C; show that B'C will be parallel to BC, and that the sides of the
triangle A' B'C will meet the sides of the triangle ABC in six points which lie
on a Tucker circle.

any point A" on the symmedian AK, lines be drawn

AB, AC, meeting the symmedians BK, CK in the
points B", C" show that B"C" will be antiparallel to BC, and that the sides
of the triangle A"B"C" will meet the non-corresponding sides of the triangle
ABC in six points which lie on a Tucker circle.
Ex.

5.

If through

antiparallel to the sides

;

Ex.

6.

From

the vertices of the triangle

ABC,

perpendiculars

AD, BE,

CF are drawn to the opposite sides and EX, FX' are drawn perpendicular
to BC
FY, BY' perpendicular to CA and DZ, EZ' perpendicular to AB.
;

Show

that the six points X, X', Y, Y', Z, Z' are concyclic.

It is easy to show that Y'Z passes through the middle points of the sides
BE, BF of the triangle BEF. These points obviously lie on the symmedians
BK, CK. Hence, by Ex. 5, the points X, X', Y, Y', Z, Z' lie on a Tucker
circle.

This particular Tucker circle is usually called Taylor's circle. It was first
mentioned in a paper by Mr H. M. Taylor {Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, Vol. xv.).

Ex.
triangle

7.

Show

that the centre of Taylor's circle

formed by the middle points of the triangle

The Brocard
134.

The

circle

whose diameter

centre of a triangle to the

circle of

is

the in-centre of the

BEF.

circle.

is

the line joining the circum-

symmedian point

is

called the

Brocard

the triangle.

S be the circumcentre, and K the symmedian point of the

ABC. Draw SX, SY, SZ perpendicular to the sides BC,
CA,AB, and let them meet the circle described on SK as diameter
Let

triangle

in the points A', B',

The

triangle

C.

A'B'C

is

called BrocaroVs first triangle.

THE BROCARD CIRCLE.

79

Let BA', GB' meet in ft. We shall find that ft is one of the
Brocard points (116) and lies on the Brocard circle.
The perpendiculars from
on the sides of the triangle ABC

are proportional to those sides ( 114, Ex. 7); that

is

A'X: B'Y=BC: CA.

Therefore, since the angles

triangles

BXA', CYB'

equal to the angle CB'Y, that

point

ft

circle,

circle

we can show

that

is

Thus the
triangles

on the

lies

Similarly

XBA',

AC,

is

BA' meets

Hence if
and if ACl,

ft

YGB ZAC
',

is

SK.

is

on

the

Brocard

And

since the

are similar, the angles ClAB, SIBC,

of the Brocard points ( 116).

A B', BC,

CA'

intersect on the

ft'

be the

Brocard

points, defined as in 116,

Cft cut Bfl', Cft', AD,' respectively in the points

C, A', B', the Jive points

diameter

BAX

Therefore the

the other Brocard point.

and

2?ft,

AC

BA', GB' are concurrent.

Hence ft is one
Similarly we may show that
circle in

the angle CIB'S.

ft.

ftCJ. are equal.

Brocard

are right angles, the

Therefore the angle

circumscribing the triangle A'SB.

that

in the point
lines

BXA', CYB'

are similar.

ft,

ft',

A', B',

lie

on a

circle

whose

THE BROCARD TRIANGLES.

80

AK, BK, GK meet

If

G" the
,

triangle

A"B"C"

Let the symmedian

the Brocard circle in the points A", B"

is

called

lines

AK, BK, GK

A BG in

the circumcircle of the triangle

since

SA"

is

AK,

perpendicular to

be produced to meet

Then

the points P, Q, R.

it follo.ws

'

triangle.

A"

that

is

the middle

A P.

point of

Ex.

135.

Brocard's second

Show

1.

that Brocard's

first

triangle

is

similar to the triangle

ABC.
Ex.

Show

2.

parallel to

AQ', BQ',
Ex.

3.

that

if

AQ, BQ,

t,

Cq.

KC meet the sides of the triangle ABC in

the sides of the triangle Z X Y are
sides of the triangle Y Z X are parallel to

KA', KB',

Xu X Y Y Z

the points

and the

2 ;

Show

that the lines

A A',

BB',

concentric with the Brocard circle,

conjugates with respect to

meet

in the point

the triangle
Ex.

4.

Cq\

CC are concurrent.

Since the Lemoine circle which passes through

will

which

and
is

it

X X T Y Z
and K are isotomic
Xi

lt

lf Z.,, is

follows that A'

Hence

it

CC

follows that AA', BB',

the isotomic conjugate of

K with

respect to

ABC.

Show

and that Q' and

that Q and K are the Brocard points of the triangle Z X Y

K are the Brocard points of the triangle Y Z. X
X

2.

PROPERTIES OF THE BROCARD TRIANGLES.

Ex.

5.

Show

that

XX
X

Xj Yx = sin (A - )

that the line QQ'

Ex.

6.

Show

Ex.

7.

Show

ABC on

is

Ex.

8.

sin

a>.

that the perpendiculars from the vertices of the triangle

that their point of concurrence

in

perpendicular to SK.

the corresponding sides of Brocard's

The point

81

lies

first

which these perpendiculars meet

Show

triangle are concurrent,

and

on the circumcircle of ABC.

is called

Tarry's point.

that the Simson-line corresponding to Tarry's point

i.s

perpendicular to SK.
Ex.

9.

Show

that the lines

drawn through the

vertices of a triangle

ABC

parallel to the corresponding sides of the Brocard's first triangle intersect in a

point on the circumcircle of

ABC.

Ex. 10. Show that the point of concurrence in the last case is the opposite
extremity of the diameter of the circumcircle which passes through Tarry's
point.

Ex. 11.

If the

symmedian lines of the triangle ABC cut the circumcircle

show that the triangles ABC, PQR have the same
and the same Brocard circle.

in the points P, Q, R,

symmedian
Ex. 12.

point,
If

A'B'C be the first Brocard triangle, and K the symmedian

ABC, show that the areas (A'BC), (AC'C), (ABB), are

point, of the triangle

each equal to the area (KBC).

Ex

13.

Show

that the median point of the triangle

the median point of the triangle

If G' denote the

A'BC

coincides with

ABC.

triangle A' EC, we

=
(A'BC)
3 (G'BC)
+ (BBC) + (CBC).

median point of the

have

( 36, Ex. 4),

Therefore by the theorem of Ex. 12,

3 (G'BC) - (KBC) + (A BK)+(A KC)

= (ABC).
Therefore G' coincides with the median point of the triangle

ABC.

CHAPTER

VII.

RECTILINEAR FIGURES.
Definitions.

In Euclid, a plane rectilinear figure is defined to be a

bounded by straight lines that is to say, a rectilinear figure
is regarded as an area.
Such a figure has as many sides as vertices.
But in modern geometry, figures are regarded as 'systems of points'
136.

figure

or as

'

systems of straight

lines.'

In the present chapter we pro-

pose to consider the properties of figures consisting of finite groups

of points, or of finite groups of lines.

And

such figures

we

shall

call rectilinear figures.

The simplest
or

rectilinear figure is that defined

by three straight

lines.

be connected by three
points

may

is

by three

It is easy to see that three points

lines, so

ambiguity.

Now

of four points.
straight lines.

four lines,

we

let

may

that to have given a'system of three

equivalent to having given a system of three

name

therefore use the

points,

We

lines.

triangle for either figure without

us consider the case of a figure consisting

Four points may evidently be connected by

And
shall

six

similarly, in the case of a figure consisting of

have

that although four lines

six points of intersection.

may

It

is

obvious

be considered as a special case of a

figure consisting of six points, six points will in general be con-

nected by fifteen straight

lines.

It is evident from these considerations that

to use

names

for rectilinear figures

which

it will

be convenient

will distinguish figures

consisting of points from figures consisting of straight lines.

a system of four points

is

Thus,

often called a quadrangle, and a system

RECTILINEAR FIGURES.
of four lines a quadrilateral.
tionable from the fact that

and

The latter name however is objeccommonly used to mean an area,

it is

to avoid confusion it is

customary to speak of a complete

when the geometrical figure

But instead of these names it

quadrilateral

meant.

is

83

consisting of four lines

is

preferable to use the

terms tetrastigm and tetragram for the two kinds of

figures, as

names are more concise. For figures consisting of any

number of points we shall use the name polystigm ; and for
figures consisting of any number of straight lines, the name
these

polygram.
137.
vertices;

In the case of a polystigm, the primary points are called

and the

them

lines joining

The

are called connectors.

connectors of a polystigm will in general intersect in certain points

other than the vertices. Such points are called centres.

n points, a set of n connectors may be

ways so that two and not more than two pass
through each of the n vertices such a set of connectors will be
called a complete set of connectors.
For instance in the case of a
tetrastigm, if A, B, C, D be the vertices, we shall have three
complete sets of connectors, viz. AB, BC, CD, DA A B, BD, DC,
CA; and AC, CB, BD, DA.
If a polystigm consist of

selected in several

In the case of a tetrastigm, it is often convenient to use the

word opposite. Thus, in the tetrastigm ABCD the connector CD
is

said to be opposite to the connector

AB

and AB,

CD

are called

a pair of opposite connectors. It is evident that the six connectors

of a tetrastigm consist of three pairs of opposite connectors.

In the case of a polystigm, consisting of more than four

vertices,

the word opposite as applied to a pair of connectors can only be

used in reference to a complete

when the number

polystigm be

A A A
lt

-4 n+2

may

AA

,...A r A r+1} ...

is

of vertices
2

...

Am

set
is

of connectors, and then only

even.

If the vertices of the

the pair of connectors

AA

be called opposite connectors of the complete

obvious that

A nA

AB and CD

In the case of the tetrastigm

it

A A*,
ABCD, it

set,

are opposite connectors in each of the

two complete sets in which they occur; but in the case of the
hexastigm ABCDEF, AB will occur as a member of twenty-four
complete sets of connectors, and in only four of these sets
opposite to

is

DE.

62

AB

RECTILINEAR FIGURES.

84

Again, in the case of a polystigm of

2?i points, it is

sometimes

necessary to consider a group of n connectors which are such that

Such a
one, and only one, passes through each of the vertices.
group of connectors may be called a set of connectors. If two sets
of connectors together make up a complete set of connectors, the
two

may be

sets

in the case of a hexastigm

CD, EF will
Ex.
-n

of

sets.

the set of connectors

be complementary to eight

Show that a polystigm

- 2) (n - 3) centres.

1.

complementary

ABCDEF,

any
For instance

It is obvious that

called complementary sets.

particular set will have several

AB,

sets.

points has

^n(n-l)

connectors,

and

(n - 1) (n

Ex.

that a complete set of connectors of a polystigm of n points

Show

2.

be selected in \ (n -

may

Ex.

Show

3.

1)

ways.

that a set of connectors of a polystigm of

selected in 1.3. 5...(2n.

2?i

points

may be

- 1) ways.

Ex 4 Show
2* (n

1)

that any set of connectors of a polystigm of 2 points has

complementary sets.

In the case of a polygram, the points of intersection of

138.

the primary lines are called vertices of the figure.

may be

The

vertices

connected by certain lines other than those which deter-

mine the

These

figure.

A group

lines are called diagonals.

of vertices of a polygram which are such that two and

not more than two

complete set of

lie

on each of the

lines of the figure, is called a

And when

the polygram consists of an

vertices.

even number of

lines, the word opposite may be applied to a pair of

same way as in the case of a pair of connectors of a
Thus a tetragram will have three pairs of opposite

vertices in the

polystigm.
vertices.

In the case of a polygram of 2

such that one, and only one, vertex
is

Ex.

1.

set

may be

A polygram

of

Ex.

may

2.

Show

3.

Show

1) (n

a group of n vertices

on each line of the figure,

sets which together make

complementary
\n(ii-

- 2) (n - 3)

1) vertices,

sets.

and

diagonals.

that a complete set of vertices of a polygram of n lines

be selected in (n

Ex.

called

lines has

\n (n -

lies

And any two

called a set of vertices.

up a complete

lines,

1)

ways.

that a set of vertices of a polygram of 2 lines

selected in 1.3. 5...(2

1)

ways.

may

be

PROPERTIES OF A TETRASTIGM.

85

Properties of a Tetrastigm.

139.
is

system of four points, no three of which are

called a tetrastigm.

If these points are joined

collinear,

we have

nectors, or rather three pairs of opposite connectors.

six con-

Each pair of

opposite connectors intersect in a centre, so that there are three

centres.

Let A, B, C, D be any four points, and let the connectors AG,

BD meet in E, the connectors AB, CD in F, and the connectors
AD, BC in G. Then E, F,
are the centres of the tetrastigm

ABCD.
The

triangle

EFG

is

called the central triangle of the tetra-

stigm.
Ex.

140.

points of
lines

If
;

2.

If

X,
be the middle points of AC, BD Y, Y' the middle
and Z, Z' the middle points of AD, BC; show that the

XX', YY', ZZ'

Ex.
in G,

1.

AB, CD

are concurrent, and bisect each other.

ABCD be a tetrastigm,

and

if

AB cut CD in

F, and

AD cut BC

show that

FA.FC.FB. FD=GA .GC'.GB. GD.

GCB as a transversal
triangle FAD, and GDA as a transversal of the triangle FBC.
This result follows at once by considering

Ex.

3.

If J, B, C,

D be any four points in a plane,

show that

AC2 BD = AB*. CD*+AD*.BC*-2AB. BC. CD. DA cos

2

where
Ex.
points

is

the difference of the angles

Ex:

5.

Show

'

DA

in the

DY'

C2T

XB YC X'D
'

o>,

BAD, BCD.

4.
If any straight line cut the connectors AB, BC, CD,
X, Y, X', Y' respectively, show that

AX BY

of the

"

Y'A

'

that the bisectors of the angles of a triangle are the six

connectors of a tetrastigm.


PROPERTIES OF

86

Any pair of opposite connectors of a tetrastigm are

141.
harmonically conjugate with respect to the sides of the central
triangle which meet at their point of intersection.

A BCD

Let
let

be the tetrastigm,

GE meet AB in F'.
Since A C, BD, GE are

F'

EFG

concurrent,

its

we have

AF' BG GD =

FGD

is

94)

,
*

F'B'GG'DA~

Also since

central triangle; and

a transversal of the triangle

GAB

( 104),

AF BG GD
BF'GG'AD~
AF' F'B = AF:BF;

Therefore
that

{FF'

is,

AB]

is

a harmonic range.

Therefore G {EF, AB] is a harmonic pencil, and

harmonic conjugate rays with respect to GE, GF.

The theorem may

vertices

which

also be stated thus

of a tetrastigm

it

passes,

is

and in

The

AD, BC

line joining

are

any two

divided harmonically in the centre through

of intersection with the line joining

the point

the other two centres.

If

we suppose the

line

FG to

be at

are the vertices of a parallelogram

of the point in which

AC

infinity,

intersects

then the four points A, B, C,

is the harmonic conjugate

and since

FG, with respect to the points A, C,

Thus the theorem of this article

E is the middle point of AC.

it

follows that

is

a generalisation of the theorem

The diagonals of a parallelogram

bisect each other.

A TETRASTIGM.

87

Ex. 1. If .42?, CD meet in F, and if through F a line be drawn

AC, BD in P and P, AD, BC in Q and (/, and EG in /", .show that
{FF\ PQ, PQ?} will be a range in involution.
142.

cutting

Ex.

The

2.

A BCD

centres of the tetrastigm

in

X and BD in 2T' GE meets 45 in

in

Z and

Show

Z?C in Z'.

and CZ)

that FZ' and

are E, F,
in 7'

and

ZY' pass through

FG

meet

AC

EF meets 4 D

A',

and YZ, V

/.

through X'.
Ex.

In the same figure show that

3.

AY

CY' DZ
Y'D' ZA

BZ'

YBZ'C
Ex.

ABCD

If

4.

be any tetrastigm, and

straight lines be drawn, one meeting

the other meeting CD,

XB'
Ex.

If four points

5.

DA

if

BC

in

from any point in AC two

and Y respectively, and

AD in X' and V respectively

AX BY

CD,

AB,

'

show that

DY'

CJT

YC X'D'

Y'A

X, Y, X', Y' be taken on the connectors AB, BC,

respectively of a tetrastigm, such that

AX BY
XB'
show that XY, X'Y'

CX^ DY'

YC X'D'

'

Y'A

on AC, and that XY',

will intersect

X'Y will

intersect

on BD.
Ex.

CD

The connectors AB,

ABCD

meet in F, and
is drawn
meeting AD and BC in Y and Y', and through G a line is drawn meeting AB
and CD in
and X'. Show that XY, X'Y', and BD are concurrent and
that XY', X'Y, and A Care concurrent.
6.

AD, BC meet

the connectors

of the tetrastigm

Through

in G.

a straight line

Ex.

7.

The mid-points

of the perpendiculars

ABC are

opposite sides of the triangle

points of BC,

P, Q,

drawn from A, B, C to the

and D, E, F are the mid-

CA,AB.

If the sides of the triangle

DEF

PQR

intersect the corresponding sides of the

M, N, show that the pencils A {BC, PL},

B{CA, QM}, C{AB, BX}, are harmonic, and that the points L, M, X are

triangle

in the points L,

[Sarah Marks, E. T. Reprint, Vol. xlviii.,

collinear.

143.

cutting

Let

p. 121.]

ABCD be any tetrastigm, and let any straight line l>e drawn,
BD in JT and X', AB, CD in Y and Y', and AD, BC in Zand Z

Let

AC,

x, of, y,

...

be the harmonic conjugate points of X, X', Y,

C B, D A, B ; ... respectively.

respect to the point-pairs A,

Then by 60, since {AB, Yy) and {AD, Zz) are harmonic ranges,
BD, YZ are concurrent that is, yz passes through X'.

that yz,

Similarly,

...

it

follows

we may show

intersect in the point X.

that

with

y'zf

passes through X', and that

>/-

INVOLUTION PROPERTY

88

and X' are two of the centres of the tetrastigm yy'zz' and
the segment yy' is divided harmonically by zd and XX',
and likewise the segment zz' is divided harmonically by yy' and XX'.
Hence,

therefore

by

Similarly
Therefore, if

141,

we can show
xx

that Y, Y' are two centres of the tetrastigm xafzz

1
,

zz intersect in 0,

each of the segments xx

harmonically in the point 0, and in the point where

It follows that the lines

xx

yy', zz

it

in the point

Ex.

XX'

and the point where

it

cuts the line

Deduce the theorem given in

zz is divided

cuts YY'.

are concurrent, and that

point in which they intersect, each segment such as xx'

140,

Ex.

is

if

be the

divided harmonically

XX'.
1,

by considering the

line

to be the line at infinity.

144.

Any

straight line is cut in involution by the three pairs of

opposite connectors of

any

tetrastigm.

OF A TETRASTIGM.
Let

89

ABCD be any tetrastigm, and let any straight line cut the
BD, AC in P, F; the connectors CD, AB in Q, Q'- and

connectors

AD in R, R.

the connectors BC,

will

BD

Since the line

QQ', lilt]

TTP =

Similarly, since

points Q, C, D,

DC

the

104,

AB QT RD
Q'B'R'P- AD~
Q'P
Q'B AD

thatls

AQR in

cuts the sides of the triangle

we have by

points P, D, B,

.,

Then the range {PF,

be in involution.

'

TBRD'

cuts the sides of the triangle

ARF

in the

we have

RQ = RD AC
P'Q ADP'C
And

since

BC

cuts the sides of the triangle

R, B, C, we have

AP'Q

in the points

P^RFC AB
Q'R~ AC'Q'B'

QT RQ FR

Hence
that

RPFQQ'RPQ'.

is

Therefore by
Ex.

145.

the range {PF, QQ',

75,

1.

QR. RF+ P'Q Q'R

The

straight lines

pairs of opposite connectors of

'

RP =

RR]

is

0.

in involution.

drawn through any point

& tetrastigm form

parallel to the

a pencil in involution.

This follows by considering the range formed by the intersection of the six
connectors with the line at infinity.
Ex.

2.

If E, F,

point, the rays

any
be the centres of the tetrastigm ABCD, and
GO with respect to the pairs of

conjugate to EO, FO,

connectors which intersect in E, F,

Ex.

C are

respectively, are concurrent.

and
3.
be the point of concurrence in the last case, show that
the double points of the range in involution formed by the points of
If 0'

intersection of 00' with the connectors of the tetrastigm.

drawn through one of the centres of a

show that the locus of the centre of the range in involution
determined by the connectors of the tetrastigm, will be a straight line.
Ex.

4.

If a straight line be

tetrastigm,

Ex. 5. Given any point, find a straight line passing through it, so that
the given point shall be a double point of the range in involution in which it
is

cut by the connectors of a given tetrastigm.

PROPERTIES OF

90
Ex.

Any

6.

ABC.

If

OA

point in which
intersect

will

point

taken on a transversal

is

XYZ

of a given triangle

to B and C, of the
show that OC will intersect PY, and that OB
points which lie on a fixed straight line passing

P be the harmonic conjugate point with respect

cuts BC,

PZ

in

through A.

be taken on CA, AB respectively, such that the pencils

{AB, CR) are harmonic, show that the corresponding lines

If points Q,

{CA, BO) and

,

passing through

and C

will intersect

on the straight

line

which passes

through A.
146.

of 144 suggests a simple construction for determining

1
in a range in involution, when two
of the point

The theorem

conjugate couples A, A'

Let any straight

points on

meet

will

AB in

and B, B'

line

AQ

Let

it.

the corresponding point

PQR

are known.

be drawn through P, and

meet B'R

in S,

and

let

BQ

let Q,

meet A'R

in

be any two

then

TS

P'.

For in the tetrastigm QRST, the three pairs of opposite connectors are
AQS, A'RT; BQT, B'RS; and PQR, P'ST. Therefore by 144, the range
{A A',

BE,

Ex.

PP

is in

If {A A',

BE,

three points P, Q,

PQ\

involution.

show how to determine

{AA\ QR}, {BE, RP), {CC,

CC'} be any range in involution

R such

that each of the ranges

shall be harmonic.

Properties of a Tetragram.
147.
is

that

we have

lines, no three of which are concurrent,

These four lines intersect in six points, so

system of four

called a tetragram.

three pairs of opposite vertices.

The

lines connecting

each pair of opposite vertices are the diagonals, so that there are
three diagonals.

The

the diagonal triangle.

triangle formed

by the diagonals

is

called

A TETRAGRAM.

Sometimes

it

convenient to denote the lines forming a

and the vertices by double letters and

is

tetragram by single

91

letters,

sometimes
vertices.

more convenient to use letters to denote the

Thus if a, b, c, d be the four lines forming the tetragram,
it

is

the points

ac, bd are a pair of opposite vertices, and the line joining

them, denoted by e in the figure, is a diagonal. If A, A'; B, B;

G,

C; be

the three pairs of opposite vertices, the lines of the

ABC,

tetragram are
Ex.

148.

tetragram,

ABC,

If A, A'; B,

1.

A'BC, and A'BG.

;

C,

C be the pairs of opposite vertices

of a

show that

AC. AC AB. AB' = A'C. A'C A'B.A'B.

:

Ex. 2. Show that the circumcircles

A'BC, A'BC meet in a point.

Let the circumcircles of

120, it follows

ABC, ABC

Ex.

3.

They

A'BC, A'BC must

Show
lie

ABC, ACB,

meet

and then by

in the point 0,

that the feet of the perpendiculars from

constituting the tetragram are collinear.

triangles

of the four triangles

on a

Hence the

on the four

tinea

circumcircles of the

also pass through the point 0.

also that the orthocentres of the four triangles are collinear.

line

which

feet of the perpendiculars

is

parallel to the line

drawn from

0.

which passes through the

PROPERTIES OF

92
Ex.

4.

Prove that,

if,

for each of the four triangles

formed by four

lines,

a line be drawn bisecting perpendicularly the distance between the circumcentre and the orthocentre, the four bisecting lines will be concurrent.

[Hervey, E. T. Reprint, Vol. liv.]

Ex.

5.

In every tetrastigm, the three pairs of opposite connectors inter-

sect the opposite sides of the central triangle in six points

which

lie

three by

three on four straight lines, thus determining the three pairs of opposite
vertices of a tetragram.

See 142, Ex.

Ex.

6.

2.

If abed be

any tetragram, and

if

the line joining the points ab, cd

show that the lines

meet the lines c, d, a, b

intersect the line joining the points ad, be in the point

drawn through

parallel to the lines a,

b, c,

will

respectively in four collinear points.

149.

[Trin. Coll., 1890.]

The points in which any diagonal of a tetragram cuts

harmonic conjugate points with respect to

other two diagonals are

pair of opposite

vertices

Let A, A'; B,B'\

which

C, G'\

it

the
the

connects.

be the three pairs of opposite vertices

A and A' are a pair of centres

BC, B'C. Hence, by 141, it follows that BB',
and CC, cut A A' in two points which are harmonic conjugates
with respect to A and A'.
of the tetragram.

Then evidently

of the tetrastigm

If the lines of the tetragram be denoted

diagonals by
e {ad,

gf},f

e,

{etc,

g,

ge],

we

see

(fig.

by

a, b, c, d,

and the

147) that each of the ranges

{ab,fe) is harmonic.

A TETRAGRAM.
Ex.

150.

Ex.

Prove the theorem of

1.

CC intersect

If BB',

2.

{AE, BC, B'C'}

is

and

in E,

93

149 directly by means of 98,

be any point on

if

1<)6.

A A', show that

a pencil in involution.

Ex. 3. Show that the three pairs of opposite vertices of a tetragram

connect with the opposite vertices of the diagonal triangle, by six lines which
pass three by three through four points, thus determining the three pairs of
opposite connectors of a tetrastigm.

Ex.

If abed be

4.

any tetragram, and

if

the diagonal which connects the

points ab, cd, meet the diagonal which connects the points ad,

show that the

cuts the lines a,

lines

b, c,

which join

to the points in which

d, will cut the lines

c,

be, in

the point

any transversal

d, a, b respectively in four collinear

points.

Ex.

The points A, A'

5.

From any

tetragram.

B'C and

point

BC in H and K

B,

P in

C,

are the opposite vertices of a

AA', the lines PB,

respectively.

Show

that

PB

are

drawn

meet
on

to

HC and KC intersect

the line AA'.

The middle points of

151.

the diagonals of

a tetragram are

collinear.

A, A'; B, B'; C, 0'\ be the pairs of opposite vertices of a

tetragram, then the middle points of AA' BB', CC are collinear.
If

(See

38,

Ex.

be the vertices of the diagonal triangle

the middle points of AA', BB', CC.

Let L, M,

X, Y,

2.)

and


PROPERTIES OF

94

{MN, A A'}
we have by

Since
of

A A',

is

a harmonic range, and

X the middle point

54, Ex. 3,

MX NX = AM': AN*.
:

Similarly

we

have

shall

NY: LY=BN- BL\

LZ: MZ=CL* :CM*.
:

But

ABC is

since

a transversal of the triangle

104,

LMN, we

have by

AN_

BL CM

CL'AM'BN~

MX NY LZ
NXLY'MZ'

Hence

Z are

Therefore by 105, X, Y,

collinear.

Ex. 1. The orthocentres of the four triangles formed by four straight

on a straight line which is perpendicular to the line which bisects the
diagonals of the tetragram formed by the given straight lines.
152.

lines lie

Ex.

If five tetragrams be

2.

formed by excluding in succession each of

given lines, show that the five lines which bisect the diagonals of these

five

tetragrams respectively, are concurrent.

be the Brocard points of the triangle ABC, and if A'B'C

show that the lines joining the middle points of
corresponding sides of the two triangles intersect in the point which bisects
Ex.

If Q, Q'

3.

be Brocard's

first triangle,

QQ'.

Ex.

Show

4.

that the middle points of any pair of opposite sides of a

tetrastigm are collinear with the middle point of one of the sides of the
triangle

153.

formed by the centres of the tetrastigm.

The theorem

A A',

cut the diagonals

of 151

BB',

may be

CC of a

thus generalised

X', Y', Z' be the harmonic conjugate points

pairs of opposite

Let L, M,
range {A A',

vertices, the

X be

MX}
56,

Y\

Ex.

line

and

if

corresponding

Z' will be collinear.

XX'}

is

then by

149, the

harmonic, and also the range {AA',

4,

MX MX NX
1

X = MA* NA\
:

'

In the same way we may show that

NT. NT' LY.LY' = XB LB2

LZ LZ' MZ. MZ = LC* MC\
2

and

Z;

harmonic.

Since the range {AA',

we have by

points X',

icith respect to the

the vertices of the diagonal triangle

is

If any straight

tetragram in the points X, Y,

MX},

A TETRAGRAM.
But since

ABC is a transversal

MA XB LC
XA LB MC.=
'

MX NY
.

Hence

have by

LZ MX' X V
.

LZ'
!

Therefore by

X\ Y\

we take the

104

1.

XX.LY.MZXX". LY'.MZ ,=

the points
If

LMX, we

'

yz

95

of the triangle

105, since the points

x
X, Y,

are collinear, so also are

Z'.

XYZ, the points X', Y,

BB\ CC and thus we have

line at infinity instead of the line

Z' become respectively the middle points of AA',

the theorem of 151.

154.

The

lines connecting

any point with

gramform a pencil in involution.

the vertices of

tetra-

INVOLUTION PROPERTY OF A TETRAGRAM.

96

Let A, A'; B, B';

tetragram, and

be the pairs of opposite vertices of a

G, G';

[AA\
will

Then the

be any point.

let

pencil

BB', CC'}

be in involution.
Since

A'B'C

ABG, we have

a transversal of the triangle

is

'

BA' CB' AG'

CA''AF'BC'~
Hence

as in 109, Ex. 2,
sin

GOB

sin

A OB'

sin504'
sin

Therefore by
Ex.

155.

drawn

91,

1.

GO A'

'

that

if

'

sin

AOC ~
BOG'

[A A', BB', GG'\

the pencil

Show

sin

'

is

in involution.

through any point 0, lines OA', OB', OC be

ABC, the pencil 0{AA', BB', CC} will

parallel to the sides of a triangle

be in involution.
This

is

proved by considering the tetragram formed by the three sides of

a triangle and the line at infinity.

Ex.

2.

Deduce the theorem of

Ex.

3.

If in 153 the line

show that these

153,

from the theorem of the

XYZ meet

last article.

the line X'Y'Z' in the point 0,

be the double lines of the pencil in involution

lines will

0{AA',BB',CC'}.
Ex.

Show

4.

that the circles described on the diagonals AA', BB',

common

a tetragram, as diameters, have two

Let the

circle described

Then BPB,

CPC

A PA'

pencil in involution,

Ex.

5.

on BB' cut the

If A, A'

B, B'

is

a right angle by
C,

of

on CC in P and P.
P {AA', BB', CC} is a

circle described

Therefore since

are right angles.

CC,

points.

87.

be the opposite vertices of a tetragram,

CC show that
CC 2 = -1YZ. ZX. XY.

and X, Y, Zthe middle points of AA', BB',

YZ. AA' 2 +ZX. BB'z + XY.

[Jesus Coll. 1890.]

Ex.

6.

Apply the theorem

in 154 to obtain a construction for finding a

ray which shall be the conjugate of a given ray in a pencil in involution.

Ex.

7.

Through a

sides of a triangle

gate of the point

fixed point

ABC in

X with

point of intersection of
intersection of

OB

any straight

the points X, Y, Z.

respect to B, C,

will pass

If

show that the

OC and AX', and

and AX',

drawn intersecting the

X' be the harmonic conju-

line is

line joining J" to the

the line joining

Z to

the point of

through the same fixed point on BC.

harmonic conjugate points of Y and Z with respect to C, A

if P be the point in which the line joining Y to the
point of intersection of OC and AX' cuts BC Q the point in which the line
If Y', Z' be the

and A,

respectively

SPECIAL CASE OF A HEXASTIGM.

Z to

joining

the point of intersection of

point in which the line joining

cuts

CA

and

It

the

X to the point of intersection of OB and t'Z

R are collinear.
The line PQR is the polar of the

show that P,

OA and BY'

97

Q,

with respect to the triangle ABC.

point

Ul.)

Special cases of polystigms and polygrams.

156.

The

properties of figures consisting of more than four

points or straight lines have not been systematically investigate!

1.

Consequently we shall merely discuss the few special cases of

The most important of
interest which have been discovered.
these
lie

is

the case of the hexastigm in which three of the points

line, and the remaining three on another
and the correlative case of the hexagram which

on one straight

straight line
consists of

157.

AB',

two pencils of three

If {ABC} {A' B'C'}

BC, CA'

be

rays.

any two ranges,

intersect the three lines

the straight lines

A'B, B'C,

CA

CA

and

respectively

in three points which are collinear.

A
Let

Z, and

BC,
let

AB',

BC, CA'

form the triangle

Then since XCR, CYA, BA'Z

PQR, we have by 104,

and

B'C intersect in X, CA',

in Y,

AR, A'B

in

PQR.

are transversals of the triangle

QX RC PJ?_
RX'Pd'QR
RY PA QC_
PY'QA'RC
PZ QB RA'_
QZ'RB'PA'

1
'

'

SPECIAL CASES OF HEXASTIGMS

98

But since BCA, G'A'B'

we have by 5 104,

are also transversals of the triangle

QB RG PA
RB'PG'QA~

Hence, we have
Therefore by

CA'

105,

A'B'C

In
in

fact,

may show

BA

Ave

may

If

collinear.

that the lines

AC, BR,

respectively in three collinear

interchange the order of the

Thus we

every possible way.

collinear points.

Z are

the points X, Y,

intersect the lines A'B, C'C,

points.

'

In the same way we

158.

'

QC RA' PB
RC"PA"QB~
QX RY PZ =
y py QZ

and

PQR,

we use the

notation
[

point of intersection of the lines

A B',

shall

.,J

BA', we

six sets of collinear points in the tabular

form

(AB\

(BC'\

iCA'^

[a'BJ'

\B'C)'

\C'A,

(AC\
\B'b)'

(BA'\
[C'CJ'

fCB'\
\a'a)

(AA'\

(BB'\

(GC'\

have

six

letters

sets of

to

represent the

may

exhibit these

\cb)' Ka'c) \b a)
(AC\ (BB'\ tCA'\
[a'b)' [cv)' [b'AJ'
1

(AA'\

rBC'\

fCB'

\rb)'

[a'C)'

[ca

BA'\

(CC'\

fAB'\
(

[cb)' \b'c)' [a'ajEach

of these triads of points are collinear.

Thus we have the theorem

The nine

lines

which connect

ttvo

triads of collinear points intersect in eighteen other points which

lie

in threes on six straight lines.

It should be noticed that each of the collinear triads of points

are

the points of intersection

connectors in a complete

ABCA'BC.

of the

three pairs of opposite

set of connectors

Hence the theorem may be

of the

hexastigm

stated in the form: The

AND HEXAGRAMS.

99

three pairs of opposite connectors, in each of the six complete sets

of
consisting of two triads of collinear points, intersect

a hexastigm

in

three collinear points.

Show that the nine points in which any pencil of three ran
1.
any other pencil of three rays may be connected by eighteen lines
which pass three by three through six points.
Ex.

159.

intersects

If a,
pencil,

b,

denote the rays of one pencil, and

we may show by a very

similar

method

a', b',

d the rays

of the other

to that used in 157, 158,

that the following triads of lines are concurrent

(ab'\

(bt'\

(ca'\

\a'b)>

\b'c)>

\c'a)

fac'\
\b'b)

fba'\

fcb'\

\c'c)'

\a'a)'

(bb'\

(cc'\

(aa!\

\c'b)

'

\a'c)

'

\b'a)

'

(ad\

(bb'\

fca'\

[a'bj*

\<?c)'

\b'a)''

faa'\
\b'b)>

fbc'Y

fcb'\

Kate)'

\c'a)''

(ab'\

/ba'\

\c'b)'

\b'c)'

cc '\

\a'a)'

Ex. 2. If in a hexagon two pairs of opposite sides intersect on the corresponding diagonals, then the remaining pair of opposite sides will intersect on
the diagonal corresponding to this pair.

Ex.

3.

CC meet
lines

The

six points A, B, C, A', B',

which intersect in

Ex.

4.

collinear.

Show

in the point 0.

six points

[Math. Tripos, 1890.]

C are such

that they

may be

that the lines

.1.1',

BB",

connected by ten other

which are the vertices of a tetragr.un.

The six lines a, b, c, a', b', c' are such that the points aa\ bb\ cc' arc
Show that they intersect in ten other points which lie on six lines

which are the connectors of a tetrastigm.

Ex.

5.

If A, B, C, A',

CA' are concurrent, and

BB',

CC are
6.

C be any six points such that the line*

AC',BA', CB", show that the

.1

B, IU ".

lines .LI',

concurrent.

This theorem, which

Ex.

B\

also the lines

A pair

is

contained in Ex.

1,

affords a proof of 135, Ex. 3.

of opposite vertices of a tetragram are given, and of the four

Show that the
lie on three given straight lines.

remaining vertices, three

sixth vertex lies on one or other of six straight lines.

72

CHAPTER

VIII.

THE THEORY OF PERSPECTIVE.

Triangles in perspective.
160.

Two triangles

are said to be in perspective

when the

lines

connecting the vertices of one triangle to the corresponding vertices

of the other triangle are concurrent.
If
lines

ABC, A'B'C be two

A A',

BB',

triangles in perspective, such that the

CC meet in the

called corresponding vertices,

corresponding sides.

point 0, the vertices

and the sides BC,

The point

is

A and A' are

B'C

are called

called the centre of perspective

of the two triangles.

161.

When two

triangles are in perspective, the corresponding

sides intersect in three collinear points.

TRIANGLES IN PERSPECTIVE.

101

Let ABC, A'B'C' be two triangles in perspective, so that

AA

BB', CG' intersect in the point 0.

Let

A'F

BG

and

Since

B'C

Then X,

in Z.

BG'X

intersect in

Z will

Y,

be

CA, C'A'

F; and AB,

in

collinear.

a transversal of the triangle CBO, we have by

is

104,

BX

CCT OB'

GX'UG" BB'~
Similarly, since

A'G'Y

is

a transversal of the triangle

GY AA' OG' _
AY' 0A"GG'~
and

since

A'B'Z

is

BZ

162.

105,

The

line

BAO,

BB' OA' _
~
'

OB'

'

AA'

BX -j-^..
GY AZ =
-7^3

Hence we nave,
Therefore by

'

a transversal of the triangle

AZ

CAO,

the points X, Y,

1.

Z are

collinear.

X YZ which passes through

the points of inter-

section of the corresponding sides of two triangles in perspective,

is

called the axis of perspective.

Triangles in perspective

sometimes

are

called

triangles, the centre of perspective being called

homologous

the centre of

homology, and the axis of perspective the axis of homology.

Triangles in perspective are also said to be copolar, the cenmof perspective being called the pole.
163.

If corresponding

sides

of two triangles

intersect in col-

linear points, the triangles are in perspective.

Let YCG', ZBB' be any two such triangles and let CC', YC,
meet BB' ZB,
in the points 0, A, A' respectively
;

YC

fig.

ZR

161).

Then

YZ in

it

may be

proved, as in 161, that BG,

RC

intersect

the same point X.

Therefore the triangles YCC',

ZBB'

X being their centre of perspective.

are in perspective, the point

TRIANGLES IN PERSPECTIVE.

102

The theorem in 161 may also be proved as follows Let ABC,

164.
A'B'C be any two triangles in the same plane so situated that A A', BB', CC
meet in the point 0. Let 0' be any point on the normal to the plane at 0,
and let the normals at A', B', C meet O'A, O'B, O'C in the points A", B", C"
:

respectively.

The two planes ABC, A"B"C" will

intersect in a line (L say).

Also the lines BC, B"C" being in the same plane O'^Cwill meet in a point,
which being common to each of the planes ABC, A"B"C", must lie in the line
of intersection of these planes; that is, BC and B"C will intersect on the
line L.

But B'C is evidently the orthogonal projection of B"C", and therefore will
B"C" in the point in which the latter cuts the plane ABC. Conse-

intersect

quently

B'C

will intersect

AB will

Similarly CA,

BC in

a point on the line L.

intersect C'A', A'B' respectively in points

which

lie

on L.

Hence the corresponding

sides of the triangles

ABC, A'B'C

intersect in

collinear points.

Ex.

165.

If the

1.

symmedian

lines

of the triangle

ABC in

circle at A', B',

C will form a triangle in

Ex.

CK meet the circumcircle

C, show that the tangents to the
perspective with the triangle ABC.
AK, BK,

the points A', B',

If the lines joining the vertices of

2.

common median

two

which have a

triangles,

point, be parallel, their axis of perspective passes through

the median point.

Ex.

Show that

3.

ABC, then
See

135,

Ex.

4.

ABC is
Ex.

if

A'B'C be the

Show

that the triangle formed by the middle points of the sides of

first triangle is in

Ex.

If the triangle

also with the triangle

A'B'C.
Ex.

See
6.

Brocard triangle of the triangle

A'B'C, B'C A' and CA'B'.

3.

Brocard's
5.

first

in perspective with the triangles

159,

Two

perspective with the original triangle.

ABC be in perspective with the triangle B'C A', and

CA'B', show that it is in perspective with the triangle

Ex.

5.

triangles having the

If the centre of perspective be

same median point G, are

on the

line at infinity,

in perspective.

the axis of perspective

passes through G.

Ex.

7.

Two

sides of a triangle pass through fixed points,

vertices lie on three fixed straight lines,

which are concurrent

and the three

show that the

third side will always pass through a fixed point.

Ex.

8.

Two

vertices of a triangle

move on

fixed straight lines,

three sides pass through three fixed points, which are collinear

and the

find the locus

of the third vertex.

Ex.

9.

Inscribe a triangle in a given triangle, so that its three sides

pass through three given points which are collinear.

may

TRIANGLES IX PERSPECTIVE.

If ABC,

166.

BC, B'G

A'BC

intersect in

the triangle

103

be two triangles in perspective,

A"; CA', G'A

in

B"; and

AH, A'B

and if
in

C"

A"B"C"

and

will be in perspective with each

of the girm
the three triangles will have the same axis
of per-

XYZ

be the axis of perspective of the given triangles

triangles,
spective.

Let

ABC, A'BC.
Since the given triangles are in perspective, AA',
concurrent.

Hence the

and therefore the

triangles

B'C, CA, AB'

lines

respectively in collinear points

C"

ABC, A'BC are

will intersect

161); that

is,

BE,

CC are

in perspective

BC, CA' A'B

,

the points

A',

B',

are collinear.

Thus B"C"
Similarly

A"B"

intersects

BC in

the point X.

we may show that C" A"

intersects

intersects

CA

in Y,

and

that

AB in Z.

Therefore the triangle

the given triangles, and

A"B"C"

is

in perspective with each of

the three triangles have a

common

axis of

perspective.

167.

Ifabc,

a'b'c

be

joining the jioints be, cd

form a

',

any two

triangles in perspective, the

l<

ab' to the points b'c, c'a, a'b respect i rely

triangle which is in perspective with

each of the given

THEOREMS RELATING TO

104
triangles,

and

three

the

have the same centre of per

triangles

spective.

o------_v.

be the centre of perspective of the given triangles, then

be, ca, ah to the points b'c
c'a, a'b'

Let

the lines joining the points

intersect in 0.

Let a" denote the

joining the points

line joining the points be, b'c

ca',

c'a;

and

c" the

b" the line

line joining the points

ah', a'b.

Since the triangles abc,

bb', cc

in perspective,
to the points

and the

and therefore the

be, ca', a'b

163,

the triangles ab'c, abc are

lines joining the points b'c, c'a, abl

are concurrent.

line joining the points be,

Hence, the points

line

are in perspective, the points aa',

a'b'c

Hence by

are collinear.

be, b'c',

b'c',

That

is,

the lines

b", c",

are concurrent.

b"c" are collinear,

and they

lie

on a

which passes through 0.

we may show that the points ca, c'a', c"a" are

and that the points ab, a'b', a'b" are collinear.

Similarly,
collinear,

Therefore, the triangle a"b"c"

triangles abc, a'b'c

is

in perspective with each of the

and the three triangles have a common centre

of perspective.
168.

When

three triangles are in perspective two by two,

and

have the same axis of perspective, their three centres of perspective

are collinear.

Let AiBfi^, A 2 B2 Cz, A 3B3 C3 be three triangles in perspective

two and two, such that the sides B C BJC.2 B3 C3 meet in the point
X, the sides C A CA.,, C3 A 3 in the point Y, and the sides A B
A-iB2 A 3 B3 in the point Z\ X, Y, Z being collinear points.
X

X ,

X ,

TRIANGLES IN PERSPECTIVE.

Then the

triangles

B B B G G
2

the centre of perspective.

are in perspective,

Therefore the lines B.Ba

C G3 C G1} G G

intersect the lines

L,

105

being

BB H
3

t ,

li.
x

respectively in three points

M, N, which are

collinear.

But these points

are the centres of perspective of the given

triangles taken

two at a time.

Hence, the centres of perspective

of the three triangles are collinear.

169.

spective,

A A.1 A 3y BiB,B3 CiC^C,

by two, and have the same axis of per-

It is evident that the triangles

are in perspective two

namely the

line of collinearity of the centres of perspective

of the triangles 4,5,(7,, A,B,G.2

A BC
3

3.

Thus we have the theorem

When three triangles are in
and have the same axis of perspective, the
triangles formed by the corresponding vertices of the triangles are
also in perspective two by two and have the same axis of perspective
and the axis of perspective of either set of tinangles passes through
:

perspective two by two,

the centres

of perspective of the other

set.

170.
When three triangles are in perspective two by two, and
have the same centre of perspective, their three axes of perspective
are concurrent.

Let 4,5,(7,,

common

A B C,, A B G
2

be the three triangles having the

Let a,, 6,,... denote the sides of

centre of perspective 0.

the triangles opposite to the vertices 4,,

,....

TRIANGLES IN PERSPECTIVE.

106

Then

evident that the triangles

is

it

spective, having the line

OA

626063,

cxx

are in per-

as their axis of perspective.

Y A.2 A 3
h,/b.

J>,

Therefore the lines joining their vertices are concurrent

the lines joining the points 6 2 63 636^
,

cx3

that

is,

respectively to the points

cx2 are concurrent.

c 3 c 1}

6262

But the

line joining the point 6.63 to the point

perspective of the triangles A.2B.2 G2

A BG
3

cx3

is

the axis of

Hence, the axes of perspective of the three triangles A^B^Ci,

AJB.2 G2

A BC
3

a.2

are concurrent.

It follows

171.

(hbx x

bx2 a3 bx3 are

,

from the above proof, that

in perspective

if

the triangles

and have a common centre of

perspective 0, their three axes of perspective will intersect in a

point

aM

0',

which

bib.2 b 3

is

the

common
may

Thus

that was used in 164.

coplanar triangles having a

point in

A2

B2

respectively.

A 3'B3 'C3

also be easily proved

A-^B^C^, A.,B2 C2 ,

let

Then the

',

A^^, A.

B.{C2 ,

obviously meet in the point of intersection of the three planes. But the

A 2 Bi Ci A 3 B3 C3
,

projections of the lines of intersection of the planes.

lie

A S B3 C3

lines of intersection of the planes

axes of perspective of the triangles A-^B^C^

they

0.

by the same method

be any three
common centre of perspective 0. Let O be any
the normal to the plane at 0, and let the normals to the plane at
C2 A 3 B3 C3 meet 0V1 2 0'B2 &c. in the points A 2 B./, &c,
These theorems

172.

centre of perspective of the triangles

whose three axes of perspective meet in

CiC2c3

in the plane

A BC
1

they must be concurrent.

are the orthogonal

Consequently, since

A SPECIAL CASE OF PASCAL'S THEOREM.

107

(ABC), (A'B'C) be two ranges on different straight lines,

by the lines AA', BB, CC is in perspective
with the triangle formed by the lines BC, CA', AB', and also with the triangle
formed by the lines CB\ AC, BA'.
Ex.

173.

If

1.

show that the

triangle formed

This theorem follows from 157, 158.

Ex.

Show

2.

that the three triangles in the last theorem have a

common

centre of perspective.

This follows from

We

174.

are

now in

of the figure which

We will

167.

a position to complete the discussion of the properties

was discussed

in 157.

use the same notation as in that

A and

sent the line joining the points

B'

article,

namely

let

(AB') repre-

the point of intersection of

the lines (AB'), (BC).

In

six lines

158 we showed that the eighteen points

that

is

(*,,/>)>

to say, each of the following triads are collinear

(BC\

(AB'\
\A'BJ

(CA'\
''

\B'C)

'

\CAJ

'

(AC\
\BB)>

(BA'\

AA'\
,C'BJ'

(BB'\
\A'C)>

AC\

(BB'\

A'B)'

\Cc)'
(BC\

(AA'\
\B'BJ

& c uc on

(CB"
U'A,
(CC"

\C'CJ'

\A'CJ

'

AB'\

(BA'\
\B'C)

CBJ'

\B'A,

(CA

\B'A

(CB
\CA
(CC

'

\A'A

Let us represent the line joining the points

(AB\

(BC\

(CA'\

U'-s/'

\ffcj'

\ca)

/ABC\
A K o,

by the expression

Then the

six lines will be represented

ABC\

\A'B'CT

(ABC\

by

(ABC\
\ffCAT
(ABC\

(ABC\

'

\CB'A')

KC'A'B-)'

(ABC\
'

\A'CB'J

We
three.

shall

show that the

'

first

\B'A'CJ

three are concurrent, and likewise the second

CONDITIONS SATISFIED BY

108

The first three are the axes of perspective of the triangles {AA', BB', CC),
{BC, CA', AB'), (CB', AC, BA') which have a common centre of perspective
Ex.

( 173,

2).

be
Therefore by 170, these axes of perspective are concurrent. Let
the eentre of perspective, and 0' the point of concurrence of the axes of
perspective.

By

171, it follows

triangles {AA',

BC,

is,

common

centre of perspective of the

{BE, CA', AC), and {CC, AB', BA')

these triangles will meet in 0.

of perspective of

That

that 0' will be the

CB'),

and the axes

the three lines

ABC\
K

A'CB'J

ABC\

\CB'A'J

'

ABC\

\B'A'CJ

'

are concurrent, their point of intersection being the point 0.

Hence we have the theorem

The nine

lines

which connect two triads of

collinear points intersect in eighteen points which lie in threes on six lines, three

of which pass through one point, and the remaining three through another point.
This theorem

a particular case of a more general theorem known as

is

Pascal's theorem.
175.

Ex.

Show

that the nine points in which any three concurrent lines

intersect three other concurrent lines

which pass three by three through

may

six points,

be connected by eighteen lines

which

lie

three

by three on two

other straight lines.

This theorem
chon's theorem.

is

a particular case of a more general theorem

It

may

be proved in a similar

way

known as

Brian-

to the theorem in 174.

Relations between two triangles in perspective.

176.

If ABC, A'B'C

be two triangles in perspective,

and if

TRIANGLES IX PERSPECTIVE

AB in the points X', X" respectively;

B'C cuts AC,

BG in

the points Y',

the points Z',

109

Z"

Y"

respectively

respectively

AX' BY'

GZ'

and

if

if C'A' cuts BA,

A'B' cuts CB, <A in

then

_AX'^ BY" GZ"

GX" AY"BZ'~ BX"' GY"'TZ"Let the axis of perspective of the two triangles cut BG,
in the points

X,

Then because XX'X"

( 104),

is

YY'Y", ZZ'Z"

since

ABC

a transversal of the triangle

AX1 BX CZ'_
BX" GX'AX'~

And
ABC,

CA,AB

Y, Z, respectively.

are also transversals of the triangle

AY' BY" CY_

BY''CY"A\
BZ' GZ" AZ
=
GZ" AZ"' BZ

XYZ is also a transversal of the

BX CY AZ

But

ce

1.

triangle

ABC

therefore

CX'AY'BZ
AY'. AX" BY" .BZ' CX'.CZ"
BY' .BX"' CY" .CZ" AX' AZ"~

(l)

In a similar manner by considering the

and

XYZ, as transversals

of the triangle

lines

BCX, CA Y, ABZ,

A' B'C', we may deduce the

relation,

B'X'.B'X" C'Y'.G'Y " A'Z'.A'Z"

C'X'.G'X'"A'Y'.A'Y"' B'Z'.B'Z"
Conversely,

177.

if

either of the relations

(i), (ii)

(ll)-

hold,

it

may

be shown that the triangles are in perspective.

Let the sides B'C, C'A', A'B' intersect the sides BC, CA, AB
in the points X, Y, Z; and let us assume that relation (i) holds.

Then
triangle

since

XX'X", Y"YY', and ZZ'Z are

ABC, we have

BX GX' AX" _
CX'AX'BX"
BY" CY AY'
GY'"AY'BY'

'

'

transversals of the

CONDITIONS SATISFIED BY

110

AZ

BZ' CZ"
and

'

CZ"AZ"'BZ
AY'. AX" BY" .BZ' CX' .GZ"
AX' .AZ" BY'.BX"'CZ' CY"

But

BX CY AZ _

Therefore

Z are

Therefore X, Y,

Hence by

theorem of

collinear.

the triangles

163,

Two

178.

ABC, A'B'C
may

relations

similar

are in perspective.

be proved by using the

98.

Since A',

B',

C are

any points in the plane of the triangle ABC,

we have

BAA'

sin

sin~A'AC

But

since the

'

ACA'
= 1,
A'CB
sin CBB' sin ACB'
=
sin

CBA'

sin

A'BA

sin

BA B'

sin

B'AG

sin

BA C

sin

CAC sin CBA

B'BA
sin CBC'

sin

sin

'

'

'

sin

B'CB

sin

ACC =
CCB

sin

triangles are in perspective,

by

concurrent, therefore

1,

sin

1.

AA', BB',

CC

are

98,

sin

BAA'

sin

A'

CBB

sin

AC sin B'BA

ACC ^

sin
'

CCB ~

sin

'

Hence, we have,
sin

BAC. sin BAB'

sin

CAC sin CAB'

Similarly,

sin
sin

'

CBA'. sin CBC

^i^^'.sin^^C"

we may prove the

sin#.l C.sin# 4' B sin

/

CB'A

"

sin

ACB'

sin

AC A' _

sin

BCB'.

sin

BCA'

relation,
sin

CBC

sin

sin C'A'C sin

.

CA 'B

Conversely,
that the lines

ABC, A'B'C
179.

if

'

sh^A'B'A .sin A'B'C

"

sin

A'CB. sin A' CA

B'CB. sin B'C'A ~

either of these relations hold

A A',

BB',

CC are

concurrent

it

that

'

may be proved
is,

the triangles

are in perspective.

When two

triangles

ABC, A'B'C

are in perspective, the

product of the ratios

(AV Ac),
:

is

equal

to unity,

A'B'C, and Ah'

where a,

(Be'
b'.

Ba), {Ca'

Cb'\

denote the sides of the triangle

represents the perpendicular from

on

b'.

TRIANGLES IN PERSPECTIVE.
Let

XYZ

Ill

be the axis of perspective of the two triangles.

Then we have

= BX :CX,
= CY:AY,
Bc' = AZ:BZ.

Ba': Ca'
Cb': Ab'

Ac':

But

since

X,

Z are

Y,

collinear,

BX CY AZ_
CX' AY' BZ
Ba' Cb' Ac'

Hence,

Caf'Ab" Be'
that

Ab' Be' Ca'

is,

Ac''

when

Conversely,

Ex.

180.

1.

by the

X'

lines YZ',

If
;

any

= 1.

Cb'

this relation holds, it follows that

and therefore that the

are collinear,

the points X,

Ba"

be drawn cutting the sides of a triangle

circle

Y, F'; Z, Z', respectively,

ZX',

XY'

is

This follows at once from

X,

Y,

triangles are in perspective.

show that the

in perspective with the triangle

A BC

in

triangle formed

ABC.

177.

ABC in the jx>ints X, A"

show that the triangles formed by the lines YZ, Z'X, X'}',
and the triangle formed by the lines YZ', ZX', XI'', are in perspective with
the triangle ABC; and that the three triangles have a common centre of
Ex.

Y,

Y'

2.

If a circle cut the sides of the triangle

Z, Z'

perspective.

Ex. 3. If from the vertices of the triangle abc, tangents x, af y, t/

be drawn to a circle, show that the triangles formed by the points w.', :j', jy',
and the triangle formed by the points y'z, z'x, x'y, are in pers]>ective with the
;

triangle abc

and that the three

triangles have a

common

axis of perspective.

TRIANGLES IN PERSPECTIVE.

112

ABC be the given triangle, A'BC the triangle formed by the points yi',

If

xy"

zx',

it is

easy to prove that

BAB'. Bin BAC _ 0<?-RCAB' sin CAC ~ Ob* -

sin

sin

where

is

the centre of the

The second part

Ex.

If D, E,

4.

&

circle,

'

R its radius.

and

of the theorem follows from 166.

Fhe

the middle points of the sides of the triangle

ABC,

and P, Q, R the feet of the perpendiculars from the vertices on the opposite
sides, show that QR, RP, and PQ will intersect EF, FD, DF in the points
X, Y, Z, such that the triangle XYZ is in perspective with each of the
triangles

ABC, PQR, DEF.

Through the vertices of the triangle ABC, parallels are drawn

meet the circumcircle in the points A', B', C. If BC,
A'B meet BC, CA, AB in P, Q, R respectively, show that AP, BQ, CR

Ex.

5.

to the opposite sides to

C'A',

are concurrent.

[St John's Coll. 1890.]

Ex.

6.

In the last case, show that A'P, B'Q,

Ex.

7.

Through

the lines YKZ',

K the symmedian
ZKX', XKY', parallel

CR are also concurrent.

point of the triangle

ABC,

respectively to the sides

are drawn
BC, CA, AB,

and cutting the other sides in the points Y, Z', Z, X', X, Y'. Show that the
Z'X, X' Y will form a triangle in perspective with the triangle ABC,
for centre of perspective.
and having

lines Y'Z,

See the figure of

Ex.

Z'X',

8.

131.

In the same

XY and

figure,

perspective with the triangle

Ex.

9.

If

XYZ be

X"YY', X'Y"Z be

triangle formed

ABC; and

by the lines Y'Z,

ZX, X'Y',

will

be in

have a common centre of perspective.

any transversal of the triangle ABC, and

if

XY'Z",

three other transversals passing through the point

Z"X', X"Y' will form a

perspective with the triangle ABC, and having the point
for

show that the

triangle in

show that the

the triangle formed by the lines YZ',

triangles formed

by the

lines Y"Z',

centre of perspective.

Two

A'B'C, A"B"C" are inscribed in the triangle ABC,

AA", BB", CC". If BC,
B'C" intersect in A' CA', C'A" in Y and A'B', A"B" in Z show that the
triangle XYZ will be in perspective with each of the triangles ABC, A'B'C,
Ex. 10.

so that

triangles

A A', BB, CC
;

are concurrent, and likewise

;

A" B'C".
If the points of intersection of corresponding sides of two given
form a triangle in perspective with each of them, show that the lines
joining the corresponding vertices of the given triangles will form a triangle
which is in perspective with each of the given triangles, and also with the
triangle formed by the points of intersection of their corresponding sides.

Ex. 11.

triangles

Ex. 12. On the sides BC, CA, AB of a. triangle are taken the points
X, Y, Z; and the circumcircle of the triangle XYZ is drawn cutting the sides

PASCALS THEOREM.
of the triangle

ABC

A'B'C, and the

triangles
is

in X',

lines Y'Z,

Y\

ABC, A'B'C, A"B"C"

of constant shape the

The

Z'.

Z'X,

lines

113

YZ\ ZX', XT' form

XT form a triangle A"B"C".

are copolar, and that

common

when the

pole of these triangles

is

a triangle

Show

that the

triangle

a fixed

XYZ

|xint.

[H. M. Taylor, L.M.S. Proc. VoL xv.]

Pascal's theorem.
181.

To

illustrate the use of the preceding

to triangles in perspective,

we propose

theorems relating

to discuss briefly the chi-f

hexastigm inscribed in a circle. The simplest

due to Pascal, and is called Pascal's theorem. It is
usually quoted in the form
The opposite sides of any hexagon
inscribed in a circle intersect in three collinear points.
The more
precise statement of the theorem would be: The three jxiirs of
properties of a

property

is

opposite connectors in every complete set of connectors of a hexastigm

inscribed in a circle intersect in three collinear points

equivalent to the following

The

which

is

of a hexastigm
points which lie three by

fifteen connectors

inscribed in a circle intersect in forty-five

three on sixty lines.

hexastigm evidently has

fifteen connectors.

To

find the

number of

points in which these intersect, apart from the vertices of the hexastigm,

let

may

be done in 6.5.4. 3/24, i.e.

15 ways. Now each group of four points forms a tetrastigm, which has three
centres.
Hence, the connectors of a hexastigm will intersect in 3. 15, i.e. 45
us group the vertices in sets of four.

This

points or centres.

182.

Let A, B,C, D, E,

AD, BE, CF form

X'Y'Z'; and CE,

L.

F be

the triangle

AF,

BD

any

XYZ;

Lot

six points

on a

circle.

BF, CD,

AE

the triangle

the triangle X"Y"Z".

We

shall prove

pascal's theorem.

114
that the triangles

XYZ, X'Y'Z', X"Y"Z"

Since the points A, B, C, D, E,

Euclid, Bk.

in.,

are copolar, that

same centre

perspective two and two, and have the

is,

are in

of perspective.

are coney clic,

we have by

Prop. 35,

XE.XB = XC.XF,
YC.

YF = YA.YD,

ZA.ZD=ZB ZE.
XE.XB
YC. YF ZA.ZD
.therefore
XQ XF' YA YD' ZB ZE~
Therefore by 177, the triangle XYZ is in perspective with each
.

of the triangles X'Y'Z' and

By

167,

we

X"Y"Z".

infer that these three triangles

have the same

centre of perspective.

Hence, by

170,

the axes of perspective of the three triangles

are concurrent.

Let
be the common centre of perspective of the triangles,
and 0' the point of intersection of their axes of perspective. Then
by 171, we see that the triangles formed by the lines AD, BF,
CE; BE, DC, AF; CF, AE, BD are also copolar, having 0' for
their common centre of perspective, and
for the point of concurrence of their axes of perspective.
183.

Let us use the notation

intersection of the lines

XYZ,

AD

and BF.

to represent the point of

Then, since the triangles

X'Y'Z' are in perspective, the points

(AD\ (BE\ / CF\

[bf)' \cd)' \ae)
are collinear.

In the same way we could show that the pairs of opposite

connectors in any other complete set of connectors of the hexastigm
intersect in three collinear points.

The

line of collinearity of three such points is called a

Pascal

line.

Since there are sixty complete sets of connectors

it

Again, since the triangles

it

137, Ex. 2),

follows that there are sixty Pascal lines.

XYZ,

X'Y'Z',

follows that the Pascal lines

(AD\ (BE\ / CF
\BF)' \cd)' [ae,

X"Y"Z"

are copolar,

'

THE STEINER

POINTS.

1 ;,

(AD\ (BE\ tCF\

\CE)> \AF)' \Bd)'
(BF\
/CD\
[CEJ' [af)

(AE\
[bDJ

are concurrent.

The point
Steiner point

of concurrence of three such Pascal lines

it

may

is called a
conveniently be represented by the notation

/AD,
AD, BE, CF\
CF

Rf1

There

evidently one Steiner point on each Pascal

is

Again, from

182,

we

see that the

common

triangles corresponding to this Steiner point,

Is

line.

pole of the three

the Steiner point

(ABC\
\DFEJ

Now

D, E, F, we can select three such

when we combine this group with
the complementary triad D, E, F, we have only ten different
arrangements but we see above that we can take one group such
Hence we infer that
as (DEF) in either of two cyclic orders.

from

six points

A, B,

C,

as A, B, C, in twenty ways, and

there are in

And

since

all

twenty Steiner points belonging

to the figure.

there are three Pascal lines passing through every

Steiner point,

we

infer that there are sixty Pascal lines.

It is easy to see that

different Pascal lines,

a point such as

namely the

(AD\
\BFJ'
(AD\
\bf)'

will occur

on four

lines

(BE\ (CF\
{CD)' \AE)'
(BC\ (EF\
\ed)' \AC)'

[bf)' \cd)' \ae)*

(AD\ (BE\ (CF\
[bf)' \ac)' \edJHence, since three of the forty-five points of intersection of the
that
connectors of the hexastigm lie on each Pascal line, we infer
there are 4 x 45/3 Pascal lines

that

is

sixty Pascal lines.

82

kirkman's theorem.

11(5

The sixty Pascal lines pass three by three through each Steiner point, and
four by four through the forty-five points of intersection of the connectors of
the hexastigm. It follows that the Pascal lines will intersect one another in
For further information on this subject, the reader
Note at the end of Salmon's Conies, where there is a complete

points other than these.

is

referred to a

discussion of the question.

Steiner

was the

(Gergonne Annates de Matke'm., Vol. xviii.) to draw

first

And

attention to the properties of the complete figure.

the subject has been

worked out by Kirkman and Cayley.

fully

184.

Ex.

Show

1.

that the sixty Pascal lines pass three by three through

sixty points besides the twenty Steiner points.

[Kirkman.]

Let us consider the triangle formed by the lines AB, CD,

triangle

formed by the three Pascal

(AB\
\DE)

on the Pascal

(DF
\AC
(AE

(CE\
Kef)'

(BF\
\ce)'

EF\
BCJ

(BD\
\AEJ

These triangles are in perspective,

and the

lines

CD\
af)'
'

EF

\BD
(AC
\DF,

'

for their

corresponding sides intersect

line

(AB\ (CD\ (EF\

yDE)' KAFJ' \BC /
Therefore the lines which join their corresponding
But these are the three Pascal lines

(AB\
\CDJ

'

'CD\
CD \
yEF)'
(

(EF\
\ab)>
The

(CE\
\Bf)

(DF\
\AEJ
AE \.
fAE\
(
\BDj'
(BD\

'

/BF\
BF \
\ACJ'
(AC\
\DFj'
(

point of concurrence of these lines

\CEJ'
is called

and that there are

in all sixty

Kirkman point.

Kirkman
Kirkman points.

It is easy to prove that there are three

line

vertices are concurrent.

points on each Pascal

Show that the twenty Steiner points lie four by four on fifteen
2.
and that the sixty Kirkman points lie three by three on twenty lines
other than the Pascal lines.
Ex.

lines,

If a hexagram be circumscribed to a circle, show that its vertices

3.
be connected by forty-five lines (or diagonals) which pass three by three

Ex.

may

through sixty points.

This theorem

from

180,

Ex.

3.

is

known

as Brianchon's theorem.

It is readily

deduced

PASCAL HEXASTIGM.
Ex.

Show

4.

117

that the sixty points mentioned in the last example lie three
lines, which pass four by four through fifteen points.

by three on twenty

Ex. 5. Show that the sixty points mentioned in Ex. 3 also lie throe by
three on sixty lines, which pass three by three through twenty other points.

The

185.

properties which exist for a hexastigm inscribed in

circle are also true of

any hexastigni formed by the points of

intersection of non-corresponding sides of two triangles which are

Such a hexastigm

in perspective.

Let
A, B,

XYZ, X'Y Z'

C,

D, E,

F be

is

called a Pascal hexastigm.

be any two triangles in perspective, and

let

the points of intersection of non-corresponding

sides of these triangles.

By

176,

we have

XE.XB YC.YF ZA.ZD

XC.XF- YA.YDZB.ZE~-

Hence by

177,

the triangle formed by the lines CE,

will also be in perspective with the triangles

from

167,

it

Again by

AF,

XYZ, X'Y'Z.

BD
Also

follows that these three triangles are copolar.

177,

it

follows that the triangle

XYZ

is

copolar

with the triangles formed by the lines

BF, CA,

DE;

CE, DF, BA.

Also, for the

same

reason, the triangle

with the triangles formed by

the lines

EF, CD,AB;
CB, AF,

ED

XYZ

will

be copolar

PROPERTIES OF A PASCAL HEXASTIGM

118

and with the triangles formed by the

BC,

lines

FD,AE;

FE, AC, BD.

In the same way we can find three pairs of triangles copolar
with the triangles X' Y'Z and the triangle formed by the lines
',

CE, AF, BD.

We

shall thus obtain ten different triads of triangles

triad having a

Now

let

common

each

centre of perspective.

us consider any one of these triads of triangles, say the

triangles

XYZ,

AF, BD,

that

is

X'Y'Z', and the triangle formed by the lines CE,

the triangles whose sides are

AD, BE, CF;

BF,CD,AE;
CE, AF, BD.

The axes

of perspective of these triangles will be concurrent

/A TiC\
(

170)

We

the point of concurrence being the Steiner point

,_,]

have evidently obtained the same arrangement by this method

we obtained in 183, when the six points were points on a

Hence we may infer that if we make a list of the ten
circle.
as

triads of triangles, as indicated above, each triangle will occur in

four different triads

By

so that the list

proceeding as in

182,

we

would be complete.

shall find

by means of

171,

ten

other triads of triangles, each triad producing three Pascal lines,

which co-intersect in a Steiner

point.

Hence we have the theorem If the three pairs of

any complete set of connectors of a hexastigm
:

connectors in

opposite
intersect

in three collinear points, the three pairs of opposite connectors in

every complete set will also intersect in three collinear points.

Ex.
lines

Show that any two

1.

triads of collinear points

on different straight

determine a Pascal hexastigm.

Ex.

Any

2.

X, Y, Z; and

transversal cuts the sides of the triangle

is

any

Show

fixed point.

the sides of the triangle

ABC

in

six

that the lines

ABC

in the points

OX, OY,

OZ will

cut

points which determine a Pascal

hexastigm.
186.

The hues which

join non-corresponding vertices of

perspective form a hexagram which

lie

is

called a

two

triangles in

Brianchon hexagram.

Ex. 1. Show that every triad of opposite vertices of a Brianchon hexagram

on three concurrent lines.

AND A BRIANCHON HEXAGRAM

Ex.
lines

Any point
OC cut a

2.

OA, OB,

Show

3.

that

ABCDEF be any Pascal hexastigm, the

determine a Brianchon hexagram.

if

FD will

CA, DE, EF,

It is

is joined to the vertices of a triangle ABC, and

the
given straight line in the points X, Y, Z. Show tint

XB, XC, YC, YA, ZA, ZB determine a Brianchon hexagram.

the lines
Ex.

119

lines

A B, BC,

easy to see that a triad of diagonals of this hexagram are the lines

(AB\
\DE)'

(BC\
\FDJ'

(BC\
\EFJ'

But these lines are three

Kirkman point. ( 184, Ex.

(CA\
\DEj'

(CA\
\FDJ

(All
'

\EFj

'

Pascal lines of the hexastigm, which meet in a

1.)

Hence, by applying Brianchon's theorem to this hexagram, we have at

once a proof of the theorem that the sixty Kirkman points of a Pascal
hexastigm lie three by three on twenty lines. ( 184, Ex. 2.)
Ex.

Show

4.

the points A,

that

if

ABCDEF be any

to the points

r^pji

Pascal hexastigm, the lines joining

yp)

respectively, intersect on the

Pascal line

(if)'

(af)>

[Salmon]

(%)

The opposite vertices of a tetragram are A, A'; B, B; C, C; and

X' T, Y' Z, Z' are taken on the diagonals A A', BB, ('<
that the ranges {AA', XX'}, {BB', YY'}, {CC, ZZ) are harmonic. Show that
Ex.

5.

points X,

X, X', Y,
Ex.

Y', Z, Z' are

6.

the vertices of a Pascal hexastigm.

If through each centre of a tetrastigm, a pair of lines be taken,

harmonically conjugate with the connectors of the tetrastigm which intersect

in that centre, show that these six lines will form a Brianchon hexagram.

General theory.
187.

Suppose we have any figure

of points A, B, C,

F consisting of

any number

not necessarily in one plane; let these

points be joined to any point 0.

Let any plane be drawn cutting

the lines OA, OB, OC,... in the points A', R, &,... forming the
figure F'.
The figure F' is said to be the projection of the given
figure

F;

the point

plane of F'
188.
figure

is

is

called the vertex of projection

and the

called the plane of projection.

Let us consider more particularly the case when the

F is a

plane figure.

any point A of F corresponds one point

and only one point A' of F, and vice versa.
i.

It is evident that to

GENERAL THEORY

120

any three points A, B,

If

ii.

sponding points A',

B',

OA, OB,

are collinear,

C of F

are collinear, the corre-

C of F' will be collinear.

OC must

lie

cut the plane of projection in a straight line

must be collinear. Hence, to every straight

one and only one straight line of F'.
If two straight lines of the figure

iii.

A,

For since A, B, C
which can only

in one plane,
;

that

line of

A', B',

is

F corresponds

F intersect

in the point

evident that the corresponding lines of F' will intersect in

it is

Hence

the corresponding point A'.

of lines of

F are

it

follows that if

any system

concurrent, the corresponding lines of F' will be

concurrent.

CD) be any harmonic range in the figure F, then

{AB, CD) is a harmonic pencil, it follows that the corresponding points of F' will form a harmonic range that is to say,
If {AB,

iv.

since

AB', CD'}
Ex.

189.

F,

P {A'B
Ex.

2.

will

Show that

1.

CD'}

Show

be harmonic.

will

if

P{AB, CD} be a harmonic

pencil in the figure

be a harmonic pencil in the projected figure F'.

that any range in involution will project into a range in

involution.

190.

Let

and

be any two points in a plane figure F, and

F on
any plane, the vertex of projection being any point 0. Let the
Then since AB, A'B'
planes of F and F' be denoted by a and a.
are two straight lines in the same plane OAB, they must intersect.
But AB lies in the plane a, and A'B' in the plane a hence the
let A',

B' be the corresponding points in F' the projection of

point of intersection of

AB and

A'B' must be a point in the

of intersection of the two planes a and a.

line

x of

F will

F' in a point

intersect the corresponding line x' of

lying on the line of intersection of the planes

intersection of the

two planes

a,

It is evident that every point on

line

Similarly any straight

a,

The

a.

line of

is

it

considered as belonging to the

called the self-projected line.

figure F, coincides with the corresponding point of F'.

191.

Now suppose we

F' on some plane,

have a plane figure F, and

being the vertex of projection.

its

projection

Let us take

any other point P not lying on either of the planes containing F

and F' and with P as vertex let us project the whole figure on
any plane, for simplicity the plane of F.
;


OF PERSPECTIVE.
Let A, B, C,
in the points

be any points of

...

sponding points of

Let PA',

F'.

A", B", C",

121
A', B',

PB, PC,

...

C,

...

the corre-

cut the plane of

These points will form a figur.- F"

in the same plane as F, and A", B", C", ... may be called the
points of F" which correspond to A B, C, ... of F.
Let PO cut
....

the plane of

F in

0'.

It is evident that the following relations will exist

F and F"

figures

The

i.

F" passes

between

th.-

line joining

any point of F

corresponding point of

to the

through a fixed point.

For 0, A, A' are collinear, therefore PO, PA, PA'

plane, and therefore 0', A, A" are collinear.

lie

in the

same

ii.

To any straight

For

let

A, B,

line

of

F corresponds

a straight

line

are collinear points of F', and therefore by 188, A", B',

collinear points of F".
iii.

lines

of

If any system of lines of F are

F"

For by

C are

conctirrent the corresponding

are also concurrent.

188, the corresponding lines of F' are concurrent, and

therefore the corresponding lines of

iv.

of F".

be three collinear points of F, then A', B,

F"

are concurrent.

If any points of F form a harmonic range

the corresponding

points of F" will form a harmonic range.

For by

188,

the corresponding points of F' form a harmonic

range, therefore also do the corresponding points of F".

v.

line

line of F intersects the corresponding straight

a point lying on a fixed straight line.

Every straight

of F"

in

This follows at once from 190, the straight line in which

corresponding lines intersect being the line of intersection of the
planes of

F and

F', since the plane of

F"

is

the same as that of F.

being given, any other figure F"

192.
Any plane figure
obtained in the manner explained in the last article (viz.: by
first projecting F on a plane and then with a different vertex
projecting the new figure on the plane of F), is said to be in
perspective with F.

The

fixed point through which pass

connecting corresponding points

191,

i.) is

all lines

called the centre of

CONSTRUCTION OF FIGURES

122
perspective

and the

fixed line

which

is

the locus of the points of

intersection of corresponding lines ( 191, v.)

is

called the axis of

perspective.

however unnecessary

go through the process of

which shall be in perspective
with a given figure. It is clear that if we were proceeding as in
191, we might select the centre of perspective, and the axis of
perspective.
Then again, since we might have taken the plane of
F' passing through the axis of perspective, and any assumed point,
193.

It is

to

projection in order to construct a figure

we may
point A.

any point A' as the point corresponding to a given

Hence to obtain the figure in perspective with a given

select

be the centre of perspective, x the axis of perspective,

figure F, let

and let A' be the point corresponding to the point A. Let B be

any other point of F, B' the corresponding point of F'. Then since
AB, A'B' are corresponding lines, they must intersect on the axis
x. Let AB cut the axis x in the point X. Then A'X will intersect
OB in required point B'. In the same way the point corresponding
to any other point may be constructed.
If

F and

F' be two figures in perspective

considered as belonging to either figure.

to F, let

F be

belonging to

the corresponding point of F'

F\

must be noticed

Q be the
that Q and

let

any point

P may be

Considered as belonging
;

and considered as

corresponding point of F.

Then

F will

point on the axis of perspective

in

not coincide, unless

which case

Q and

it

be a

P' coincide

with P.

The

axis of perspective of the

two figures may thus be regarded

as the locus of points (other than the centre of perspective), which

coincide with their corresponding points.

x
IN PERSPECTIVE.

may

Likewise the centre of perspective

point

through which pass

except one

Two

the

figures

128
be regarded as the

self-corresponding straight

all

lines

axis of perspective.

may

be in perspective in more than one way.

For

ABC, A'B'C may be so situated that

AB', BC, CA' are concurrent, and also AC, BA', CB'. In this
case the triangle ABC may be said to be in perspective with the
triangles B'C'A', C'A'B'.
But when this is so it may be easily
instance, the

shown

triangles

A A',

Ex. 5) that

( 165,

BB',

CC

must

also be concurrent.

;iHence if two triangles are doubly in perspective, they are triply in

(perspective.

Ex.

194.

If

1.

F F F
2,

the same plane, show that

if

be three figures in persi>ective two and two

common

they have a

in

centre of perspective, their

fthree axes of perspective are concurrent.

be the

Let

common

x2

3,

#3,1,

x h2

their three axes

<P,

Similarly because

'yF3 .

of

centre of perspective

Let x%l xl<2 intersect in P. Then because P lies on xxlt

considered as belonging to
lt coincides with the corresponding point of

of perspective.

P must

Hence

lies

on

xh2

it

coincides with the corresponding point

on x2t3 or coincide with

0.
In the latter case, let
2
iQ be the point of intersection of xh2> x2t3 ; then as before it may be proved
Thus, in either case the three
.that Q must lie on x h3 or coincide with 0.
.

lie

axes of perspective
Ex.

\F3
;

2.

Show

in the

last

x2i3

that

3t

all

1;

x h2

are concurrent.

triangles formed

Ex. are in perspective,

by corresponding points of

being their

common

/',,

centre of

perspective.

Ex.

3.

If

F F F
lt

axis of perspective,

Ex.

4.

If

2,

be three figures in perspective, having a

show that the three centres

ABC, A'B'C

common

of perspective are collinear.

be two triangles in perspective, and

three points on the axis of perspective, such that

if

AX, BY, CZare

X,

V,

be

concurrent,

show that A' X, B'Y, C'Zwill be concurrent.

195.

Another method of constructing a

with a given figure F,

is

to

corresponds to a given line of

figure F' in perspective

suppose that the

F is

line of

F' which

known.

Thus let be the centre of perspective, x the axis of perspective,

and suppose that a, a' are a pair of corresponding lines. If any
cutting a, a' in A and A', it is evident
line be drawn through
Again, if ^1 7 be
that A' will be the corresponding point to A.

CONSTRUCTION OF FIGURES

124-

any
in

and the

line of F, cutting the axis of perspective in F,

A.

196.

Then A'Y

We may

of our given

lines.

will

line

be the line of F' which corresponds to

A Y.

take the line at infinity in either figure as one

Then any

line in the other figure

parallel to the axis of perspective

may be taken as the

which

is

corresponding

The construction of F' is very similar to the previous

Thus let a be the line at infinity, then a' is a line
Draw any line through
parallel to the axis of perspective.

line.

construction.

cutting

a' in A',

then the corresponding point

of

F is

at infinity.

Draw any line A Y parallel to OA', cutting the axis of perspective

in Y.
Then YA' will be the corresponding line of F'. And if P
be any point on AY, OP will cut A'Y in P', so that P' is that
point of F' which corresponds to P.
197.

If

we suppose

easily find the line of F'

P and

P' given in the

last figure,

which corresponds to the

we can

line at infinity

IN PERSPECTIVE.

Thus we have only

in F.

perspective in

PY in

which

then

to

P'Y

draw any

line

12."

PY to meet

will cut the line

through

the axis of
parallel to

be the point of F' corresponding to the point

at infinity on the line OA'. Therefore the line through A' parallel
A',

will

to the axis of perspective will be that line of F'

which corresponds

to the line at infinity in F.

Ex.

198.

gram

1.

lines are

Through the point of intersection of two diagonals of a tctradrawn respectively parallel to the four sides and intersecting

respectively the sides opposite to those to which they are parallel.

that these four points of intersection

lie

on a straight

Prove

line.

[Trin. Coll., 1890.]

Let A, A'; B,B';

and

BB',

let

C,C

CC intersect

be the pairs of opposite vertices of the tetragram

for the axis of perspective,

with the figure

Taking

in 0.

BCB'C.

for centre of perspective,

we may consider the

If

OX

figure

B'C'BC

be drawn parallel to

and

-1.1'

as in perspective

BC to

meet B'C

in -V,

meet BC in .V, it is evident that XX'

will be that line of the figure B'C'BC which corresponds to the line at infinity
Hence the theorem is proved.
in the figure BCB'C.

and

OX' be drawn

if

It

may be

parallel to

noticed that

XX'

B'C

is

to

parallel to

A A'.

and circumscribed alut

and lines are drawn
Show that the points in which these lines
parallel to the sides.
through
parallel, are
intersect the sides opposite to those to which they are
Ex.

2.

another.

A hexagon can

be inscribed in one

circle

Its three diagonals intersect in the point 0,

collinear.

point
lines joining the vertices of the triangle ABC to any
intersect /:
CA,
BC,
and
B',
in
A',
sides
opposite
intersect the
parallel t> ll<\
CA', A'B' in X, Y, Z. Show that the lines drawn through
formed by
triangle
the
with
perspective
CA,AB, form a triangle which is in

Ex.

3.

The

the lines

AX, BY,

CZ.

AB

<

THEOREMS EXTENDED BY

126

By

199.

suitably choosing the centre of perspective,

we can

axis of perspective,

and the

often form a figure F' which shall be in

perspective with a given figure F, so that F' shall be a simpler

The advantage gained by

figure.

discover properties of the figure

so doing is that

we

are able to

F by transforming known properties

of the simpler figure F'.

Thus

let a, b,

c,

d be the four

sides of

any tetragram, and

let

us

take for our axis of perspective a line parallel to the diagonal

joining the points

ac,

bd.

sponding to this diagonal in

easy to see that the
if

we

new

Then if we suppose the line correthe new figure to be at infinity, it is

figure will be a parallelogram.

has the diagonal joining the points

figure

ac,

ac,

bd

for

a diameter, the

new

becomes a rectangle.

For the lines

and b', d! are
Ex.

200.

1.

a', c'

2.

colli near.

Show

are parallel to the line joining

parallel to the line joining

Show

vertices of a tetragram

Ex.

Further,

take for our centre of perspective, a point on the circle which

to the point

to the point bd.

that the lines joining any point to the opposite

form a pencil

in involution.

that the middle points of the diagonals of a tetragram are

THE METHOD OF PERSPECTIVE.

Ex.

3.

The diagonals

127

of a parallelogram bisect each other.

Obtain the

corresponding theorem for any tetragram.

Ex. 4. Any line cuts the opposite pairs of connectors of a tetrastigtn in a
range in involution. Prove this theorem by forming a figure in j)ers|)ective,

such that one connector of the given figure becomes the line at

new

infinity in the

figure.

Ex.

5.

Show

that a triangle can always be constructed which shall

l>e

in

perspective with one given triangle, and be similar to another given triangle.

Ex.

6.

Generalise the theorem in Ex.

2.

CHAPTER

IX.

THE THEORY OF SIMILAR FIGURES.

Similar triangles.

Two

201.

equiangular.

triangles are said

It is

to be similar

proved in Euclid (Bk.

vi.,

when they

are

Prop. 4) that the

sides of one triangle are proportional to the homologous, or corre-

sponding, sides of the other.

guish the case

when the

It

is,

however, necessary to distin-

angles of the triangles are measured in

the same sense, from the case

when they

are measured in opposite

senses.

Let ABC, A'B'C be two similar triangles

angles

ABC, BCA, CAB

A'B'C, B'C'A', C'A'B', the

similar ; but,

when

then,

when the

are respectively equal to the angles

triangles

the angles

are

said

ABC, BCA, CAB

to

be directly

are respectively

equal to the angles C'B'A', A'C'B', B'A'C, the triangles are said
to be inversely similar.

As an

illustration, let

BAC

be a right-angled triangle, and

perpendicular from the right angle on the hypotenuse.

BDA, ADC

are directly similar, but each

is

let

AD

Then the

be the

triangles

inversely similar to the triangle

BAC.
Ex.

202.

1.

If

show that they are

Ex.
triangle

2.

two triangles be inversely similar to the same

If AA', BB',

ABC

triangle,

directly similar to each other.

CC

be the perpendiculars from the vertices of the

on the opposite

sides,

show that the

triangles

AB'C, A'BC,

SIMILAR FIGURES.
A'B'C are directly similar to each

120

other, but inversely similar to the triangle

ABC.
Ex.

3.

If D, E,

show that the

Ex.

PBQ,
Show

4.

Two

PBQ

F be the middle points of the sides of the triangle

DEF is directly similar to the triangle A DC.

circles cut in

5.

the points A,

IK

',

APQ, AP'Qf

If the triangle

show that the

A'B'C be

and through B two lines

and the other in Q, </.

are drawn, cutting one circle in P,

that the triangles

Ex.

.1

triangle

are directly similar.

inversely similar to the triangle A Bt

',

drawn through A', B', C" parallel respectively to B(\ ''.I.

AB will be concurrent, and that their point of intersection will lie on the
circumcircle of the triangle A'B'C.
Ex.

6.

lines

If the triangles

ABC, A'B'C be

(A'BC) + (B'CA ) + (
Ex.

7.

203.

The

first

When
They

show that

A BC).

Brocard triangle of any triangle

two triangles are placed

sponding sides are

similar.

inversely similar,

CA B) =

is

inversely similar to

so

parallel, it is evident that

that

it.

their corre-

they are directly

are also in perspective, having the line at infinity

for their axis of perspective

consequently the lines joining corre-

sponding vertices are concurrent.

Triangles so situated are said to be homothetic, and the centre
of perspective

is

called their homothetic centre.

'C

o^::.

Let

A'BC

be any triangle having

its

sides parallel to the

be the centre
corresponding sides of the triangle ABC; and let
follows
of perspective. Since the corresponding sides are parallel, it
at once that

OA': 0B':0C' =

0A:0B:0G.
9

CENTRE OF SIMILITUDE OF TWO

130

204 Let ABC, A'B'C be two homothetic

A'B'C be turned about the homothetic centre
into the position

triangles,

and let
come

0, so as to

A"B"C".

It is obvious that the triangles

A"B"C",

ABC

are directly-

and that

similar,

OA" OB" OC" = 0A:0B:

:

Further,

it is

easy to see that the angles

OC.

AOA", BOB", COO",

and the angles at which the corresponding sides intersect are

all

equal.

AOB, BOC, CO A are directly

similar to the triangles A" OB", B"OC" C"0A". Hence, it appears
that whatever relation the point
has to the triangle ABC, it has
It is evident that the triangles

a similar relation to the triangle A"B"C".

the orthocentre of the triangle
centre of the triangle

The point
triangles

We

is

ABC,

it

For instance,

would

also

A"B"C".
called the centre

of similitude of the two

ABC, A"B"C".

shall

now show

that any two triangles which are directly

have a centre of similitude, which can be

similar,

were

if

be the ortho-

easily found.

It

be perceived that when the centre of similitude is known, then,

by turning one of the triangles about the centre it may be brought
will

into such a position as to be homothetic with the other triangle.

205.

To find

the centre

of similitude of two triangles which are

directly similar.

Let ABC, A'B'C be any two triangles which are directly

Let BC,
intersect in the point X, and let the

EC

similar.

circumcircles

point 0.

of

the

triangles

BXB',

CXC

intersect

in

the

DIRECTLY SIMILAR TRIANGLES.

It is evident that the triangles

Hence the

triangles

BOC,

A OC, AOB are

131

ROC are directly similar.

directly similar to the triangle*

A'OC, A' OB'.

through an angle equal to

BOB' are each equal to the angle

A'B'C be turned about the point
C'OC, so that the lines OC, OB shall

coincide with OC, OB,

easy to see that the triangle A'B'C' in

Further, the angles COG',

CXC.

its

Hence

new

206.

the triangle

it is

position will be homothetic to the triangle

Thus
A'B'C.

circle,

if

is

ABC.

the centre of similitude of the two triangles

A BC,

Ex. 1. If two directly similar triangles be inscribed in the same

show that the centre of the circle is their centre of similitude.

Show

also that the pairs of

homologous sides of the triangles intersect

in

points which form a triangle directly similar to each of them.

[Trinity Coll. Sch. Exatn. 1885.]

Ex. 2. If triangles directly similar to a given triangle be described on the

perpendiculars of another triangle, show that their centres of similitude are
the feet of the perpendiculars from the orthocentre on the medians of the
triangle.

Ex.

If

3.

show that

if

ABC be

the vertex

along another straight

Show
be a

4.

B move

on a fixed straight

line,

if

be a fixed point,

the vertex

C will move

line.

also that if the locus of

circle.

Ex.

a triangle of constant shape, and

be a

circle,

then the locus of

C will

also

ABC, A'B'C be two triangles which are directly similar, and if

A'B'C be turned about any point in its plane, show that the locus

If

the triangle

of the centre of similitude will be a circle.

207.

The construction given

in 205 requires a slight modification

X, the point of intersection of BC,

BC

coincides with

or C.

when

Let us

92

CENTRE OF SIMILITUDE

132
suppose that

B'C

passes through B.

Then, the centre of similitude

the point of intersection of the circle circumscribing the triangle

the circle which passes through B' and touches

Again,

if

BC at

similitude will be the

point of intersection of the circle which passes through B' and touches

Ex.

208.

1.

If

Ex.
in

touches

BC at

BC at B.

be the centre of similitude of the directly similar

that AO passes through the symmedian point of

ABC, DAE, show

triangle ABB.

triangles

the

C and

be

B.

C coincide with the point B, the centre of

B, and the circle which passes through

will

BCC, and

2.

In the same case,

H, show that
Ex.

3.

AO meet the circumcircle of the triangle ABD

if

AH is bisected in the point

If triangles be described

0.

on the sides of the triangle ABC, so as to

be directly similar to each other, show that the three centres of similitude of
these triangles taken two at a time, are the vertices of the second Brocard
triangle of the triangle

Ex.

4.

triangle

ABC,

ABC, show
5.

See

134.

be taken on the sides BC, CA,

so that the triangle

A'B'C

is

AB

of the

directly similar to the triangle

that the centre of similitude of the triangle

its positions is

Ex.

ABC.

If points A', B',

the circumcentre of the triangle

A'B'C

in

any two of

ABC.

In the last case show that the circumcentre of the triangle

ABC

coincides with the orthocentre of the triangle A'B'C.

Ex.

6.

If points A', B',

be taken on the sides AB, BC,

CA

of the

OF SIMILAR TRIANGLES.

133

ABC, so that the triangle A'B'C is directly similar

ABC, show that the centre of similitude is a fixed point.

triangle

Let

be the centre of similitude.

scribing the triangles

AA'C,

Then,

BE A', CCB;

will lie

and the

to the triangle

on the circles circumAA'Q, IUfQ CC'Q

circles

touch A'B', B'C, C'A', respectively, at the points A\ B, and <". Hence,
the angles Q.AB, QBC, Q.CA are equal, and it follows by 116, that Q is one
of the Brocard points of the triangle ABC.
will

It is easily seen that the angles QA'ff,

QAB,

so that

Ex.

7.

is

If points A', B',

triangle A' B'C

QBC,

t->

A'BC.

be taken on the sides CA,

directly similar to the triangle

is

QC'A' are each equal

the same Brocard point of the triangle

AB, BC, so that the

ABC, show that the centre

of similitude is the other Brocard point.

Ex.

8.

If a triangle A' B'C be inscribed in a given triangle

ABC,

bo as

be always directly similar to a given triangle, show that the centre of

of the triangle A' B'C, in

tude

any two of

its

positions

is

t<>

simili-

a fixed point.

[Townsend.]
Ex.

9.

If a triangle

A'B'C

of constant shape be inscribed in a given

triangle

ABC,

the circumcircle of the triangle A'B'C meets the sides of the

triangle

ABC

in three points A", B", C", which form another triangle of

constant shape.
in

Show that

any two of its positions

Ex. 10.

Show that
ABC.

is

the centre of similitude

C of the triangle A" B'C"

[H. M. Taylor.]

a fixed point.

the points 0,

C are

isogonal conjugates with respect

[Casey.]

to the triangle

V<

209.

Let

ABC

be any given

triangle,

and

let

A'B'C be constructed so as to be nomothetic to

ABC. Let be the homothetic centre, and OX any
Suppose the triangle A'B'C to be turned about
0.
through an angle equal to two right angles, so that
cides with the plane of the triangle

new

position of

A'B'C
X

ABC.

Let

a triangle

the triangle
line

through

the line

its

OX

plane coin-

A" B'C"

be the

CENTRE OF SIMILITUDE OF TWO

134

A"B"G"

It is obvious that the triangle

the triangle

ABC.

OB"C",

triangles

It

is

OCA", OA"B"

is

inversely similar to

from the figure that the

also evident

are inversely similar

the

to

OBC, OCA, OAB; that the angles AOA", BOB", COC"

bisected by the line OX and that

triangles

are

OA" OB" OC" = OA OB

:

Further,

we

OX

see that the line

is

OC.

parallel to the internal

between corresponding sides of the triangles

Thus let P be any arbitrary point, and let PQ,

bisector of the angles

ABC, A"B"C".

PQ"

be drawn in the same directions as BC, B"C" respectively,

OX

then

be parallel to the internal bisector of the angle

will

QPQ".

The point

210.
triangles

called the centre of similitude of the

is

ABC, A"B"C"\ and

the line

OX

the axis of similitude

of the triangles.

Since the triangles

similar to the triangles

B"0C", C"0A", A"0B" are

BOC, CO A, A OB, the point

inversely
will

the same relative position with respect to the triangles

A"B"C".

ABC,

it

We

now show

that any two triangles which are inversely

have a centre of similitude, and an axis of similitude.

evident that

triangles
in

For instance, if
were the orthocentre of the triangle
would also be the orthocentre of the triangle A"B"C".

shall

similar,
is

have

ABC,

which

when the

may be
it is

\^y 211.

It

known, one of the

so as to be brought into a position

axis of similitude is

rotated about

it

homothetic to the other triangle.

To find the centre and axis of similitude of two triangles

which are inversely similar.

ABC, A'B'C be two triangles which are inversely similar.

be the centre of similitude, it follows that the axis of simili-

Let
If

tude must bisect the angles

lines BB',

CC

in the points

evident

K, L,

Hence,

if

we

divide the

so that

BK KB = CL LC = BC B'C,
that KL must be the axis of similitude.
:

it is

BOB, COC.
:

Again the triangles BOC, B'OC are inversely similar, so that

on BC, B'C must be in the same ratio
as BC EC.
Consequently if BC, B'C intersect in X, the line
XO will divide the angle BXB into parts whose sines are as
the perpendiculars from
:

INVERSELY SIMILAR TRIANGLES.

BC

Thus a point

B'C.

B'OC

135

can be found so that the triangles BOC,

are inversely similar.

It is obvious that

triangles OA'B',

OAG; and
and

centre,

Ex.

212.

that

when

has been found in this way, the

OA'G' are inversely

KL

KL the

similar to the triangles

bisects the angle

AOA'.

Hence

the

axis of similitude of the triangles.

Find the centre and axis of similitude of the

1.

OAB,
is

triangles

ABC,

A'B'C when B'C passes through B.

Ex.

when

Ex.

Find the centre and axis of similitude of the triangles ABC, A'B'C
and
coincide.

2.

3.

Show

that the axis of similitude divides the lines joining corre-

sponding points in the same

Ex.
similar,

ratio.

If two triangles be inscribed in the same

show that the triangles are in perspective.

4.

circle so as to

[Trinity Coll. Sch.

Ex.

5.

be inversely

Exam.

1885.]

In the last example, show that the axis of perspective of the

triangles passes through the centre of the circle.

Ex. 6. If ABC he any triangle inscribed in a circle, and if A A', BB, CC

be drawn parallel to any given straight line meeting the circle in the points
A', B', C, show that the triangles ABC, A'B'C will be inversely similar, and
that their axis of perspective will pass through the centre of the

circle.

Properties of two figures directly similar.

denote any figure consisting of the system of

points A, B, 0,....
On the lines OA, OB, OC,... connecting these
points to any point
in the same plane, let points A', B', C',... be
213.

Let

taken so that

OA':

OA = OB': OB = OC OC = &c.
:

PROPERTIES OF TWO

136

Then the

B,

figure F', consisting of the points A',

and the point

said to be homothetic to the figure F,

is

C',...,is

called the

homothetic centre.
It

is

evident that

if

A, B,

the corresponding points A',

that the straight lines

are parallel.

F corresponds

and,

Hence, to every

a parallel straight line of

in perspective, so that the theorems of 191 hold for

figures.

It is also evident that

form a triangle which

is

any three points A, B,

of the figure

homothetic to the triangle formed by the

corresponding points A', B',

214.

three collinear points of F,

of F' are also collinear

This also follows by considering that the two figures

the figure F'.

homothetic

',

ABC, A'B'C

straight line of the figure

F and F' are

C be any

B C

C of F'.

If two figures be homothetic,

and

if

one of them be

turned through any angle about the homothetic centre, the two
figures are said to be directly similar.

Let
centre,

and

Let A, B,

and F' be two homothetic

let

C,

figures,

the homothetic

F' be turned about the point 0, through an angle

be any points of F, and

...

C,

...

a.

be the

Then we have

corresponding points of F'.

OA'

let A', B',

OA = OB' OB = OC 00= &c.

:

evident that each of the angles AOA' BOB', ... is

and that each line of F, such as AB, makes with the
corresponding line A'B' of F' an angle equal to a.

Also

equal to

it is

',

a,

Again, the triangles

triangles OA'B',
to one figure

is

OB'C,

OAB, OBC,
...

...

are directly similar to the

so that the position of

exactly similar to

its

with respect

position with respect to the

other figure.

This point

is

called

the cenfre of similitude of the

two

figures.

215.

It follows, from the definition given in the last article,

F and F' in the same plane will be directly

when a correspondence can be established between the
points of the two figures, such that
(i) To each point of F
corresponds one point and only one point of F'. (ii) The distance
between every pair of corresponding points subtends the same
angle at a fixed point 0. (iii) The distance of each point of F
that two figures

similar

FIGURES DIRECTLY SIMILAR.

from

137

bears a constant ratio to the distance of the corresponding

point of F' from 0.

Again two
each line of
line of F',

and

and F'

will be directly similar, when (i)

makes a constant angle with the corresponding

figures

(ii)

the triangle formed by every three points of

directly similar to the triangle formed

is

For

points of F'.

by proceeding as

in this case

we can

by the corresponding

find the centre of similitude

in 205.

In applying this criterion to any two figures it is necessary to be careful as

which angle is taken as the angle between two corresponding lines. Thus,
let A, B be any two points of F, A', B' the corresponding points of /".
Through any arbitrary point
draw OX parallel to and in the same direction
as AB, and OX' in the same direction as A'B'. Then the angle between the
to

corresponding lines AB, A'B'

is

to be taken as equal to

XOX'.

Directly similar figures might also have been defined to

216.

be diagrams of the same figure drawn to different scales

same

in the

plane.

two maps of the same country be

placed on a table, there is one point, and only one point, which
will indicate the same place on the two maps.
It follows at once that if

Ex.

217.

points

1.

0?, A', B',

The
C,

points 0, A, B, C,

...

equally inclined to the lines OA', O'B",

aA'

'

the figures
Ex.

2.

...

of a figure

correspond to the

of another figure /", so that the lines

F and F' will

....

Show

that

OA, OB,

...

are

if

0A = 0'B' OB = &c,
:

be directly similar.

Hence show that any two

circles are directly similar figures.

Two maps

of the same country, on different scales, are placed on a

put through both maps at a given point. If one of the
maps be moved about show that the locus of the centre of similitude will be a

Ex.

table,

3.

and a pin

is

circle.

Ex.
fixed

4.

If a pair of corresponding points of

and the

figures

moved about

centre of similitude will be a

two coplanar similar figures be

show that the locus of the

in their plane,

circle.

Ex. 5. Show that through any given point one and only one pair of
corresponding lines of two similar figures can be drawn.

Ex. 6. If P,
be a pair of corresponding points of two similar figures
show that if the locus of P be a circle
whose centre of similitude is
;

passing through 0, the line

PP'

will pass

through a fixed point.

PROPERTIES OF TWO FIGURES

138
Ex.

If A, B, C,

7.

D be any four

points on a circle, and

the orthocentres of the triangles BCD, CDA, DAB,

P(jRS is directly similar to the figure A BCD.

if

ABC, show

P, Q, R,

S be

that the figure

Given any two triangles wT hich are directly similar, it is

easy to see that similar points of the two triangles w ill correspond.
That is to say, if ABC, A'B'C be the two triangles, P and P' any
218.

similar points, (e.g. the orthocentres of the triangles), then

and

A 'B'C'P'

are directly similar figures.

are nomothetic,

two

it

follows that the line joining

P and P' must

such as

When

ABCP

the two triangles

two similar points

pass through the centre of similitude of the

figures.

Show

Ex.1.

219.

that the orthocentre, the circum centre, and the median

point of any triangle are collinear.

If

ABC be

the triangle, D, E,

F the middle points of the sides, the triangle

DEF is homothetic to the triangle ABC,

and the circumcentre of the

latter is

the orthocentre of the former.

Ex.

2.

ABC be any triangle, and D, E, F be the middle

symmedian points of the triangles ABC, DEF are
with the median point of the triangle ABC.
Show

that

if

points of the sides, the

collinear

Ex.

The tangents

3.

triangle

LMN,

triangle

ABC.

to the circumcircle

and AA', BB',

Show

CC

that the lines LA', MB',

collinear with the circumcentre

Ex.

Show

4.

ABC form the

on the sides of the
meet in a point which is

of a triangle

are the perpendiculars

NC

and orthocentre of the triangle ABC.

that the lines which connect the middle points of the corre-

sponding sides of a triangle and

its first

Brocard triangle are concurrent.

Show that, if Q, Q.' denote the Brocard points of a given triangle,

denote the isotomic conjugate point of the symmedian point of the
triangle, the median point of the triangle A'QQ' coincides with the median
Ex.

and

5.

if A"'

point of the given triangle.

Properties of

two

figures inversely similar.

Let F and F' be any two homothetic figures in the same

and
the homothetic centre.
Let F' be turned about any

220.
plane,
line

OX,

in its plane,

s<>

that

its

F'

in

its

through an angle equal to two right angles,

plane coincides with the plane of F.

new

position

is

Then, the figure

said to be inversely similar to

the

figun- F.

What

is

considering

meant by inverse

F and

similarity is easily understood

F' to be drawings of the same

map

by

on different

INVERSELY SIMILAR.

139

Let us suppose F' to be drawn on transparent paper, and

its face downwards on the face of F, then the reverse
side of F' is inversely similar to the figure F.
scales.

with

laid

The point

which was originally the homothetic centre is

and

called the centre of similitude of the inversely similar figures,

OX

the line

is

called the axis

of similitude.

Let A,B,C,... be any points of a figure F, and A', R,G'

221.

...

Then
similitude, we

the corresponding points of an inversely similar figure F'.

be the centre of similitude and

if

have as in

clearly

OX

the axis of

209,

0A'

OA = OB' OB =
:

00'

00= &c.

Also the axis OX will bisect each of the angles A OA' BOB',
COG' ... and will be parallel to the internal bisectors of the angles
between the corresponding lines of the two figures.
;

Further,

it is

evident that the triangles A'0B',A'0C, B'OG',...

be inversely similar to the triangles

will

Hence

two

relations to the
Ex.

222.

A OB, AOC,

BOG,...

follows that the centre of similitude will have similar

it

If

1.

figures.

and A' be corresponding points of two figures which

a, a corresponding lines, show that the line drawn

are inversely similar, and

through A' parallel to a will correspond to the line through

parallel to a.

If ABC, A'B'C be two triangles which are inversely similar, the

2.
through the vertices of each parallel to the sides of the other are

Ex.
lines

concurrent.

If P,

be the points of concurrence, show that

and

are corre-

sponding points.
Ex.

If

3.

A'B'C be the

first

the perpendiculars from A, B,

in

T,

Brocard triangle of the triangle ABC, and

C on

the sides of the triangle

ABC

show that the circumceutre of

is

that point

if

A'B'C intersect
of A'B'C which

corresponds to the point T.

The point
Ex.

and

4.

T is called

Tarry's point

( 135,

Ex. 7) of the triangle

ABC.

Find the axis of similitude and centre of similitude of any triangle

Brocard triangle.

its first

The centre

of similitude is the median point of the triangles ( 135,

Ex. 13).

Ex.

5.

triangle

If

K be the symmedian point of the

ABC, and

if

be the circumcentre,

Tarry's point of the triangle

ABC, show

that

first

Brocard triangle of the

the Lemoine centre, and

LK'

is

parallel to TS.

PROPERTIES OF THREE

140

Properties of three figures directly similar.

similar

and

The
is

F F F

Let

223.

1}

let

be any three figures which are directly

be the centre of similitude of

and S3 that of

x ;

triangle formed

called the triangle

and

and

F,.

S1} S2) S

by the three centres of similitude

of similitude of the figures

circumcircle of this triangle

that of

F F F
lt

and the

called the circle of similitude.

is

be convenient to explain here the notation which will be used in

It will

The

the following articles.

denoted by

l\,

k2

k3

scales

on which the figures are drawn

will

be

the constant angles at which corresponding lines of

the figures intersect will be denoted by a x

P P2 P

a2 o 3
,

corresponding points will be

The perpenand corresponding lines by x1% x2 x3

dicular distance of any point P from a line x will be denoted by Px.
denoted by

formed by

the triangle
the circle

three corresponding lines is in perspective with

of similitude, and the locus of the centre of perspective

xs be any three corresponding

X X X
lt

S^l

Therefore

Oj^/j ^ A/q

179,

forming the

A/j

p = 1.
|^
Oowj
03^2
3

Oj&y

Hence by

lines,

Then we have,

0h\j

the triangle formed by the lines x1} x2 x3

,

perspective with the triangle of similitude Sfi2 S3

is

in

If A" be the centre of perspective of the triangles

it is

is

of similitude.

Let xly x2
triangle

In every system of three directly similar figures, the

224.
triangle

lt

S Sj$
x

XXX
1

evident that

Kx
Now

Kx

Kx = k
z

k2

k3

xlt x2 x3 are corresponding lines, they intersect each

a,, a,, a 3
Hence the angles of the triangle
AVYjA'j are known, and therefore the angles
3
1)
2
3
A,A\Y, are constant. That is, the angles S2KS3> S3 KSU S^S, are
constant; and therefore the point
must lie on the circle SSS*since

other at angles equal to

X KX X KX
,

225.

Since three corresponding lines form a triangle in per-

spective with the triangle of similitude, so

that the centre of

FIGURES DIRECTLY SIMILAR.

perspective

a point on the circle of similitude,

is

141
it

follows that if

three corresponding lines are concurrent their point of intersection

is

a point on the circle of similitude.

Let

x2

#!,

x3 be any three corresponding

concurrent, and let

lines

which are

be the point of intersection.

Then we

x2 and x3

into parts

have

Hence S^K

divides the angle between

whose sines are in a constant

Let xlf x2 x3 cut the
,

circle of similitude in

Since x2 x3 are corresponding

,

is

equal to

it

Hence

it

And
and

lines, it follows

the points

Iu I9t I

that the angle

I2KIS

a1#

follows that the angles

I2 KS>

we can show that the

angles

similarly

I^Si

ratio.

X ,

I3 KS
I3 KS2)

are constant.
IxKS-2,

IiKS3

are constant.

Therefore

Ilt I I3
2

are fixed points on the circle of similitude.

Thus we have the theorem Every triad of corresponding lines

which are concurrent pass through three fixed points on the circle of
:

similitude.

These fixed points on the circle of similitude are called the

and the triangle formed by them is called the

invariable points,

invariable triangle.
226.

Ex.

1.

Show

that the invariable points of a system of three similar

figures are corresponding points.

PROPERTIES OF THREE

142
Ex.

that the triangle formed by

Show

2.

any three corresponding

lines is

inversely similar to the invariable triangle.

Ex.

KI3

K be any point on the circle of similitude,

F F F

If

3.

are corresponding lines of the figures

Ex.

from the sides of

distances of

proportional to k {

l:

KIlt KI2 KI3

are parallel

in perspective with the

the invariable

are inversely

triangle

by three
show that

perspective of the triangle formed

x3 and the triangle of

to &\, x 2 x3 respectively.

x x x2

corresponding lines

is

KIly KI2

show that

K be the centre of

If

5.

be the centre of perspective, show that the

If

triangle of similitude.

Ex.

that the invariable triangle

Show

4.

lt

similitude,

If x t x 2 x3 and x t ', x 2 x3 be two triads of corresponding lines,

K' be the centres of perspective of the triangles x^x^, x{x2 x3 and
and K' are corresponding points of the
the triangle of similitude, show that

Ex.

and

6.

if A",

directly similar triangles

Ex.

that the centre of similitude of the triangles formed

Show

7.

xxx2x3 xx2 x3

on the

triads of corresponding lines, is a point

by two

circle of similitude.

The triangle formed by any three corresponding points of

227.

three directly similar figures, is in perspective with the invariable

and

triangle,

the centre of perspective is a point on the circle of

similitude.

P P

Let Pj,
I\,

I-i,

Then

be any three corresponding points.

I P3

be the invariable points, the lines /jPu IJPi}

lines.
But these lines intersect on the

corresponding

circle

similitude, since they pass through the invariable points.

the triangles P^PJP^,

Ex.

1.

aa a point of

228.

Ex.

2.

Ex.
in

3.

If ,' be that point of

or

show that

which corresponds to

Slf S and I
'

considered

&,,

show that

to

S2 and

two

triangles,

formed by two triads of corresponding points,

i>crHpcctive, the locus of their centre of perspective is

the circle of

similitude.

229.
(<>//

of

Hence

are collinear.

S2\ S3 be similar points corresponding

S S2S3 S^SoS^, and IxI2 I3 are copolar.

If

are

are in perspective.

If

the triangles

Ikj

IJJ

if

[Tarry.]

If

three corresponding points be collinear, their line

iiiearity will

of
pass through the centre of perspective of the triangle

if similitude and the invariable triangle.

Let P,,

and

P P

let /,, /,

be three corresponding points which are collinear,

I3 be the

invariable points.

Since

Ily

are points

FIGURES DIRECTLY SIMILAR.

of P, and /,,

S3PiP2
S3 SJ).

the corresponding points of

S I I S PiP

triangles

are directly similar.

143
,

it

follows that the

Therefore, the angle

S3 I I2 and therefore to the angle

we can show that the angle #2 PiP3 is equal to
the angle SJ33 0. Hence the angle S2PiS3 is equal to the angle
Therefore P must lie on the circumcircle of S^OS^
S.2 OS3
equal to the angle

is

Similarly,

Hence, the angle

fore to the angle

S^O

S^P*.

equal to the angle

is

Therefore the line

S S. 0, and
3

PPP
X

there-

must pass

through the point 0.

230.

It

evident from

is

corresponding points
a fixed

circle.

S2 0S3

That

the last article that

P P P are collinear, each of

P lies on the circumcircle of
lt

is,

the triangle

on the circumcircle of the triangle

when three
them lies on

S3 0S and
x

on

the circle SfiSz.

If

coincide with Su P will coincide with the point

F which corresponds to the point # considered as
P or F It is evident then that &/ must lie on the

and

Si of the figure

a point of

3.

circumcircle of the triangle

S 0S
2

Special cases of three directly similar figures.

231.

ABC

If three figures

be described on the sides of the triangle

so as to be directly similar to each other, the triangle of

similitude of the figures will be the second Brocard triangle of the

triangle

ABC (

208, Ex. 3)

and the

circle of similitude will

be

the Brocard circle of the triangle.

The

sides of the triangle

ABC will

be corresponding

lines,

and

PROPERTIES OF SIMILAR FIGURES

144

triangle
the centre of perspective of this triangle and the
ABC.
of
point
symmedian
the
will
be
similitude

Let
A',

B,

K be

the symmedian point of the triangle

C be the

parallel to

Brocard

first

AB

BC, CA,

ABC, and

Then KA', KB',

Hence A', B', C

triangle.

respectively.

invariable points of the system ( 226, Ex.

of

let

KC are
are the

5).

P
.A

If

PQR

be the triangle formed by any three corresponding

lines, and if K' be the centre of perspective of the triangles PQR,

and A"B"C", the triangle of similitude, it follows from 226, Ex. 6,
that the triangle PQR will be directly similar to ABC, and that K'

will

PQR.

be the symmedian point of the triangle

Thus: If
of a triangle,

three directly similar figures be described

any

symmedian point
232.

If

three corresponding lines

lies

on the Brocard circle of the given triangle.

A'B'C be

the

Brocard triangle, and

first

second Brocard triangle of the triangle

CC"

C the

ABC,

the lines

A"B"C"

the

A'A",BB",

For A", B", C" are the centres of similitude,

are concurrent.

and A', B,

on the sides

form a triangle whose

invariable points of three directly similar figures

described on the sides of the triangle

the triangles A'B'C,

Let A' A", B'B",

A"B"C"

CC"

ABC. Hence by

intersect in G, then

follows that the distances of

are inversely proportional to

K ,K, if

proportional to BC,

CA, AB.

by

Ex.

4, it

ABC

and therefore are inversely

triangles A'B'C, ABC &re

But the

B'C CA' A'B' = BC CA

:

226,

from the sides of the triangle

inversely similar, so that

:

226, Ex. 4,

are in perspective.

AB.

CONNECTED WITH A TRIANGLE.

Hence G is the median point of A'B'C.
median point of ABC ( 222, Ex. 4).
Ex.

233.

1.

triangle

ABC,

Brocard

circle.

The

Show

that

if

A'B'C be the

the lines BA', CB',

points B, C,

AC

This point

first

directly similar to each other

perspective with the

Ex.

first

circle

three circles

Ex.

show that their

parallel,

be corresponding points of three directly similar figures

BC,
2,

ABC, and if two

of the lines

AP, BQ, CR

parallel.

BPC, CQA, ARB are described on the

ABC, the triangle whose sides are
whose sides are A'B, B'C, CA, be denoted by

Similar isosceles triangles

5.

CA',

F F F
1}

line of

lie

show that the three are

sides of a triangle

AB',

so as to be

A", B", C" the vertices of the second Brocard

on the circumcircles of B"CG, C"A"G, A"B"G. These
are called McCay's circles.

If P, Q,

4.

Ex.

ABC,

form a triangle in

show that their

median point of the triangle ABC

described on the sides of the triangle

be

vertices

also that each vertex lies on a circle.

be the median point

the vertices

AC are corresponding

If in the last case the vertices be collinear,

3.

If

intersect on the

Brocard triangle of the triangle ABC.

collinearity passes through the

Show

and

Triangles are described on the sides of a triangle

2.

also the

are corresponding points of three directly similar

on the sides of ABC, hence BA', CB',

and the theorem follows from 225.

Ex.

is

Brocard triangle of the

are concurrent,

figures described
lines,

145

ABC.

and the

If the triangle

triangle

respectively,

show that the

triangle of similitude of

F F F
1

is

the tria.igle SQ.Q! formed by the circumcentre and the Brocard points of the
triangle

ABC.

Show

also that the

symmedian points of the

triangles are the invariable

points of the system.

[Neuberg.]

234.
Let ABC be any triangle, and let AA', BR, CC be
drawn perpendicular to the sides. Then the triangles A B'C, A'BC
A'B'C are inversely similar to the triangle ABC and therefore
The centres of similitude of these
directly similar to each other.
triangles are evidently the points A', B', C.

',

Let D, E, F be the middle points of the sides of the triangle

A", B", C" the middle points of AO, BO, CO, where

ABC; and
is

the orthocentre.

Then the perpendiculars at the middle points of AB',A'B, A'B'

But these lines meet in the point F.

are corresponding lines.

Similarly, the perpendiculars at the middle points of

L.

AC, A'C,
10

PROPERTIES OF SIMILAR FIGURES

146

and the perpenwhich

meet in D
B'G
BC,
B'C,
diculars at the middle points of

A'C which meet

in

are corresponding lines;

are corresponding lines.

Hence, by
that

225, D, E,

F are

points on the circle of similitude

Again, the perpendiculars at the middle points of B'C,

meet

the circle A' B'C.

is,

Therefore

in A".

A"

is

AC, A B'

one of the invariable points of the

Similarly B", C" are the other invariable points.

system.

A", B", C"

lie

on the

Hence

circle of similitude.

Hence the nine points

A', B',

C, A", B", C", D, E, F,

lie

on a

circle.

Ex.

235.

Show

1.

that three corresponding lines of the triangles

A B'C,

A'BC", A' B'C form a triangle in perspective with the triangle A' B'C.
Ex.

Show that

2.

sponding lines
Ex.

lies

The

3.

the circumcentre of the triangle formed by three corre-

on the nine-point

circle.

three lines joining A", B",

C" to corresponding points of

the three triangles coiutersect on the nine-point circle of

Ex.

Every

4.

ABC meets the

line

ABC.

which passes through the orthocentre of the triangle

A B'C, A'BC, A' B'C in points

circumcircles of the triangles

which are corresponding points for the three triangles.

Ex.

of

ABC

be corresponding points of the triangles

A' B'C, show that

in the point

A"B"C, of
cumcentre of ABC.
triangle

Ex.

P P3

If P, 1\,

5.

ABC\ A'BC,

which

is

A"Plt B"P2 C"P3 meet

,

the isogonal conjugate, with respect to the

the point at infinity on the line joining

to the cir-

Show that the lines joining A", B", C" to the in-centres of the
A B'C, BC'A', CA'E respectively cointersect in the point of contact

6.

triangles

ABC,

the nine-point circle

of the nine-point circle of the triangle

ABC with

its

inscribed circle.

CONNECTED WITH A TRIANGLE.

Ex.

236.

of a triangle

diameter
Ex.
triangle

is

2.

If directly similar figures be described

1.

A BC, show

the line joining the median point of the triangle to the orthocentre.
If L, J/,

LMS is
3.

on the perpendiculars

that the circle of similitude will be the circle whose

N be the invariable points of these figures, show that the

inversely similar to the triangle

similitude of these triangles

Ex.

147

Show

median point

is

ABC, and

that the centre of

the symmedian point of each.

that any three corresponding lines form a triangle whose

lies

on the

circle of similitude.

Ex. 4.
If directly similar triangles be described on the perpendiculars of a
given triangle, so that their three vertices are collinear, show that the line of
collinearity will pass

Ex.

5.

ABC, show
on AG, AO

If

through the symmedian point of the given

be the median point, and

triangle.

the orthocentre of the triangle

that the line joining the feet of the perpendiculars from

respectively, passes through the

symmedian point of the

and

triangle.

102

CHAPTER

X.

THE CIRCLE.
Introduction.
237.

moves

circle

is

defined to be the locus of a point which

in one plane so as to be always at a constant distance

from

a fixed point.

circle is a

which cuts a

curve of the second order

circle

be drawn to cut a
line does not cut

meets

for,

every straight line

in two points, and no straight

more than two points. When a

it

circle in

a circle in real points,

it is

said to cut

line

can

straight

it

in

two

imaginary points.

straight line

may meet

In this case, the line

points,

and

238.

is

is

a circle in apparently only one point.

said to cut the circle in

This definition of a tangent

the case of any curve

is

said

to

may

be extended to include

The chord joining two consecutive

on a curve

two coincident

called a tangent to the circle.

(i.e.

indefinitely near) points

touch the curve.

,'

A CIRCLE CONSIDERED AS AN ENVELOPE.

Let

be any point on a curve, and

be a near point, at a

Now

Join PQ.

from P.

finite distance

let

149

let the point Q move

Then the line PQ turns
with P, when PQ will have

along the curve towards the point P.

about the point P, until

PQ, that

PT is

is

coincides

PT

Thus

PT.

the position

the limiting position of the chord

is

the tangent to the given curve at the point P.

In the case of a circle, or any curve of the second order, the

tangent at any point cannot cut the curve again

but in the

case of curves of order greater than the second, the tangent at any
point will in general cut the curve again.
It is left to the reader to
to a circle, as

show that the

given in Euclid,

is

definition of a tangent

equivalent to the definition given

above.
239.

If

we

consider the assemblage of lines formed by drawing

the tangents at every point of a

circle, it is

easy to see that two of

Hence a

these lines will pass through any given point.

curve of the second

From a
the circle

point within a
that

is,

circle is

class.

circle,

no

real tangents

can be drawn to

the tangent lines which pass through such a

point are imaginary.

If the given point be on the circle, only one

tangent can be drawn through

it

that

is

to say, the

two tangents

are coincident.
It follows that

when a

circle is treated as

a curve of the second

any point on it is to be regarded as the point of intersection

two consecutive tangents. More generally, we see that, in the
case of a curve of any class, the point of contact of any tangent line
is the limiting position of the point in which it intersects a near

class,

of

tangent,

given

when

the latter

is

turned about so as to coincide with the

line.

240.

The simplest

the second class

is

definition of a circle regarded as a curve of

the following

The envelope of a straight line which moves in one plane so as

a constant distance from a fixed point is a circle.

to

be always at
Ex.

1.

plane, so that

triangle given in species

two of

its sides

envelope of the third side

Ex.

2.

Two

is

and magnitude

turned about in a

Show

that the

circle.

sides of a given triangle touch

the envelope of the third side

is

pass through two fixed points.

is

circle.

two

fixed circles.

Show

that

SPECIAL CASES OF GENERAL THEOREMS.

150
Ex.

Two

3.

circles intersect iu the points

and B, and from a point

on one of them PA, PB are drawn cutting the other

and R. Show that the envelope of QR is a circle.
Ex.

two sides of a triangle and

If

4.

its

circle in the points

P
Q

inscribed circle be given in

position, the envelope of its circumcircle is a circle.

Ex.

two sides of a triangle be given in

If

5.

be given in magnitude, find the envelope of

241.

It is

its

position,

how

very often instructive to consider

particular theorem requires modification

On

a figure coincide.

and

if its

perimeter

circumcircle.

when two

the other hand a theorem

or

the enunciation of a

more

points, or lines, of

may sometimes

be easily

recognised as a special case of a general theorem by taking a slightly

more

complicated figure.

The

Ex.

inscribed circle of the triangle

ABC

touches the side

point P, show that the line joining the middle points of

through the centre of the

BC

and

BC

in the

AP

passes

circle.

AC of the triangle; and let

B and C meet in P. Then we
middle point of BC to the middle point of AP

Consider any circle touching the sides AB,

the other tangents which can be drawn from

know

that the line joining the

passes through the centre of this circle ( 38, Ex. 4).

If now we suppose the
circle to be drawn smaller and smaller until it touches BC,
will become the

point of contact of the circle with BC.

Ex.

242.

P, Q,

1.

circle

R; show that the

This

may

Hence the theorem

touches the sides of the triangle

lines

AP, BQ, CR

is

proved.

ABC

in the points

are concurrent.

be deduced from Pascal's theorem

( 181).

Any point D is taken on the side BC of the triangle ABC, and

drawn passing through D and touching AB, AC respectively at B
and C. Show that these circles meet in a point P, which lies on the circumcircle of the triangle ABC
and that the Simson line of P with respect to the
triangle ABC is perpendicular to the line which joins the middle points of
BC, and AD.
Ex.

2.

circles are

See 148, Ex.

2.

POLES AND POLARS.

Ex.

If

3.

P {AB,

CD)

A and B

Let the tangent at

4,

be four points on a

A {AB,

the pencil

we can prove

T and

in the

CD

meet

in T,

CD], that
is

circle,

such that the pencil

point on the circle; show that

CD.

intersect on

Therefore the range {7T, CD}

7",

P is any other

harmonic, where

the tangents at

Ex.

B, C,

.,1,

is

151

is

and

harmonic.

same way that

let

AB

the pencil

cut

CD

If the tangent at

{T V, CD}

is

By

in V.

{TB, CD},

is

48,

harmonic.

B meet CD in
Hence

a harmonic range.

T' coincide.

Ex.

If the pairs of tangents

4.

B, cut any

tangents from

See

drawn

to a circle

from two points,

and

tangent harmonically, show that the chord of contact of the

fifth

will pass

48, Ex.

through B.

5.

Poles and Polars.

If a

243.

straight line be

if the point II be taken on

with respect

Let P,

and

it,

which

is the

0,

R will

be

a straight

and

harmonic conjugate of 0,

two points in which the line cuts a given

of the point

the locus

circle,

to the

drawn through a fixed point

circle,

line.

be the points in which the straight line cuts the

E be

let

the middle point of

PQ.

Then we have

( 54,

Ex. 1)

OP.OQ = OE.OR
Also
0,

we

and

if

A OB be

N the

shall also

the diameter of the circle which passes through

harmonic conjugate of

with respect to

and B,

it

follows

have

OA.OB = OC.ON,
where

is

the centre.

OA.OB = OP.OQ;
OE .OR = OC. ON.

But
therefore

Therefore the points C, E, R,

that the angle

ONR is

N are concyclic.

a right angle.

Hence

POLAR OF A POINT.

152

Consequently, the locus of the point

N and

which passes through

This straight line
to the circle

It should

is

the straight line

at right angles to CO.

called the polar of the point

and the point

be noticed that

the straight line

But

is

is

OR may

if

with respect

said to be the pole of the line.

is

the point

is

without the

circle,

not intersect the circle in real points.

in this case the foot of the perpendicular

regarded as the middle point of

from

C may

still

be

PQ, and the proof given above

applies.

244

The theorem of the

last article

may also

be proved other-

wise thus

Let PQ be any chord of a given circle which passes through

the given point 0, and let
be the harmonic conjugate of
with
respect to the points P, Q.

Let C be the centre of the circle, and let a circle be drawn

through the points C, P,
Q, cutting CO in the point iV.

Then
it

0C.0N= OP. 0Q = 0A. OB,

since

follows that

is

a fixed point.

Now C is the middle

PNQ.

point of the arc

PCQ,

therefore

CN bisects

the angle

But
fore

N {OR, PQ]

is a harmonic pencil, by hypothesis.

Theremust be the other bisector of the angle PNQ; that is,
must be a right angle.

XR

RNC

Therefore the point

cuts

OC

always

lies

at right angles in the point

N.

on the straight line which

CONSTRUCTION OF THE POLAR OF A POINT.

245.

153

It is evident that the polar of a point within a circle cuts

and that the polar of an external

Further, if
be an external
point, it is easy to see that its polar will pass through the points
of contact of the two tangents which can be drawn from
to the
circle.
Let any chord be drawn through the point
cutting the
the circle in imaginary points

point cuts the circle in real points.

circle in

line

Q and

Q',

and the polar of

Then

if this

the points

Q and

in the point R.

be turned about the point 0, so as to

make

Q' approach one another, the point R, which lies

will ultimately coincide

with them.

contact of one of the tangents from 0,

Hence,

if

between them,

P be

when Q and

the point of

Q' coincide with

is

a point

polar of a point with respect

to

a given

the point P, so also will the point R.

That

is

to say,

on the polar of 0.
246.

To construct

the

circle.

Let

be the given point, and

let

any two chords POQ, P'OQ'

POLAR PROPERTIES.

154

Let PP' intersect QQ' in S

Then SS' is the polar of 0.

be drawn.
in S'.

therefore

POQ

meets SS'

Thus

PQ', P'Q intersect,

R, which

in a point

with respect to

conjugate of

let

the tetrastigm

S, S' are the centres of

For 0,

and

and

is

PP'QQ'

and

the harmonic

Q.

a point on the polar of 0.

is

Similarly, if P'Q'

meet 55'

in R', it follows that

is

a point

on the polar of 0.

Hence SS'

If

247.

is

the

the polar of 0.

polar of a point

through the point Q, the polar of

Let

PQ

the polar of

must

lie

248.
line,

cut the circle in

in Q, {PQ,

on the polar of

We

with respect to a circle pass

will pass through P.

M and

MX]

is

r
i\ .

circle,

the pole of the straight

polar of R.

Then

Similarly

on any straight

pass through the same point, namely

line.

Suppose now that the polars of two points

in the point R.

Therefore

Q.

infer that the polars of every point

with respect to a

PMN cuts

Then because

a harmonic range.

since

is

is

P and

on the polar of P,

on the polar of R.

Q, intersect

P is on

Hence,

PQ

is

the
the

polar of R.

Thus, the line joining any two points

thing, the point of intersection of
line joining

the poles of the two

any two

lines.

the polar of the point

is

of intersection of the polars of the points

or,

what

is

the same

lines is the pole of the

POLAR PROPERTIES.

155

This theorem furnishes us with a simple method for

249.

constructing the pole of a given straight

line.

For take any two points on the line, and draw their polars
the point in which they intersect will be the pole of the given line.
250.

from

It follows

tangent to the

to the circle

is its

Let

247 that the polar of any point on a

circle is the

circle,

be any point on the

circle,

The

points on the tangent at R.

through

hence

with respect to the

Ex.

251.

and that the pole of any tangent

point of contact.

If

is,

the tangent at

If a chord of a circle pass through a fixed point, the locus of

1.

point with respect to the

2.

P and Q be any two

P and Q each pass
That
R is the pole
R to the circle.

let

the pole of PQ.

is

circle of

the point of intersection of the tangents at

Ex.

and

polars of

its

extremities

is

the polar of the

circle.

be any point on the polar of 0, show that the line PO will

with respect to the tangents from

be the harmonic conjugate of the polar of

to the circle.

Ex.

If

3.

any three points be

show that

collinear,

their polars with

respect to a circle will be concurrent.

Ex.

Show

4.

that the poles with respect to a circle of three concurrent

lines are collinear.

Ex.

If

5.

from any two points on a given straight

be drawn to a

them

show that the diagonals

line, pairs

of tangents

of the tetragram formed

by

will intersect in the pole of the given line.

Ex.
point

circle,

The tangents

and the tangent

in the points A', T, Z.

Ex.

Any two

7.

the polars of

If P3f,

8.

at the points

points

at

P and Q are taken on a chord AB of

AB in the points P', Qf respectively.

with

is in involution.

is

show that

9.

and

QX be drawn perpendicular to the polars of Q and P,

QQ }

PM QX=0P
Ex.

circle,

that

respect to a circle whose centre

A'B'C.

Show

and Q cut

the range {Jd?, PP',

Ex.

B and Con a circle intersect in the

any point P cuts the sides of the triangle ABC
Show that {PX, YZ) is a harmonic range.

6.

The tangents at three

Show that the centre of

[Salmon.]

0Q.

points A, B,

C on

a circle form the triangle

perspective of the triangles

ABC, A'BC,

is

the pole with respect to the circle of the axis of perspective of the triangles.

Ex. 10.

Show

that the poles of the

respect to the circumcircle,

lie

symmedian

lines of a triangle,

on the corresponding sides of the

triangle.

with

POLAR OF THE CENTRE OF A CIRCLE.

156

Hence show that

if

the

symmedian

lines of the triangle

C, the two triangles

circumcircle in the points A', B',

ABC

ABC, A'B'C

cut the
are co-

symmedian.
Ex. 11. Show that the lines drawn from the circumcentre of a triangle
perpendicular to the symmedian lines intersect the corresponding sides of the
triangle in three points which are collinear.
of a chord AOB of a
Ex. 12. Through the middle point
drawn any other chords POQ, and ROS. If PR, QS cut AB in
will be the middle point of UK.
show that

circle,

are

H and

K,

triangle,

Given the base and the sum or difference of the sides of a

show that the polar of the vertex with respect to a circle, whose

centre

one extremity of the base, will always touch a fixed

Ex. 13.

is

Since every diameter of a circle

252.

circle.

bisected at the centre,

is

harmonic conjugate of the centre of any circle

it
extremities of any diameter is the point at
the
with respect to
Hence, we infer that the centre of any
infinity on that diameter.
follows that the

circle is the pole

of the

line at infinity.

It also follows that the pole of

253.

at infinity on the diameter which

any diameter

is

the point

perpendicular to the given

is

diameter.

be the centre of a

Let

circle,

and

let

P, P' be the points

which two diameters at right angles cut the line at infinity.

Then P is the pole of 0P' and therefore the points P, P' are
harmonic conjugates with respect to the two imaginary points in
which the circle cuts the line at infinity or, what is the same

in

two imaginary points

thing, the

in

which the

circle cuts the line

at infinity are harmonic conjugates with respect to

Again,

cutting the line at infinity in the points

the same

way that the imaginary points

the line at infinity are also

and

and

P'.

another pair of diameters at right angles be drawn

if

Q and

Q', it

follows in

which the circle cuts

harmonic conjugates with respect to Q
in

Q'.

Hence,

if

we draw a

series of pairs of diameters at right angles,

the points in which they

meet the

/'/'> QQ',---} in involution,

which the

circle cuts

If these points

pencil

A{PP',

right angles,

line at infinity will

having

for

form a range

double points the points in

the line at infinity.

be joined to any point A, we clearly have a

QQ',...},

and the

such that the conjugate rays intersect at

lines joining

to the points in

which the

THE CIRCULAR
the

cuts

circle

line

at

are

infinity

157

POINTS.

the

double

of this

rays

pencil.

Hence, we infer that every circle passes through

imaginary points on the line at infinity.

the

same two

These two imaginary points have many important properties.

They

are called the circular points.

Since the centre of a circle

254.
infinity,

it

is

the pole of the line at

follows that the lines joining the centre of a circle

to the circular points touch the circle at these points.

Hence,

have the same tangents at the circular points,

concentric circles

and therefore may be said

to touch each other at the circular

points.

Conjugate points and

lines.

An}- two points are said to be conjugate points with

255.

respect to a circle,

when the

polar of either passes through the

other.

Any two
respect to a

straight lines are said to be conjugate lines with

circle,

when the

pole of either lies on the other.

It is evident that the polars of a pair of conjugate points are

conjugate lines

and that the poles of a pair of conjugate

lines are

conjugate points.
It is easy to see that there is in general only one point

256.

on a given straight line which

is

conjugate to a given point

namely, the point in which the given straight line cuts the polar of
Similarly, through a given point

the given point.

but one

which

line

we can draw

be conjugate to a given straight

shall

line,

unless the given point be the pole of the given line.

Ex.

257.

1.

Show

that perpendicular diameters of a circle are conjugate

lines with respect to the circle.

Hence, perpendicular diameters are called conjugate diameters.

Ex.

2.

Show

that the line joining any pair of conjugate points

harmonically by the
Ex.

3.

Show

If

A, A'

to a circle, on the
involution.

cut

that the tangents drawn to a circle from the point of inter-

two conjugate
a harmonic pencil.

section of

Ex.

is

circle.

lines

B, B'

same

with respect to the

C,

circle,

form with these

lines

be pairs of conjugate points with respect

show that {^4', BB', CC'} is a range in

straight line,

PROPERTIES OF CONJUGATE

158
Ex.

Through a point

5.

to the circle intersect

Any

258.

two conjugate lines luith respect

Let

circle, the

{OB, CD]

is

let

OAC

circle, cut the

be

any other

harmonic.

is

AB intersect CD in H,
;

and therefore the pencil

OAD

sin

OAC is

the angle

equal to the angle

APC, and

the angle

CPB.

sin 04 C
sin A PC
= - ttddsm nA1>
CAB sm CPB

we can show that

APD
BPD
sin A PC
sin APD

sin

OAD
BAD

sin

CPB

sin

Hence,
Therefore the pencil
Ex.

259.

CD]

- wr n
sm tttd
CAB smBAD

^
c
Therefore

A li cut

to

respectively; if

P {AB,

AB, and

sin

But the angle

Similarly

a harmonic range

is

1 neretore

CAB to

C,

harmonic.

_,,

and

pencil

be the pole of

Then, {OH, CD)

A,

circle in the points

point on the

two conjugate lines are drawn, and any tangent

and Q. Show that the other tangents from P
on the polar of 0.

meets them in the points

and

'

1.

If

the circle in

AB

P {AB,

CD}

sin
sin

sin
is

harmonic.

be any chord of a

C and

BPD
circle,

and

if

the conjugate line to

D, show that

AC: CB = AD BD.
:

Ex.

',.{/],

2.

If P, A, B, C,

CD}

is

be

on a circle, such that the pencil

harmonic, show that the lines AB, CD are conjugate with
five points

respect to the circle.

Ex. 3.
If A and B be a pair of conjugate points with respect to a circle,
show that the tangents drawn from them to the circle will cut any fifth
tangent in a harmonic range.

AND

POINTS
Ex.

Deduce from 258, that if A A', BE, CC be concurrent chords of

and if P be any other point on the circle, the pencil P {AA', BB', CC)

4.

circle,

will

159

LINES.

be in involution.

Ex.

5.

If

P be any

point on the polar of the point

inscribed (or an escribed) circle of the triangle

with respect to the

ABC, show

that

PB

PC

and

will be conjugate lines with respect to the circle.

Ex.

6.

Any

straight line

is

drawn through the pole of the line BC, with

ABC, cutting AC, AB in the points

respect to the circumcircle of the triangle

Q and

R.

Ex.

7.

Show

Q and R

that

The centre

chord of which

OP

Ex.

8.

If

I be

AB

Show

in Q.

Ex.

9.

lies

that

on another circle ABP, any

and Q are conjugate points

ABC.

the centre of the inscribed circle of a triangle, and

be drawn perpendicular to CI,

on the polar of

ABC

of a circle

cuts

with respect to the circle

CQ

are conjugate points with respect to the circle.

BI

with respect to the

Through a

to a fixed direction

respectively;

show that

if

BP,

and Q

lie

circle.

fixed point of a circle chords are

show that the

line joining

drawn equally

inclined

their extremities

passes

through a fixed point.

Ex.
A'B'C"
/',

The tangents

10.

the other tangent

form the triangle

to a circle at the points A, B, C,

and A A' cuts the

circle in

QR

P.

If

from any point

Q on

the tangent at

be drawn, show that the pencil Q{RA', B'C)

is

harmonic.

Three

Ex. 11.

fixed tangents to a circle

tangent at any point

is

Show

harmonic.

touches the
Ex. 12.

is

taken a point

form a triangle ABC, and on the

such that the pencil Q {PA, BC}

that the locus of the point

is

a straight line which

circle.

Two

conjugate lines with respect to a circle cut the circle in the

B; and C, D; respectively. Through any point P on AB

and D' show that
drawn the lines CP, DP cutting the circle in
passes through a fixed point on AB.
points A,

Ex. 13.

OB.

are

CD

on a circle are drawn any two chords 0A,

Through a point
PQ be drawn conjugate to OA and cutting OB in R, show

If a chord

that the pencil

A {BR, PQ]

is

harmonic.

fixed straight line meets a circle in A and B, and through a

on the line A B is drawn a straight line meeting the tangents at
and B in P and Q show that the other tangents to the circle from P and
intersect in a point whose locus is a straight line.

Ex. 14.

fixed point

A
Q

Ex. 15.

The tangent

at the point

to the circumcircle of the triangle

meets the tangents at B and C in' C" and B'. If the lines OB', OC
connecting B and C to any point 0, meet BC in P and Q, show that AB, AC
intersect B'Q, C'P, respectively, in points which lie on the polar of the

ABC

point 0.

PROPERTIES OF CONJUGATE POINTS.

160
The

260.

circle described

on the line joining a pair of conjugate

the given
points with respect to a given circle, as diameter, will cut
circle orthogonally.

Let P,
circle

be a pair of conjugate points with respect to the

let the circle whose diameter is PQ cut the circle

SAB, and

SAB in

the points

and B.

be the centre of the

Let
circle in

M and N, and the

Then, since
the polar of

PRQ

OA

is

circle

circle

a right angle,

OP

cut this

follows that

QR

must be

in R.
it

SAB.

MN} is a harmonic range,

0R.0P=0M* = 0A\

touches the circle

PAQ cuts the

let

SA B and

PAQ

with respect to the circle

Therefore {PR,

Hence,

PAQ

and therefore

at the point

A: and the

circle

given circle orthogonally.

Ex. 1.
If two circles cut orthogonally, show that the extremities of
261.
any diameter of either are conjugate points with respect to the other.
Ex.

2.

If a

system of

circles

show that the polars with respect

be drawn to cut a given circle orthogonally,

to them, of a point

on the given

circle, are

concurrent.

Ex.

3.

Show

that any straight line which cuts one circle in a pair of

points conjugate with respect to another circle, cuts the latter in points which
are conjugate with respect to the former.
Ex.

4.

Show how

to

draw a straight

line

which

shall cut

two of three

given circles in pairs of conjugate points with respect to the third.

Kx.

5.

Show

diameters, cut
orthogonally.

that the circles described on the diagonals of a tetragram as

the circumcircle of the triangle formed by the diagonals

CONJUGATE TRIANGLES.
Ex.

6.

Any

161

pair of conjugate points with respect to a given circle are

taken as centres of two circles which cut the given

circle orthogonally.

Show

that these circles will cut each other orthogonally.

Conjugate triangles.
262.

The

triangle formed

by the polars of the

given triangle with respect to a

circle,

is

vertices of

called the conjugate

triangle of the given triangle.

If

ABC

be the given triangle, and

A'B'C

the conjugate

C'A\ A'B' are the polars of A, B, C,

by 247, that A', B',
will be the
polars of BO, GA, AB, respectively.
Thus the triangle ABC is
the conjugate triangle of A'B'C.
triangle,

so

respectively,

263.
its

that B'G',
it

follows

In the particular case when a triangle coincides with

is when each vertex is the pole of the opposite

conjugate, that

side,

the triangle

is

said to be self-conjugate.

Given any point A, we can always construct a triangle having

one vertex at A, which shall be self-conjugate with respect to a
given circle. Let any point B be taken on the polar of A, and let
the polar of B cut the polar of A in the point G. Then the triangle
ABC is self-conjugate with respect to the circle.
For, since B lies on the polar of A, the polar of B passes
through A. Therefore A C is the polar of B. Also by 248, C

must be the polar of AB.

264.

If

ABC

be any self-conjugate triangle with respect to a

11

PROPERTIES OF SELF-CONJUGATE TRIANGLES.

162

whose centre

circle

is

0,

and

For, since

centre of the triangle.

perpendicular to BG.

Similarly,

A B respectively.
Let OA meet BG in

must be the orthothe pole of BG, OA is

easy to see that

it is

X, and

let

is

OG

OB,

CA

are perpendicular to

r denote the radius of the

circle,

then we shall have

= OA. OX.

r>

follows that, given the triangle

Hence it
be drawn such that the
The centre of the circle

This

265.

evident that

triangle

that

is,

of its polar circle

Ex.

only

the 'polar circle of the triangle.

when

when one angle

the orthocentre

is

Show

1.

it.

It

outside the

lies

of the triangle is greater than a

be a right angle, the radius

If one angle of a triangle

right angle.

266.

self-conjugate with respect to

by the above formula.

circle is called
it is real,

is

only one circle can

be the orthocentre of the triangle, and

radius will be determined

its

is

triangle
will

ABC,

evanescent.
that the polar circle of a triangle cuts orthogonally

the circles described on the sides of the triangle as diameters.

Ex.

If

2.

ABC

be any triangle and

circles of the four triangles

One
Ex.
lines,

orthocentre,

its

show that the polar

AOB are mutually

ABC, BOC, COA,

orthotomic.

of these circles is imaginary.

The

3.

polar circles of the four triangles formed

by four

straight

taken three at a time, cut orthogonally the circles described on the

diagonals of the tetragram formed by the lines, as diameters.

Ex.
if

If

4.

B and C

ABC be any self-conjugate triangle with respect to a circle, and

P on the circle, show that BP, CP will cut

be joined to any point

the circle in two points

Ex.
if

If

5.

QA R

Q and

R, such that

QR

will pass

ABC be any self-conjugate triangle

be any chord of this circle

through A.

with respect to a

show that BQ,

CR

and
on the

circle,

will intersect

circle.

Also

PI"

if

will

Ex.
l>oint.s

Ex.

BQ

intersect

CR

in P,

and

if

BR

intersect

CQ

in P',

Show that each side of a triangle cuts the polar

6.
which are conjugate with respect to the circumcircle.
7.

show that

pass through A.

Two

circle in

triangles are self-conjugate with respect to a circle;

two

show

that their six vertices form a Pascal hexastigm, and that their six sides form
a Brianchon hexagram.

267.

Any

triangle

and

its

conjugate triangle with respect

to

given circle are in perspective.

Let

ABC

be any triangle,

A'B'C

the conjugate triangle with

PROPERTIES OF CONJUGATE TRIANGLES.

163

AX, AX'

respect to a circle whose centre

is

perpendicular to C'A' and A'B';

BY, BY' perpendicular

Let

0.

and B'C; and GZ, GZ' perpendicular to B'C and

Then
251,

since A'B'

Ex.

the polar of G, and

is

A'C

be drawn
to A'B'

G'A'.

the polar of B, by

8,

BY.CZ' = 0B:0C;
we

similarly

shall have,

GZ:AX' = 0C:0A;
AX: BY' = 0A:0B.
BY GZ AX =

and

_._._

T
,
Therefore
.

Hence, by

179,

the triangle

ABG, A'B'G

Let the sides of the triangle

268.

!.

are in perspective.

ABC cut

sides of the triangle A'B'G' in the points P, Q, R.

the pole of B'C' and A' the pole of BG,

of AA'.

Similarly,

Q and

are

it

the corresponding

Then, since

follows that

A is

P is the pole

the poles of BB', and

CG

respectively.

But, AA', BB',

triangles

CC

and P, Q,

meet

in the centre of perspective of the

R lie on

two

the axis of perspective.

Hence, the axis of perspective of any triangle and

polar of the centre of perspective of the triangles.

its

conjugate

is the

269. Ex. 1. Show that any triangle inscribed in a circle

with the triangle formed by the tangents at its vertices.

Ex.

2.

to a circle
will

is

in perspective

If ABC and A' B'C be a pair of conjugate triangles with respect

is the circumcentre of the triangle ABC; show that
whose centre

be the in-centre of the triangle A'B'C.

112

PROPERTIES OF A TETRASTIGM

1G4

Tetrastigm inscribed in a

The centres of any tetrastigm inscribed in a

270.

circle.
circle

form

self-conjugate triangle.

Let
E, F,

A BCD

be

Then,

if

be any tetrastigm inscribed in a

circle,

and

let

its centres.

AB, CD

cut

GE in P

and

P', it follows

by

141,

that

the ranges

{AB,

PF) and

{CD, P'F]

are harmonic.

Therefore

GE is the polar of the

Similarly,

EF,

Therefore

EFG

FG

point F.

are the polars of

and

E respectively.

a self-conjugate triangle with respect to the

is

circle.

Ex.

271.

Show

1.

that the orthocentre of the triangle formed by the

centres of a tetrastigm inscribed in a circle coincides with the centre of the

circle.

Ex.

2.

Show that the

by the centres

of

circles described

on the sides of the triangle formed

any tetrastigm inscribed

in a given circle, as diameters, cut

the given circle orthogonally.

Ex. 3.
If A and B be two fixed points on a circle and PQ any diameter,
show that the locus of the point of intersection of AP and BQ is a circle
which cuts the given circle orthogonally in the points A and B.

Ex.

4.

Two

from any point

points

</

the circle

circles intersect orthogonally in

and R.

PAB.

on one of them PA,

Show

that

AR

and

the points

and B, and

PB are drawn cutting the other in

QB

intersect in a point

which

lies

the

on

INSCRIBED IN A CIRCLE.

165

Through the vertex A of the triangle ABC, which is self- conjugate

drawn two straight lines cutting the circle in the points
P, P' and Q, Qf respectively show that if the pencil A {PQ, BG) be harmonic,
then B and C will be the other centres of the tetrastigm PP'Qty.
Ex.

5.

to a given circle, are

Ex.

6.

Show how

to inscribe a triangle in a given circle, so that

shall pass respectively

Let A, B,

to the triangle

be the given points; and

ABC, with

B'C, CA', and A'B',

BE

its sides

through three given points.

A'B'C be the conjugate

let

Let

respect to the given circle.

B, E,

in the points

cut the circle in the points X,

these points determine two triangles

F respectively;

Y;

Y,

Z,

';

A A',

BB',

and

let

triangle

CC cut

EF, FD,

respectively.

XYZ, X'YZ which

Then

satisfy the given

conditions.

For, since A'B, B'E,

that

B {C'A, EF)

tetrastigm

272.
let

E, F,

E, which

must

lie

is

CF are

Therefore

YZY'Z, by the theorem

Let

A BCD

in Ex.

( 267), it

is

follows ( 96, Ex. 11)

one of the centres of the

5.

be any tetrastigm inscribed in a

be

is

the pole of FG,

Then

its centres.

it

since

AC

and

BD

circle,

and

pass through

follows that the poles of

AC and BD

on FG.

Similarly the poles of

of

concurrent

harmonic.

BC and AD

A B and DC will lie

on EG, and the poles

on FE.

Hence, the tangents to the circle at the vertices of the tetraABCD form a tetragram, whose vertices lie in pairs on the

stigm

INVOLUTION PROPERTY OF

166
lines

EF, FG, GE; that

is,

the diagonals of the tetragram are the

lines joining the centres of the tetrastigm.

fb

EA~-

273.

If a tetrastigm

be inscribed in

will be cut in involution by the circle

and

circle,

any straight

line

the three pairs of opposite

connectors of the tetrastigm.

A BCD

circle, and let any

drawn cutting the connectors A G, BD in P and P';
the connectors CD, AB in Q and Q'; the connectors AD, BG in R
and R'\ and the circle in S and S'.

Let

be a tetrastigm inscribed in a

straight line be

Then the range {PF,

AC and BD intersect

Let

R'BP'

QQ',

RR,
in E.

SS'} will be in involution.

Then

since the angles

are equal,

^
Therefore

sin

RPA =

sin

AR P'R PE _
RP'BR 'EP'~

BP'R.

PAR,

AN INSCRIBED TETRASTIGM.
RDP', PCR'

Similarly, since the angles

But

are equal,

RD PR' EF_
RF'R'C EP~
AR.RD: BR'.R'G = RP.RF

Hence,

ARD, SRS'

since

Ib7

PR'.P'R'.

are chords of a circle,

AR.RD = SR.RS'.
And

BR' .R'C = SR'.R'S'.

similarly

SR.RS' SR'.R'S' = RP.RP' PR'.P'R'.

Therefore

Hence, by
Similarly

76,

the range [SS', PP', RR'}

may be proved

it

is

in involution.

that the range {SS', QQ', RR'}

is

in

involution.

Consequently the range

Ex.

274.

1.

If E, F,

{SS',

PP', QQ',

RR]

is

in involution.

be the centres of any tetrastigm inscribed in a

show that the conjugate rays of EP, FP, GP

with respect to the connectors of the tetrastigm which intersect in E, F, G,
respectively, will intersect in a point which lies on the polar of P with
circle,

and

any given

point,

respect to the circle.

If the point

Ex.

2.

P be on the circle,

the lines will intersect on the tangent at P.

If in the last example, P" be the point of intersection of the rays

conjugate to

EP, FP, and GP, show that

the range in involution in which

PP

is

and P' are the double points of

cut by the circle and the connectors

of the tetrastigm.

Ex.

3.

If E, F,

whose centres

is 0,

be the centres of a tetrastigm inscribed in a circle

GO with respect to the

the conjugate rays of EO, FO,

connectors of the tetrastigm which pass through E, F, and

Ex

will be parallel.

through any point P, straight lines be drawn parallel to the

connectors of a tetrastigm inscribed in a circle, they will form a pencil in
involution, the double rays of which are perpendicular.
4.

If

Hence, the bisectors of the angles formed by the pairs of opposite connectors of a tetrastigm inscribed in a circle are parallel.

PROPERTIES OF A TETRAGRAM

168

Since every circle passes through the same pair of imaginary points

275.

line at infinity, it follows that

on the

a system of circles which have two

common may be considered as circumscribing the same tetrastigm.

Consequently we have the theorem:
finite points

A system of circles having two common points, cuts any straight line in a
range in involution.
circles intersect in A and B, and a common tangent touches
and Q. Show that if a system of circles be drawn through the
points A and B, they will cut the line PQ in a range in involution, the double
points of which are P and Q.

Ex.

them

Ex.

Two

1.

in

Show

2.

that the polar of a given point with respect to any circle

which passes through two

fixed points, passes

through a fixed point.

Tetragram circumscribed to a

The diagonals of any tetragram, circumscribed

276.

form a

circle.
to

circle

self-conjugate triangle with respect to the circle.

Let A, A'; B, B';

C,

be the three pairs of opposite vertices

of a tetragram circumscribed to a circle.

Let

AA'

cut

CC

the pole of BB'.

in

H, then the

pencil

B{AA', HB')

is

harmonic.
Therefore

That

is,

is

the point of intersection of the diagonals AA',

the pole of the diagonal

Similarly
of

AA'; and

it

may be proved

that AA',

CC,

is

BR.
BB'

that BB',

CC

intersect in the pole

intersect in the pole of

Hence, the lines AA', BB',

CC form

CC.

a self-conjugate triangle.


CIRCUMSCRIBED TO A CIRCLE.

Since

277.

the pole of BB',

is

it

169

follows that the polars of

and B' must pass through H. That is, the lines joining the
points of contact of BA, BA' and the line joining the points of
contact of B'A, B'A' meet in the point of intersection of A A', GC.
Hence, the centres of the tetrastigm formed by the points of
contact of the tetragram are the points of intersection of the

diagonals of the tetragram.

be noticed that these theorems might have been inferred from

It should

272.
Ex.

278.

If a tetrastigm be inscribed

1.

in a circle,

diagonals of the tetragram formed by the tangents at

show that the

its vertices, intersect

the three pairs of opposite connectors of the tetrastigm in six points which
are the vertices of a tetragram.

Ex.

Show

2.

also that the three centres of the tetrastigm connect with

the vertices of the tetragram' by six lines which constitute the connectors of

a tetrastigm.
Ex.

P be any

If

3.

point on the side

with respect to a given

respect to
circle will

Ex.

circle,

on three given straight

shall lie

Y'

and

and

The

triangles

the point of intersection of the tangents

PQR,

DA

Z and

ABC are in perspective.

touch another

circle in

circle,

so that the

the points P, Q, R,

AC, BD, PR, QS are concurrent.

PR, QS bisect
The

be any tetrastigm inscribed in a

show that
lines

the point of intersection of the tangents from

AB, BC, CD,

respectively,

(iii)

and

be the point of intersection of the other tangents which

ABCD

If

6.

connectors

(i)

with

circle,

If

show that the

(ii)

lines.

circle,

Y and

Ex.

self-conjugate

The tangents drawn from the vertices of a triangle ABC, to touch

meet the opposite sides in the points X, X' Y, Y Z, Z';

5.

can be drawn from

BC of a triangle ABC,

be the harmonic conjugate of

Construct a triangle whose sides shall touch a fixed

4.

respectively.

from

and C; show that the tangents drawn from P and Q to the

form a tetragram whose diagonals are the sides of the triangle A BC.

whose vertices
Ex.

if

a given

and

the angles between

AC and

BD.

polars of the point of intersection of

AC

and

BD with

respect

to the two circles are coincident.

279.

The tangents drawn from any point

pairs of straight lines connecting the point

to

circle,

and

to the three 'pairs

the

of

opposite vertices of a tetragram circumscribed to the circle, form a

pencil in involution.

INVOLUTION PROPERTY OF A

170
If

to the circle,

OP, OP' be the tangents from

B, B'\ C,

and

if

A, A';

be the pairs of opposite vertices of a circumscribing

[PF, AA',

tetragram, then the pencil

BB

CC'} will be in

',

involution.

Let

be the centre of the circle

angle POP',

then, since

GO

bisects the

we have

sin

A OP

sin

A OF = sin A OG - sin PO G.
2

---r-r>->

If r denote the radius of the circle,

from

may be

on AO, this result

G0\ sin A OP
Let

a'

AOP

sin A'

sin

A OF = a? - r

denote the perpendicular from

perpendicular on AA', then

sin

and a the perpendicular

written,

AF

sin

A OP'

sinA'AB

sin OA'B'. sin

sin

we

shall

A' OP

sin

OAB'

OA'B sin^'.B'
:

have

.sin

A' OP' = a?-i*

OAB =p--r

sin

AA'B = a' - r

d*-r>,

sin

on OA', and p the

i
:

2
:

-r
f - r2
a2

Therefore,

A OP. sin AOP'

OAB

AA'F. sin 4,4 '

sin^l'OP. sin A'OP' "sin OA'B'. sinOA'B. sin A'AF. sinA'AB'
sin

But

sin

sin

since the lines B'A, B'O, B'A' are concurrent ( 98),

and since the

Hence

OAB'.

sin

B'A' A.

sin

B'A'O.

sin

lines

sin
sin

sin
sin

F40. sin #04 = -1

#44'. sin F OA

BA, BO, BA'

sin

BA'A

sin

4'0.

are concurrent,

sin

BAO. sin 04'

sin

44'.

sin

04

4 OP. sin 4 OP
s in 4 Off, sin A OB
4 'OP. sin 4'OP ~ sin A'OF. sin 4'0
7

CIRCUMSCRIBED TETRAGRAM.

171

{PP\ A A', BB'\ is in

may be shown that the pencil

Therefore the pencil

In the same way

is

it

involution

( 89).

\PP', AA', CC'\

in involution.

[PP\

Hence, the pencil

Ex.

280.

CC

If

1.

any

line be

A A',

drawn

BB',

CO)

is

in involution.

to intersect the diagonals

of a tetragram circumscribed to a circle, in the points

A A', BB,

X, F, Z, show that

the harmonic conjugates of these points with respect to the pairs of opposite
vertices of the tetragram lie
line

with respect to the

Ex.

2.

Show

on a straight

line

which

is

conjugate to the given

circle.

that the line which bisects the diagonals of a tetragram

circumscribed to a circle passes through the centre.

Ex.

3.

If

any tetragram be circumscribed to a given circle, show that the

on the diagonals of the tetragram will intersect on a fixed

circles described

circle concentric

Ex.

4.

with the given

circle.

Given any straight line,

by a given

in involution determined

have the given

find the point

circle

on

it,

such that the pencil

and a circumscribed tetragram

will

line as a double line.

Pascal's and Brianchon's theorems.

which relates to a hexastigm inscribed
been proved in Chapter VIII. ( 181), where
some further properties of such a hexastigm were investigated.
Pascal's theorem asserts that the opposite connectors of a hexastigm
281.

Pascal's theorem,

in a circle, has already

inscribed in a circle intersect in three collinear points

say, if

CD

A, B,

C,

D, E,

will intersect

F be

any

six points

DE, EF, FA,

on a

circle,

that

then

A B,

is

to

BC,

respectively, in three collinear

points.

The theorem may be

readily deduced as a consequence of the

CONNECTION BETWEEN PASCAL'S

172

theorem proved in

273, viz.,

that any circle and the pairs of

opposite connectors of any inscribed tetrastigm determine a range

in involution

on any straight

Let A, B,

C,

D, E,

line.

F be any six points

AD in P, P', Y,
and let AB cut DE in X

AB, CD, BG,

Z,

Since

by

A BCD

273, {EF,

a range in involution

( 144).

will

circumscribed to a

EF cut

cut

circle,

CD

in

therefore

AXDZ will cut the line

if XZ cut EF in

Therefore

be in involution.

circle,

asserts

that

if

a, b, c, d,

e,fbe any

points ab,

be,

six

tangents to a

circle,

That

is

to say, if

then lines joining the

cd respectively to the points de,

The theorem

a hexagram be

the three diagonals which connect the

pairs of opposite vertices will be concurrent.

ef,

fa, will be con-

follows at once from 180, Ex. 3,

may'also be deduced from the theorem of

283.

let

Brianchon's theorem

282.

current.

AF

must coincide with Y. Hence the points

must be collinear, which is Pascal's theorem.

It follows that

Y,

let

a range in involution.

is

W, the range {EF, Y' W, PP"}

X,

circle

a tetrastigm inscribed in the

is

YT, PP'}

But the connectors of the tetrastigm

EF in

on a

Y' respectively;

and

it

279.

Let us now consider the hexagram formed by drawing

the tangents to a circle at the six points A, B, C, D, E, F; and let

us denote these tangents by

a, b, c, d,

e,f

It follows from 272, that the line connecting the points ab, de
is

the polar of the point of intersection of the lines

similarly, every diagonal of the

hexagram

will

AB, DE.

And

be the polar of the

corresponding centre of the inscribed hexastigm.

Hence we may deduce properties of a hexagram circumscribed

to a circle from the properties of a hexastigm inscribed in a circle.

Thus from the theorem

The fifteen connectors of a hexastigm

which lie three by
three on sixty lines, which pass three by three through twenty points;
we have the theorem The fifteen vertices of any hexagram circumscribed to a circle, connect by forty-five lines which pass three by

inscribed in

circle intersect in forty-five points

three through sixty points, which lie three by three on twenty lines.

AND BRIANCHON'S THEOREMS.

When

173

the points of contact of the hexagram are the vertices of

the hexastigm,

it is

easy to see that the sixty Brianchon points of

the former are respectively the poles of the sixty Pascal lines of the
latter.

Ex.

Show

in the points

that

X,

if

';

the Lemoine circle of the triangle

T, Y'

the triangle

ABC, and

polar of the

symmedian point of the

circle.

ABC,

cut the Hides

Z, Z', respectively, the axis of perspective of

the triangle formed hy the lines Y'Z, Z'X, X'Y,

triangle

A BC with

respect to the

is

the

Lemoine

CHAPTER XL
THE THEORY OF RECIPROCATION.

The

Principle of Duality.

that we have given any geometrical

an assemblage of points. The polars of each

Let us suppose

284.

figure consisting of

point of the figure with respect to a fixed circle constitute another

figure consisting of

an assemblage of

lines.

These figures are said

to be reciprocal figures with respect to the fixed circle.

Let

and F' be two such reciprocal figures

show that

corresponds a proposition concerning the figure F'.

when a

that

we propose

to every descriptive proposition concerning the figure

That

is

to

to say,

proposition concerning any figure, regarded as an

assemblage of points, has been proved, a corresponding proposition

may

be inferred for the reciprocal

of lines

and

vice versa.

two such propositions

In fact

figure,
it will

regarded as an assemblage
be seen that the proofs of

will correspond step for step.

proposition relating to any geometrical figure and the corre-

sponding proposition relating to the reciprocal figure are called

reciprocal propositions.

theorem

" principle

285.
figures.

The method by which the truth of a

known as the

inferred from the reciprocal theorem, is

is

of duality."

Firstly, let us consider the composition of

Let us suppose that

and curves.
a line of F';

It is obvious that to

and

to each point

F will correspond
F will correspond a line

each point of

on any

line of

of F' passing through the pole of the line ( 247).

to each line of

two reciprocal

consists of certain points, lines,

Consequently,

regarded as an assemblage of points will corre-

RELATIONS BETWEEN RECIPROCAL FIGURES.

spond an assemblage of

we may

Now
An

lines of

say that to every line of

let

175

F' passing through a point.

F corresponds

Or,

a point of F' (

4).

us consider a curve of the nth order as belonging to F.

n points and the lines of

F' corresponding to these points will be concurrent. Hence, corresponding to an assemblage of points of the nth order belonging to
F, there will be an assemblage of lines of the nth class belonging
to F' that is, corresponding to a curve of the nth order belonging
arbitrary line will cut this curve in

to

F there

will

be a curve of the nth class belonging to F'.

In the same manner we may show that

there be a curve of

if

the nth class belonging to the figure F, there will correspond a

curve of the nth degree belonging to the figure F'.

same process by which F' was obtained

It is evident that if the

from F, be applied to the figure F' we shall obtain the original

Hence the name

figure F.

" reciprocal figures."

Secondly, let us consider what relations will subsist

286.

between the several parts of a figure F' corresponding to given

relations between the corresponding parts of a given figure F, of
which F'
i.

is

the reciprocal figure.

If certain points of

F lie

on a straight

line, it follows

from

247, that the corresponding lines of F' will pass through a point-

Hence, corresponding to the

we

line joining

any two points of F,

shall have the point of intersection of the corresponding lines

of F'.
ii.

If

two

lines of

points of F' will

Hence,

if

lie

F intersect

on the

line

several lines of

in the point P, the corresponding

which corresponds to P.

be concurrent, the corresponding

points of F' will be collinear.

iii.

If certain points of

corresponding lines

of F'

will

on a curve of the nth order, the

be tangents to a curve of the id\\

lie

class.

Hence, corresponding to the tangent at a point P on a curve

belonging to ^,.we shall have the point of contact with the corresponding curve of the line of F' which corresponds to the point P.
For a tangent to a curve, considered as an assemblage of points, is
the line joining two consecutive points of the system, and a point

RECIPROCAL THEOREMS.

176

on a curve, considered as an assemblage of lines,

two consecutive lines of the system.

the point of

is

intersection of

two tangents to a curve belonging to

If

iv.

intersect in a

point P, the corresponding points on the curve belonging to F' will

on the

lie

Corresponding to a point of intersection of two curves of F,

v.

we

which corresponds to the point P.

line

shall

common tangent

have a

to the corresponding curves

ofP'.

Hence,

if

F touch, the corresponding curves of F'

two curves of

touch each other.

will

Thus,

it

appears that to every descriptive proposition concerning

any geometrical

corresponding proposition

figure, a

may be

inferred

for the reciprocal figure.

We

287.

propose

now

mended

some examples of
The reader however is recom-

to give in parallel columns

descriptive theorems with their reciprocals.

to attempt to form the reciprocal theorem for himself, before looking

at the reciprocal theorem as given.

Ex.
the

1.

If

the

lines

corresponding

triangles

connecting

If the points of intersection of the

two

corresponding sides of two triangles

vertices

be concurrent, the

of

corre-

be

collinear, the

corresponding ver-

sponding sides of the triangles will

tices of the triangles will lie

intersect in collinear points.

current lines.

Ex.

2.

When

in perspective,

( 161.)

centre of perspective, their three axes

of
(

perspective

will

be concurrent.

spective,

three triangles are in per-

and have a common axis of

perspective,

their three

centres

perspective will be collinear.

of

( 168.)

no.)
Ex.

3.

The nine

lines

intersect in eighteen points

which

lie

three by three on six lines, which pass

three

by three through two

points.

174)
Ex.

4.

The nine

which con-

nect two triads of collinear points

When

three triangles are

and have a common

on con-

( 163.)

In every tetragram the three pairs

In every tetrastigm the

connectors

of opposite vertices connect with the

sides of the

opposite vertices of the triangle form-

three pairs of opposite

intersect the opposite

triangle formed

tetrastigm, in

points of intersection of

two triads of concurrent lines may

be connected by eighteen lines which
pass three by three through six
points, which lie three by three on
two other lines. ( 175.)

by the centres of the

six points which are

ed by the diagonals of the tetragram,

by

six lines

which are the pairs of

the pairs of opposite vertices of a

opposite connectors of a tetrastigm.

tetragram.

(148, Ex.

4.)

150, Ex. 2.)

DUALITY OF HARMONIC PROPEHTII

Harmonic

177

Properties.

Let us now consider what properties will

to a given figure, corresponding

288.

subsist

figure, reciprocal

to

for a

harmonic

properties of the given figure.

Let A, B, C,
a, b,

Let

be four collinear points of a figure F, and

d be the corresponding

c,

be the centre of the

circle of reciprocation

then

Therefore

a, b, c,

a, b, c,

C,

d are respectively perpendicular

to

are the polars with respect to this circle of the points

respectively.

lei

lines of the reciprocal figure

li,

OA, OB, OC, OD.

Suppose now that {AB, CD) is a harmonic range. Then
{AB, CD] is a harmonic pencil, and consequently [ab, crfj w a
harmonic

pencil.

the lines

A, B, 0,

a, b, c,

If,

d cut

however, the line

A BCD

this line in points

passes through 0,
which are conjugate to

respectively; and therefore ( 257, Ex. 2) the pencil

harmonic.

[ab, cd\ is

Hence, if four points of a figure form a harmonic range, the

corresponding lines of the reciprocal figure form a harmonic ]>encil.
In the same way we can show that

289.

if

any system of

points of one figure form a range in involution, the corresponding

system of lines of the reciprocal figure

will

form a pencil

in

involution.
290.

The

following are reciprocal theorems.

The

Ex.1.

lines

joining

any

The

points in which any diagonal

centre of a given tetrastigm to the

other centres are harmonic conjugate

of a given tetragraru cuts the other

diagonals are harmonic conjugate

with respect to the connectors

points with respect to the vertices

lines

of the tetrastigm which pass through

of the tetragrani which

that centre.

diagonal.

Ex.2.

( 141.)

Any

in involution

straight line

by the

is

cut

pairs of opposite

connectors of any tetrastigm.

(144)

diagonal.

If three of these points

154.)

Through each centre of s

stigm are drawn a i>air of

sect in that centre.

lines

If three of these

lines be concurrent, so also

three points.

the other three

L.

tl

harmonically conjugate to the e-.inectors of the tetrastigm which iuter-

be collinear, so also will be the other

(153.)

on that

The lines connecting any point t-.

the pairs of opposite vertices of a
tetragram form a pencil in involution.

Ex.3. On each diagonal of a

tetragram are taken a pair of points
harmonically conjugate to the vertices
of the tetragram which lie on that

lie

( 149.)

lines.

12

RECIPROCATION OF

178

Reciprocation applied to metrical propositions.

B be

any two points of a figure F, and let a, b be

Let
be the
centre of the circle of reciprocation, and let p denote the perpendicular distance from
on the line A B.
291.

Let A,

the corresponding lines of the reciprocal figure F'.

Then
But

since a, b are

p.AB=OA.OB.smAOB.
the polars of A and B,
Oa.OA = Ob.OB = r*:
sin A OB = sin ab.

and
Therefore

if

a and

b intersect in P,

r .OP

AB = Oa.Ob'
T^r sin ab
2

and

sin ab

292.

Let

r
r n
OA.OB
.

AB.

be any point, and x any line of a figure

a be the corresponding

line,

and

X the

and

let

corresponding point of the

reciprocal figure.

Then,

being the centre of the

circle of reciprocation,

we have

( 251, Ex. 8)

Ax Xa = OA OX.
:

Ax =

Therefore

293.

By means

0XV0a

of these formulae

Xa
we

are able to transform any

metrical theorem so as to obtain the reciprocal theorem.

great

many

instances

it will

In a

be found that although the formulae

METRICAL THEOREMS.

)7:

are apparently complicated, the reciprocal theorem

the original theorem.
Ex.

If {A BCD} be

1.

any range,

AB. CD+BC. AD + CA BD = Q.
Ex.

If the straight lines

2.

which

connect the vertices A, B,

If {abcd\ he
sin

of a

triangle to a point 0, cut the opposite

BX.CV.AZ
XC.VA.ZB~

pencil,

sin ad
+*\nca.mnbdmQ,
line cut the

ABC

triangle

as simple as

/*.

any straight

If

in

the

pointa

X, Y, Z,

X, Y, Z,

sides in

any

ab sin crf+ain

of a

sin

BAX

sin

CAX' sin ABT' sin BCZ~

Bin

CBY nnACZ

( 106.)

( 94.)

Ex.

If a

3.

move

straight line

so as to be divided in a constant
ratio

by the

sides of a triangle, the

locus of a point which divides one of

the segments in a given ratio will be

a straight

line.

If a i>oint

sides of a triangle

To find

it,

For

if

class,

and

we

x,

and

the

circle

the reciprocal
It will n>t in

be the centre of the given

circle, /'

we have

AP = 0A.0X
Ox
where

the curve which is reciprocal to a circle.

circle.

\>y

constant

fixed point.

curve will be of the second class and second order.

any point on

it

are in

the straight line which divides

one of these angles into parts whose
sines have a given ratio, will |wm

being a curve of the second order and second

general be a

so that the sine*

ratio,

through a

294.

move

of the angles Bubtended at

a, are

.
.

sin ax,

the lines corresponding to the points

X denotes the point ax.

see that the ratio sin

ax

Hence, denoting the

:

line

and A

OX

ly t,

sin zx will be constant.

It follows that the figure reciprocal to a circle

may be

defin.il

as the envelope of a line x which divides the angle between a

fixed line a and a variable line z passing through a fixed point ".
into parts
If

whose sines are

we wish

in

a constant

ratio.

to obtain a definition for such a curve as a locus

we

must proceed otherwise.

be any tangent to the given circle, and let A U- its
Let XiV be the polar of A, and P the pole of QT with
Let OX, PA be | rj
respect to the circle of reciprocation.
Let

TQ

centre.

diculars on

NX,

and

let

0T,

AQ be

perpendiculars on J\>
\'2-'2

RECIPROCATION OF THE

180

Then we have

251, Ex. 8),

AQ:PN=0A

That

to the

If

295.

its

however the

circle, let

given

line.

circle of reciprocation

QT be

be concentric with

a tangent to the given

circle,

pole with respect to the circle of reciprocation

OQ OP
.

constant,

the locus of a

circle is

distance from a fixed point varies as

distance from a fixed straight

the given

be

OP.

OP :PN=0A:AQ.

is

Thus the reciprocal curve

point which moves so that its
its

and therefore the locus of P

will

and

let

then we have

be a concentric

circle.

When we
is

wish to reciprocate theorems concerning a

circle, it

usual to take the circle itself as the circle of reciprocation

for

this circle evidently reciprocates into itself.

The

296.

following are examples of reciprocal theorems.

If a tetragram be circumscribed

Ex.1. If a tetrastigm be inscribed

in a circle, its three centres form a
self-conjugate triangle with respect

self-conjugate triangle

to the circle.

to the circle.

Ex.

2.

If

( 270.)

hexastigm

be

scribed in a circle, its opposite con-

(Pascal's theorem.)

form a

with respect

( 276.)

hexagram be circumscribed
a circle, the lines which connect
If a

in-

nectors intersect in three collinear

points.

to a circle, its three diagonals

to

the three pairs of opposite vertices

be

will

concurrent.

(Brianchon's

theorem.)
Ex.

3.

If

of a circle be

any system of chords

drawn through a fixed

If pairs of tangents be

drawn

to

a given circle from points on a fixed

PROPERTIES OF CIRCLES,
which join their exany point on the circle

181

point, the lines

line,

tremities to

to the circle in a range in involution.

form a pencil

will

Ex.

( 259,

in

involution.

Q and

the circumcircle of the

to

triangle

ABC,

R,

tai

4.)

Ex. 4. If any straight line be

drawn through the pole of BC, with
respect

they will cut any other

cutting

Q and R

points with

A B and AC

respect

in

be conjugate

will

the

to

circle.

any point

If

polar of the point

taken on the

\*i

A with

n->i>ect u>

the inscribed (or escrilwd) circle of

the triangle ABC, the Linea /'/;. PC

l* conjugate lines with respect

will

to the circle.

( 259,

Ex. 5.)

( 259, Ex. 6.)

The Reciprocal
297.

given

was proved

It

circle is

in

of a circle.

294 that the reciprocal curve

the locus of a point which moves so that

its

of a

distance

from the centre of reciprocation varies as its distance from thr linwhich is the reciprocal of the centre of the given circle. Thus the
reciprocal of a given circle is a conic section, whose focus is the
centre of reciprocation and directrix the line which corresponds

the centre of reciprocation.

Referring to

264,

we

t<>

Bee that this

conic will be an ellipse, hyperbola, or parabola, according as the

centre of reciprocation lies within, without, or on the given

298.

We

circle.

propose to derive a few of the properties of conic

sections from the corresponding properties of the circle.

Ex.

1.

A circle

is

a curve of the

second order and second

Ex.
is

2.

Any

A
class

class.

tangent to a circle

conic

is

a curve of the second

and second

Any

( 285.)

order.

point on a conic, ami

tin-

tangent meeta the

perpendicular to the line joining

point where

point of contact to the centre.

directrix subtend a right angle at the

its

its

focus.

Ex.

3.

The

line joining the points

The

point of intersection of the

a circle passes through the centre of

tangents at the extremities of any

focal chord of a conic intersect on

the

the directrix.

of contact of two parallel tangents to

circle.

Ex.

4.

Every chord of a

circle

which subtends a right angle at a

fixed

point

on

the

circle

passes

through the centre.

Ex.

5.

The

pendiculars let

fall

on any pair of

parallel tangents to

circle is constant.

which

locus of the point of inter-

of tangents

cut

at

right

t<>

angles

j>and>oU
i.s

the

directrix.

difference of the per-

from a

The
section

fixed point

The difference of the reciprocal*

of the segments of any focal chord of
a conic

is

constant.

RECIPROCATION OF CIRCLES.

182
Ex.

6.

The

The

rectangle contained

by the

rectangle contained

by the segments of any chord of a

circle which passes through a fixed

perpendiculars drawn from the focus

point

gents

of a conic to a pair of parallel tan-

constant.

is

If any point

299.

be taken on a given straight line

a pair of tangents be drawn to a given

straight line which

constant.

is

circle,

we know

and

x,

that the

the harmonic conjugate of the line x with

is

respect to the pair of tangents will pass through a fixed point, the

pole of the line

x with respect

we have the theorem

drawn through a fixed point, the locus of

respect to any point

be

of the fixed point

Reciprocating with

to the circle.
:

If a chord of a

conic

harmonic conjugate

the

respect to the extremities of the chord is

tuith

straight line.

This straight line

with respect to a conic

for

called the polar of the fixed point with

is

Thus the

respect to the conic.

definition of the polar of a point

exactly similar to the definition

is

If

we use the words

and 'self-conjugate'

'pole,' 'conjugate,'

the same sense for a conic as in the case of a

circle,

we

shall

have to interchange the words pole and polar

words conjugate
'

Ex.

1.

'

'

and self-conjugate
'

'

The line joining any point

'

will

in

see that in

enunciating the reciprocal of a given theorem concerning a

we

243)

circle.

circle,

but the

'

'

be unchanged.

The line joining the point

any

of inter-

to the centre of a circle is perpen-

section of

dicular to the polar of the point.

of a conic to the pole of the line

line

with the directrix

subtends a right angle at the focus.

Ex.

2.

Any

triangle

and

its

con-

Any

and

triangle

its

conjugate

jugate with respect to a circle are in

with respect to a conic are in per-

perspective.

spective.

( 267.)

two tangents to a conic

Ex. 3. If a chord of a circle subtend a right angle at a fixed point,

sect at right angles, the polar of the

the locus of

point of intersection envelopes a conic

its pole is

another

circle,

If

inter-

confocal with the given conic.

Ex.

4.

The

centres of any tetra-

stigm inscribed in a circle form a

triangle

which

is self

respect to the circle.

conjugate with
( 270.)

Ex. 5. The diagonals

gram circumscribed to a

a triangle which

is

of a tetra-

form
self-conjugate with

respect to the circle.

circle

( 276.)

The diagonals

of

any tetragram

circumscribed to a conic form a

angle which

is

tri-

self-conjugate with

respect to the conic.

The

centres

of any

tetrastigm

inscribed in a conic form a triangle

which

is

self-conjugate with respect

to the conic.

CHAPTER

XII.

PROPERTIES OF TWO CIRCLES.

Power of a

point with respect to a circle.

If through a fixed point 0, any straight line be drawn

300.

cutting a given circle in the points

has the same value for

The value

Props. 35, 36).

the point

C be

If

the centre of the

is

the tangent drawn from

is

OP

OP.OQ

(Euclid, Bk.

called the

in.,

power of

circle.

circle,

OC B?,

equal to

Q, the rectangle

of this rectangle

with respect to the

the point

P and

positions of the line

all

and

which

is

its radius,

the power of

equal to the square of

to the circle.

For convenience we propose to call the square on the distance

between two points, the power of one point with respect to the
other and the perpendicular from a point on a straight line, the
power of the point with respect to the line.
;

Ex.

301.

If

1.

any point on the

Ex.

Ex.

The

2.

constant

is

circles (or

Ex.
that

its

circles intersect in the points

AB

A and

B, the powers of

with respect to the circles are equal.

locus of a point whose power with respect to a given circle

a concentric
If the

3.

two

line

sum

a point and a

of the powers of a point with respect to two given

circle)

be constant, the locus of the point

Find a point
on the line joining the centres of two
powers with respect to the two circles shall be equal.

4.

A and B be the
OA*-a?=OB?--bz. But
Let

20E.AB.
the point

centres of the circles

a and b their

is

<i

circle.

circles,

radii.

such

Then

be the middle point of AB, (LV-OB*This determines the position ->f

Therefore 20E .AB^cfi-b*.
uniquely, so that there is only one such point on the line AB.
if

It should be noticed however, that the point at infinity on the line

also be considered as a point whose powers with respect to the

may

circles are

is

circle.

equal

AB
two

THE RADICAL AXIS

184

The locus of a point ivhose -powers with

is a straight line.

302.

respect to two

given circles are equal,

Let

and

B be

the centres of the circles

and

let a, b

be their

radii.

Let any
points; and

circle

be drawn cutting each of the

common

the

let

Then evidently

P.

circles cut in the point

powers with respect to the given

Draw
Then

PO

perpendicular to

is

a point on

circles are equal.

Ex.
is

P is

at right angles to

This straight line

303.

AB whose

But there

Hence, the locus of

its

OA - a = OB - b

a circle

a point whose

or

is

is

AB.

therefore

which

circles are equal.

PA -a = PR- - b
OP + OA - a = OP + OB - b\

since

Thus

circles in real

chords of this circle and the given

1.

Show

equal to

its

is

is

2
.

powers with respect to the two

only one such point

301, Ex.

4).

the straight line through the point

AB.

called the radical axis of the

two

circles.

that the locus of point, whose power with respect

power with respect to a point, is a straight line.

to

Ex. 2. If the power of a point with respect to a circle be proportional to

power with respect to a straight line, show that the locus of the point will

be a

circle.

OF TWO CIRCLEa
Ex.

If the

3.

Is',

powers of a point with respect to two given

points) be in a constant ratio,

show that the

circl.-

locus of the point will

circle.

Ex.

Show

4.

any

respect to

that the power of any point on the line at infinity with

circle is constant.

The Radical
The radical

304.

two

axis of

axis of two circles

is

Circles.

the straight line which

the locus of a point whose powers with respect to two given

circles are equal.
is

When

the circles intersect in real points, the radical axis

passes through these points

301, Ex.

1).

Hence the

jx.lars

with respect to the circles of any point on their radical

on the radical

will intersect

But whether the

;i\i-

axis.

circles intersect

in real points or not, the

tangents to the circles from any point on the radical axis are equal.
Therefore any circle which has

its

centre on the radical axis of two

and which cuts one of them orthogonally will also cut

the other orthogonally. Let such a circle cut the radical axis of
the given circles in the points P and F. Then P and P' will In*
given

circles,

conjugate points with respect to each of the given circles

Ex.

1).

261,

($

Therefore the polars of any point on the radical axis

intersect on the radical axis.

Now
circles

let

and

intersect in
is

P, Q,
let

R,...

be any points on the radical axis of two

the polars of these points with respect to the

F, Q\

R',..., respectively.

a range in involution.

must be the points

in

And

which the

follows that the radical axis of

Then {PF,

QQ',

circles

RH

the double points of thi^

radical axis cuts either circle

two

circles passes

It

through their

points of intersection, whether these points be real or imaginary.

305.

The radical axes of any three

circles taken

two at a time

are concurrent.

Let two of the radical axes meet in the point P. Then

evidently the powers of the point P with respect to the cirri-

equal.

Therefore

The point

P is a point

on the third

radical axis.

of concurrence of the radical axes of three

called the radical centre of the circles.

circl-

CONSTRUCTION OF THE RADICAL

186

Hence, we can construct the radical axis of two

306.

which do not intersect in

Draw any

real points.

circle cutting

the

the radical axes, that

is

sect in the point P.

Then

given

common

P is

let

chords, of these circles inter-

a point on the radical axis of the

by drawing another

on the radical

The

Ex.

307.

is

Ex.

PQ

line

any

circles of

which

the given circles in real points, and

circles.

Similarly,

circles

1.

circle

we can

find another point

axis.

will

Show

then be the radical axis of the

circles.

that the six radical axes of the inscribed and escribed

triangle are the six connectors of a tetrastigm, each vertex of

the orthocentre of the triangle formed by the other three.

2.

ABC, show

If

AD, BE, CF be

the perpendiculars on the sides of the triangle

that the axis of perspective of the triangles

ABC, DEF,

is

the

radical axis of the circumcircles of the triangles.

Ex.

3.

Show

that the radical axis of the circumcircle of a triangle and

the Lemoine circle of the triangle,

respect to the

Ex.

4.

Lemoine

Show

is

the polar of the symmedian point with

circle.

that the circumcircle of a triangle,

nine-point circle have a

common

its

polar circle, and its

radical axis.

Ex. 5. Three circles are described with their centres on the sides BC,
CA, AB of the triangle ABC, and cutting the circumcircle at right angles in
A, B, C, respectively. Prove that these circles have a common radical axis.
[St John's ColL, 1886.]

Ex.

6.

intersect in

Any

four points A, B, C,

AB,

CD

in

circumscribing the triangles

are taken in a circle;

AC,

BD

F; and AD, BC in G. Show that the circles

EAB, ECD intersect the lines AD, BC, in four

AXIS OF TWO CIRCLES.

1ST

points lying on a fourth circle and that if these four circles he taken throe
at a time, the radical centres of the systems so formed will be the vertices of
;

a parallelogram whose diagonals are the

line

EF and a line i>arallel

to

FO.

[Math. Tripos, 1887.]

Ex.

The

7.

locus of a point the difference of whose powers with respect

to two given circles is constant, is a straight line parallel to the radical axes

of the circles.

The

308.

radical axis of

two

circles

might have been defined

as the locus of the centre of a circle which cuts each of

them

orthogonally.

For

if

be the centre of a

circle

orthogonally, the radius of the circle

from

P to

is

either of the given circles.

on the radical axis of the

Hence we

which cuts two given

circles

equal to the tangent drawn

Hence

must be a point

circles.

infer that only one circle can be

given circles orthogonally.

The

drawn

centre of this circle

to cut three

is

clearly the

radical centre of the given circles.

Every

309.

circle

which cuts two given

circles

orthogonally,

passes through two fixed points on the line joining the centres of the
.

given

circles.

the centres of the given circles; and let OP

Let any circle
in the point 0.
be their radical axis, cutting
in L and L '; and let
which cuts the circles orthogonally meet

Let

and

B be

AB

AB

be the centre of this

PL* = PQ> = PA>-AQ>.

Then

0L* = 0A* - AQ\

Therefore

Hence the
given

circle.

circle

whose centre

circles orthogonally.

is

0,

and radius OL,

will cut the

PROPERTIES OF THE RADICAL AXIS.

188

which cuts the given

It follows that every circle

circles ortho-

gonally will pass through the points L, L'.

It is easy to see that these points are real or

imaginary accord-

ing as the given circles intersect in imaginary or real points.

Ex.

310.

If

1.

two

Ex.

If four circles be

2.

any one of them

is

two other

circles cut

the radical axis of either pair

is

circles orthogonally,

show that

the line joining the centres of the other pair.

mutually orthotomic, show that the centre of

the orthocentre of the triangle formed by the centres of

the other three.

Ex.

Show

3.

that the points

and L'

309) are conjugate points with

respect to each of the given circles.

Ex.

If A, A'; B,

4.

C,

be the pairs of opposite vertices of a

A A', BB, CC have a common

which passes through the centre of the circumcircle of the
triangle formed by the lines A A', BB\ CC.
tetragram, show that the circles described on

radical axis,

Ex.

If four circles cut a fifth circle orthogonally,

5.

The

311.

show that

their six

form a pencil in involution.

radical axes

difference

two given circles

is

of the powers of any point with respect

proportional

to

power of

the

to

the point with

respect to the radical axis of the circles.

Let
axis

Let
from

and

and

let

P be
on

be the centres of the

be the middle point of

any point

and

let

PM,

circles

OM

their radical

A B.

PN be

the perpendiculars

OM and AB.

Then the
circles is

difference of the powers of

with respect to the

equal to

PR" - PQ\
that

is,

PB - PA + AD- - BE\
2

POWER OF TWO

CIRCLES.

Jyi

KB - NA + A D- - BE*.
NB - NA* = 2NG A B,
2

or,

But
and

AD> - BE* = 20G BA.

PR- -PQ? = 2GN.BA + 20G BA
= 20N.BA = 2PM.Ali.

301, Ex. 4),

Therefore

Thus the

difference of the powers of the point

Ex.

312.

another

with respect

2PM .AB.

to the given circles is equal to

Show

1.

circle, is

that the power, with respect to a circle, of a point on

proportional to the power of the point with rewi>ect to the

radical axis of the circles.

Ex. 2. Given any three circles having a common radical axis, show that
the powers with respect to two of them of any point on the third circle are
in a constant ratio.
Ex.

common
Ex.

any point with respect to two given circles ! in

show that the locus of the point is a circle which has a

If the powers of

3.

a constant

ratio,

radical axis with the given circles.

4.

The radius of a

which touches two given

circle

constant ratio to the distance of

its

circles bears a

centre from the radical axis of the given

circles.

Power
The square on the

313.

circles less the squares

two

circles, or

It will

two

of

two

circles.

distance between the centres of two

on their

radii is called the

power of the

the power of one circle with respect to the other.

be convenient to consider the angle of intersection of

be the angle subtended at either point of intersection

circles to

by the

line

which joins the centres of the

circles; so that in the

case of two equal circles, the angle of intersection

is

tin-

angle

through which one of them must be turned about its point of

intersection with the other, so that the two may coincide.
If

radii;

d denote

the distance between the centres of two circles

and 6 their angle of intersection; the power of the

cP r2 Z2, or

r,

r their

circles is equ.il

t<>

2rr'cos0.

The power of two

circles is

always a real magnitude,

two when

the circles are imaginary, provided their centres arc real points;
but it may be either positive or negative. When the circh-s cut

orthogonally the power vanishes; when they touch the power

equal to 2rr' according as the contact

is

is

external or internal.

POWER OF TWO

190

The power

two coincident

of

with respect to
If
is

any two

equal to

itself, is

circles

usually denoted

circles,

CIRCLES.
that

2r2

is

the power of a circle

be denoted by X, Y, the power of the

by (X,

circles

Y).

It is often convenient to consider a point as a circle

314.

whose radius
circle, it is

indefinitely small,

is

whose radius

is infinitely great.

and a straight

line as a circle

When

is

a point

treated as a

usually referred to as a point-circle.

power of two circles, either of the

power with respect to the other is
clearly equal to the square on the tangent which can be drawn
from the point to the circle. So that the definition given in 300
Similarly, the power of two
is included in that given in 313.
If in the definition of the

be a

circles

point-circle, its

point-circles will be the square of the distance

between the

points.

In the case of a circle and a straight line, considered as a circle

whose radius is infinite, the power is clearly proportional to r cos 6,
where r is the radius of the circle, and 6 the angle at which the
Hence we may take as the power of a straight
circle cuts the line.
line and a circle the perpendicular distance from the centre of the
circle on the straight line.
Similarly we may take as the power of
two straight lines the cosine of their angle of intersection.
Considering the case of the line at infinity,

it is

easy to see

that the powers of any two circles with respect to the line at
infinity will

be in a ratio of equality, but the power of a straight

line with respect to it will

The

315.

definitions

required, bat

it

is

zero.

given in the

generally be

will

relating to points, lines,

theorem (that

be

and

circles,

last

article

found that

are seldom

any theorem

if

can be expressed as a power-

a metrical theorem in which the only metrical

magnitudes involved are powers), a corresponding theorem may be

enunciated for a more general figure in which the points and lines
are replaced
Ex.

by

If the

1.

circles.

power of a variable

circle

with respect to a given

be

circle

constant, the variable circle will cut orthogonally a fixed circle concentric with

the given

Let

circle.

(Cf. 301,

denote the fixed

their centres

constant =k2

and

let a, c

Hence,

if

Ex.

2.)

circle,

and

Z the

denote their

radii.

variable circle; let A,

Then we have

a circle X' be described with

C denote

AC -a?-c =
2

for centre,

and

CENTRES OF SIMILITUDE.
radius

X'

a',

Ex.

If the

2.

= a 2 + F,

a' 2

given by

will be zero; that

circle*

Z end

of the powers of a variable circle and two given

drcln

be constant, the variable

Ex.

clear that the

A"

power of the

orthogonally.

circle will cut orthogonally a fixed circle,

(Cf. 301,

3.)

Ex.

The

3.

difference of the powers of a circle with respect to two given

circles is proportional to the

axis of the given circles.

its

it is

the circle J? will cut

is,

sum

191

power of that

circle

with respect to the radical

(Cf. 311.)

Ex. 4. If a circle be drawn cutting orthogonally one of two given circlet,

power with respect to the other given circle is proportional to its power

with respect to the radical axis of the given

Ex.

circles.

(Cf. 312,

If the powers of a variable circle with respect to

5.

Ex.

1.)

two given

circles

be in a constant ratio, the variable circle will cut orthogonally a fixed circle
which has a common radical axis with the given circles. (Cf. 312, Ex. 3.)
Ex.

If a circle touch

6.

other of two fixed

Ex.
that

is

7.

cuts

two given

circles it

must cut orthogonally one

or

circles.

The locus of the centre of a circle which bisects two given circles,
them in points which are opposite ends of diameters, is a straight

line parallel to the radical axis of the circles.

Ex.
circles,

Ex.

8.

Show

that one circle can be drawn which shall bisect three given

and construct
9.

Show

it.

that one circle can be drawn which shall be bisected by

three given circles.

This

circle is concentric with,

the given circles orthogonally.

the latter

is

and cuts orthogonally the

Hence, the former

is

circle

a real

which cuts

circle only

when

imaginary.

Centres of similitude of two circles.

316.
of the

Any two

same

may be

figure

circles

drawn

may

evidently be regarded as diagrams

to different scales.

considered as directly similar figures

Hence two

circles

( 216).

Let P be any point on one circle then we may obviously take

any point P' on the other circle as the point which corresponds t->
:

P.

The correspondence

will

then be determined.

For,

if

the

any other pair of corresponding points, the ares

at the centres of the circles equal an
subtend
PQ, P'Q must
measured in the same sense. It follows that then: will hi' an

points Q, Q' be

infinite

number

of positions for the centre of similitude.

Let us suppose that we have given a pair of corresponding

points on the two circles.

CIRCLE OF SIMILITUDE.

192

To find the centre of similitude we must proceed as in 205.

Thus let P and P' be the given points which correspond, and let
C and C" be the centres of the circles. Then if CP meet G'P' in
T, the circles which circumscribe the triangles TPP', TCC will
intersect in the centre of similitude.

Let

be the centre of similitude, then

it

follows from 214,

that

SC SC' = SP SP' = GP CP'.

Hence the
(

locus of the centre of similitude of

two

circles is a

which has a common radical axis with the point-circles

circle

319, Ex.

This

circle is called

Ex.

317.

with them a

Let

C and

3).

the circle of similitude of the given

Show that the circle

1.
common radical axis.

of similitude of two given circles has

be any point on the circle of similitude.

therefore the powers of the point

ratio of the squares

on their

S with

radii.

circles.

Then SC SC' = r
:

respect to the given circles are in the

Hence, the theorem follows from

312,

circle of similitude of

two

Ex.3.
Ex.

2.

Show

that

if

from any point on the

given circles, pairs of tangents be drawn to both circles, the angle between

one pair will be equal to the angle between the other pair.
Ex.

3.

Show that the

pairs have a

common

three circles of similitude of three circles taken in

radical axis.

Ex. 4. Show that the three circles of similitude of three given circles cut
orthogonally the circumcircle of the triangle formed by the centres of the

given

circles.

Ex.

5.

Prove that there are two points, each of which has the property

that its distances from the angular points of a triangle are proportional to the

HOMOTHETIC CENTRES.
opposite sides

and that the

193

them passes through the

line joining

in

centre of

[Math. Tripos, 1888.]

the circumcircle.

This theorem is also true when the distances from the angular points are
any given ratio.
Ex.

D be any four points on a circle; and if A B, CD

BD in F; and AD, CB in G show that the circle

If A, B, C,

6.

intersect in

E: AC,

described on

FG as diameter is the circle of similitude of the circles described

on

AB and
Ex.

CD.
be the orthocentre, and

If

7.

ABC, show

that the circle described on

the median point of the triangle

OG

as diameter

is

the circle of

similitude of the circumcircle and nine-point circle of the triangle.

318.

Given a centre of similitude of two given

corresponding points on the

Let C,

circles to find the

circles.

be the centres of the given

circles;

the given

centre of similitude, on the circle of similitude.

P be

any point on the circle whose centre is C, the correon the other circle will be such that the angles
sponding point
CSP, C'SP' are equal and measured in the same sense ( 214).
Also the angle PSP' will be equal to the angle CSC. Hence
If

if

coincide with either of the points in which the circle of simi-

litude cuts the line

S.

That

is,

CC, the

points

P and F

will

be collinear with

the circles will have these points for nomothetic centivs

< 213).

319.

centres G,

Let the

circle

of similitude cut the line joining the

and H'. Then when it is necessary

in the points

to distinguish these points,

lie

the

we

shall call that point

which does not

and
between the centres the homothetic centre of the circles,
centre
anti-homothetic
the
centres
point which lies between the

of the circles.

13

PROPERTIES OF THE HOMOTHETIC

194

These points are often called the external and internal centres
are clearly inappropriate, since any
of similitude, but these names
of
point on the circle of similitude may be considered as a centre
similitude.

Ex. 1. Show that two of the

homothetic centre.
each
through
320.

Ex.

If

2.

Ex

If A'

3.

tangents of two circles pass

and H' be the homothetic centres of two circles whose

that {HH', CC'} is a harmonic range.

C and C, show

centres are

// and

common

and K' be the poles of the radical axis of two

their homothetic centres,

show that

{KK HH'}
1

is

circles,

and

a harmonic-

range.

Ex.

If

4.

through either homothetic centre of two

drawn to cut the circles in the points P, Q

and P' are corresponding points show that

P', Q'

circles,

a line be

respectively, so that

HP.HQ' = HQ.HP';
and that these rectangles have a constant value for

all

positions of the

HP.

line

Ex.

If the line joining the

5.

in A,

and

A', B' respectively,

homothetic centres of two

circles,

show that {HH', AB, A'B'}

is

cut

them

a range in

involution.

Ex.

two
/'')

6.

lines

Through either homothetic centre of two given

HP, Hp

Q P\
,

?'

show that any pair of

</</ will intersect

if

I'p

drawn

Q,p,q;
non-corresponding chords such as Pp,

on the radical axis of the given

Since ///'. If(/ =

Therefore

circles are

cutting the circles respectively in the points P,

meet

Hp.H</

(Ex. 4), the points P,

</q' in T,

radical axin of the circles.

circles.

TP. Tp= TQ'

Tq'.

Q\

p, q' are concyclic.

Hence

T is a point on the

CENTRES OF TWO CIRCLES.

195

Ex. 7. If from any point T, on the radical axis of two circles, tangents be
drawn to the circles show that the homothetic centres of the circles will be
two of the centres of the tetrastigm formed by the points of contact.
;

Ex.

The

8.

line joining the centres of

and the other

in the point A,

radical axis of the circles.

Ex.

any

If

9.

If

PA,

Q and R meet on

the tangents at

circle

two

in the point

PB cut

circles

meets one of the

B; and

circles

any point on the

Q and R, show that

the circles in

is

the radical axis.

be drawn to touch two given circles, show that the

through one of the homothetic

line joining the points of contact will pass

centres.

Let a
Then, if
is

circle

be

evident that

be drawn touching two given circles in the points

and A and B the centres of the given

its centre,

A P, BQ are equally inclined to PQ

Q and P', AQ and BQ' are parallel.
1

the given circles in

Therefore,

Therefore

pass through H, one of the homothetic centres of the given

P and

Q'.

circles, it

PQ cut
PQ must
1

if

circles.

If the variable circle touch the given circles both internally, or both
externally, the line joining the points of contact will pass through the

homothetic centre of the given

circles

but

if

the circle touch one of the

given circles internally and one externally, the line joining the points of
contact will pass through the anti-homothetic centre.

Ex.

10.

Show

that

if

a variable

circle

touch two given circles

it

will cut

orthogonally one or other of two fixed circles, whose centres are the homothetic centres of the given circles,

the given

and which have a common

radical axis with

circles.

Ex. 11.

If

two

circles

be drawn to touch two given

circles,

show that the

radical axis of either pair will pass through a homothetic centre of the other
pair,

provided that

if

one of the

circles touches

the given circles both

externally or both internally, so also does the other ; or, if one of the circles

touch one of the given circles internally and the other externally, so also does
the other.

132

PROPERTIES OF THE HOMOTHETIC

196

Two

Ex. 12.

straight lines

circles are

A B, AC

to touch two fixed

drawn through a fixed point
D, E and F, G respectively. Show that

in the points

the circles circumscribing the triangles

ODE, OFG touch one another

Two

Ex. 13.

Show

in the

[St John's Coll. 1887.]

point 0.
circles

APB, AQB

touch a third in the points

and

Q.

that

AP: AQ=BP:BQ.
Ex.

If the inscribed circle of the triangle

14.

the point P, and

if

D,

be the middle points of

A BC touch the side BG in

BC and AP, show that DR

passes through the centre of the inscribed circle.

Let the escribed circle which

and

A Q cut

let

centre of the two circles, if 0,

Hence P,

parallel.

is

on the opposite side of BC touch BC in Q,

Then, since A is the homothetic

the inscribed circle in P'.

0,

F are

O be the centres of the circles, OF and CQ are

collinear.
But D is the middle point of PQ.

R are collinear.

Therefore D, 0,

The theorem

is also

true of

any one of the

circles

which touch the

sides of

the triangle.

For another proof of this theorem see

Ex.
circles

If 0,

15.

in

the

O be the centres of

same

sense,

241.

any two

at the points

circles

P,

which touch two given

Q and

P',

Q'

respectively,

show that

PQ PQ*= AO. BO
2

where

and

Ex. 16.
centres are

given circles

Show

B are the

AO? BC,
.

centres of the given circles.

whose centre is
touches two given circles, whose
at P and Q, and FG is the common tangent of the
which passes through the point of intersection of AB and PQ.
circle

A and B,

that

PQ2 :FG*=OP2 AO.BO.

:

The six homothetic centres of three circles taken in pairs,

321.
are the six vertices of a tetragram.

CENTRES OF TWO CIRCLES.

197

Let A, B, G be the centres of the given circles and let their

radii be denoted by a, b, c. Let X, Y, Z be the homothetic centres
;

and X', Y', Z' the anti-homothetic centres of the three pairs of
circles.

Then

BX CX = b:
CY:AY = c:a,

since

AZ.BZ = a:b;
BX GY AZ 1
CX'AY'BZ*

c,

therefore

'

Therefore

105) the points X, Y,

Z are

collinear.

GY' Y'A = c:a,

Again, since

AZ':Z'B = a:b;

BX

.,

f
tnereiore

that

A#_-

GY'

^iv ~y T a

wit

>

BX
GY' AZ'
_._.__i.

is,

Therefore the points X, Y', Z' are collinear.

may show that the points X', Y, Z' are

and that the points X', Y', Z are collinear.

In the same way we

collinear

Hence X, X';

Y, Y'; Z, Z' are the opposite pairs of vertices of

a tetragram.

These four
thetic

lines are called the axes

of similitude or the homo-

axes of the given circles.

Ex.

322.

1.

Show

that the lines

AX, AX'; BY, BY';

CZ, CZ' are the

three pairs of opposite connectors of a tetrastigm.

Ex.

two

If a variable circle touch

2.

fixed circles, the

hue joining the

points of contact passes through one of the homothetic centres of the given
circles.

B denote the given

B in the points P and Q.

Let A,

and

pairs of circles A,

Ex.
that

PP

and B,

Then

and

let

P and Q

denote a circle touching

respectively.

ABC touch

the point P, and the escribed circles at the points

X

and P%PZ cut

bisectors of the angle

BC

are homothetic centres of the

If the nine-point circle of the triangle

3.

circle at

circles,

in the

same points

the inscribed

P P P
t ,

as the internal

show
2
3
and external
,

BAC.

Ex. 4. Describe a circle which shall touch two given

through a given point.

circles

and pass

CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCLES

198

be the given point. Let it be required to draw a circle passing

Let
through E, which shall touch each of the given circles externally. Then the
and (? must pass through 27, and
line joining the points of contact

HP.HQ=HA'.HB.

Draw

the circle A' BE, and let

BR

in R.

Let

in P.

Then the

cut

EF in

circle

T,

it

cut

and from

HE in F, and one of the given circles

T draw

a line touching the circle

circumscribing the triangle

EFP will touch

BRA

the given

circles.

Since two tangents

follows that

two

circles

may

line joining the points of

Similarly,

it is

be drawn from the point

to the circle

can be drawn to touch the given

circles, so

ABR,

contact shall pass through the homothetic centre

evident that two circles can be

drawn

it

that the
27.

to pass through

ind touch the given circles, so that the line joining the point of contact shall

pass through the anti-homothetic centre H'.

Thus, four
Ex.
circles.

5.

circles

can be drawn satisfying the given conditions.

Show how

to describe a circle

which shall touch three given

TOUCHING THREE GIVEN CIRCLES.

There

will generally be eight circles

which can be drawn to touch three

two

circles

touching the given circles each in the same

and three pairs of

circles

which touch one of the given

given circles
sense,

199

that

is,

opposite sense to that in which

Let us suppose that

three given

and

circles;

circles

is

c.

Let A, B,

denote their

Then,

circles in the

touches the other two.

the centre of the circle which touches each of the

externally.

let a, b, c

greater than b or

it

if

radii,

and

be the centres of the given

let us suppose that a is not

r denote the radius of the circle

which touches

and with radius

equal to r+a, will pass through the point A and touch externally two circles
whose centres are B and C, and radii b - a, c-a, respectively.

them,

it is

Now

evident that a circle described with

this circle

may

for centre,

be easily constructed as in Ex. 4 ; and thus

be able to find the point

we

shall

0.

In the same manner the centres of the other seven circles can be found.
Ex.

6.

If

two

circles

X, X' be drawn

to touch three given circles A, B, C,

show
and X' passes through the three homothetic
centres of A, B, and C; and that the radical centre of A, B, and C is the
and X'.
an ti- homothetic centre of
so that each touches all of the given circles externally, or all internally,

that the radical axis of

Ex.

7.

Describe a circle which shall touch two given circles and cut

a given circle orthogonally.

Show
t

that four circles can be drawn satisfying these conditions.

CHAPTER

XIII.

COAXAL CIRCLES.

The Limiting

If any system of circles have a

323.

circles are said to

It

two

308, that

circles, as centre,

if

if

with any point P, on the radical

cut the other circle orthogonally.

the centre of a circle which cuts one circle of a coaxal

system orthogonally,

on the radical

lie

the circles of the system orthogonally.

any such

radical axis, the

a circle be described cutting either

circle orthogonally, it will also

Hence,

common

be coaxal.

was proved in

axis of

Points.

circle will

axis,

the circle will cut

From

309,

it

all

follows that

cut the line of centres of the circles of the

system in two fixed points.

L and L'. Then it is evident that

with respect to the point-circle L is
with respect to any circle of the system.

Let these fixed points be

the power of the point

equal to the power of

PROPERTIES OF THE LIMITING POINTS.

Hence the point

L, and similarly the point L',

201

may be

considered

as a point-circle belonging to the coaxal system.

Hence, in every coaxal system there are two

circles

whose

radii

are indefinitely small.

These point-circles are

They

system.

the

called

are evidently real only

limiting points

when the

circles

the

of

do not

intersect in real points.

Ex.

324.

system touch at the point 0, show

If the circles of a coaxal

1.

that the limiting points coincide in the point 0.

Ex.

If

2.

any

circle of

a coaxal system pass through a limiting point of

the system, show that the two limiting points must coincide, and that the
circles of

Ex.

the system will touch each other at this point.

3.

Show

that the polars of a fixed point with respect to the circles of

a coaxal system are concurrent.

Let Q be the given point, and let the limiting points of the system be Z,
and U. Let Q' be the opposite extremity of the diameter of the circle QLL'
which passes through Q. Then since this circle cuts each circle of the given
coaxal system orthogonally, it follows from 261, Ex. 1, that Q and Q will
1

be conjugate points with respect to every

polars of the point

however,

If,

it is

circle of the

Therefore the

system.

will intersect concurrently in the point Qf.

be a point on the line

evident that the polars of the point

LL\ this proof fails. But

Q will be perpendicular

in this case

to the line

LL', and will therefore meet in a point at infinity.

Ex.

4.

If that circle of the

system which passes through the point Q, in

the last example, be drawn, show that

Ex.

5.

Show

it will

touch QQ'.

that the polar of a limiting point with respect to any circle

of the system is the line which passes through the other limiting point

and

is

parallel to the radical axis.

Ex.

6.

If Q, <7

be a pair of points which are conjugate with respect to

every circle of a coaxal system, show that QQf subtends a right angle at each
limiting point.

Ex.

7.

Show

that the radical axes of the circles of a coaxal system and any

given circle are concurrent.

Ex.

8.

If

two systems of coaxal

circles

common, they have a common orthogonal

Ex.

given

9.

have one

circle (or

a limiting point)

circle.

Three circles have their centres collinear and cut orthogonally a

show that they are coaxal.

circle,

Ex. 10.
system.

Show

that any line

is

cut in involution by the circles of a coaxal

ORTHOGONAL COAXAL SYSTEMS.

202

If a straight line cut

Ex. 11.

any two

circles of

a coaxal system in the

in the point 0, show

Q /*,</: respectively, and the radical axis
will subtend equal or supplementary angles at any point of
and
that
the circle, whose centre is 0, which cuts the given circles orthogonally.

points P,

PF
R

/", </,

<$",...

straight lines are taken the points P, Q, R, S,...

On two

Ex. 12.

PQ:Fq = PR: P'R' = PS

PS' = kc...
show that the

If the straight lines intersect in the point 0,

OQQ, ORR',

and

circles

OPP,

&c., are coaxal.

Ex.

325.

respectively, so that

Construct a circle which shall be coaxal with a given system

1.

of coaxal circles, and cut a given circle orthogonally.

Z denote

Let

the given circle, and let Y, Y' be any circles which cut each

Then the

given system orthogonally.

circle of the

circle

which cuts Z, F,

orthogonally will clearly satisfy the conditions of the question.

There
Ex.

only one solution to the problem.

is

Construct a circle which shall be coaxal with a given system, and

2.

touch a given

circle.

Z denote

Let

P and

points

the given

Let the

system.

circle,

Then

Q.

the centres of

if

and let X, X' denote any circles of the coaxal

which cuts Z, X, X' orthogonally, cut Z in. the

circle,

Y say,

the tangents to

X and X' and

C and C,

Y at P

it is

and Q cut the

C and C and radii CP, C'Q respectively,

and be coaxal with X and X'.

centres are

Ex.

Show

3.

Ex.
liue,

If the

4.

touch

it

in

will

that two circles of a coaxal system can be

touch a given straight

two

P and

line joining

easy to see that the circles whose

touch the

circle

drawn which

shall

line.

circles of

Q,

a coaxal system which touch a given straight

PQ subtends a right angle at each of the

show that

limiting points of the system.

Orthogonal coaxal systems.

Every

326.

circle

orthogonally, cuts

which cuts two

circles of a coaxal

system

every circle of the system orthogonally, and

every such circle passes through the limiting points of the system

Hence, given

( 323).

system

<t'

coaxal circles

any system of coaxal

may

circles,

another

be constructed such that every circle

of either system cuts orthogonally every circle of the other system.

Two

such

systems are called orthogonal systems of coaxal

circles.

It is

evident from 309, that

if

the limiting points of a given

be real, the limiting points of the orthogonal system will

1m- imaginary.
The limiting points of either system are sometimes
called the antipoints of the limiting points of the other system.

POWER RELATIONS BETWEEN COAXAL

Ex.

327.

Show

1.

203

CIRCLES.

that the polar circles of the four triangles formed by

and the

four straight lines, taken three at a time,

on the

circles described

diagonals of the tetragram formed by the lines as diameters, are orthogonal

systems of coaxal

circles.

Hence, the orthocentres of the four triangles formed by four lines

which is perpendicular to the

the tetragram formed by the lines.
straight line

Ex.

If

2.

X, Y,

Z be collinear

line

lie on a
which bisects the diagonals of

homothetic centres of three

circles,

show

that the circles described with these points for centres and coaxal with the
three pairs of circles, will be coaxal.

Ex.

Show that

3.

the antipoints of four concyclic points

on three circles orthotomic with each other and the original

lie

four

by four

circle.

Relations between the powers of coaxal circles.

The

328.

difference

of the powers of a variable

circle

with

respect to two given circles is equal to twice the rectangle contained

by the power of the variable circle with respect to the radical axis
of the given circles, and the distance between their centres.

Let X,

denote the given

Then

variable circle.

have by

if

and

circles,

Che

A, B,

let

denote the

the centres of these

circles,

we

311,

(ZX) - (ZY) = (CX) - (CY)

= 2AB.NC,
where

GN

the perpendicular from

is

G on

the radical axis of the

system.

Let

329.

X X X denote any circles of a given coaxal

X be that circle of the system which cuts
ly

3 ,...,

system, and let

Then

orthogonally a given circle Z.

centres of the circles X,

(ZX,)

Thus

Xu X X
2

3 ,...,

If a variable

circle be
its

drawn

A,

if

A A A
l}

we have

(ZX9) (ZX ) = AA

coaxal system orthogonally,

circles

AA,

since

AA

be the

3.

cutting a fixed circle

powers with respect

of the system are in a constant

3} ...

(ZX) = 0,

to

of a
any fixed

ratio.

For, let Z denote

of this theorem is also true.
whose powers with respect to two circles
h 2) of a
coaxal system are in a constant ratio.
And let
denote that

The converse

any

J X

circle

GENERAL THEOREMS

204

the system which cuts

circle of

(ZX ):(ZX
1

AA AA

Then
we have

orthogonally.

X X

X,

be the centres of the circles

2,

)=AA :AA
1

A,

if

2.

a constant ratio; and therefore the point

A is fixed, that is to say, the circle Z will always cut the same
Thus we have the theorem: If the
circle, X, orthogonally.

Therefore

is

powers of a variable

with respect

circle

to

two given circles be in a

constant ratio, the variable circle cuts orthogonally

coaxal with the given

Let us consider the case of a variable

330.

two given

circles at

Let

circle

circle

which cuts

constant angles.

be a variable

Then

at angles a lf a*

a fixed

circles.

circle
if p,

which cuts the given

circles

ru r2 denote the radii of these

X>,

circles,

we have

{ZX ) = X

= 1pr

1prx cos a lt (ZX)

cos

o^.

Therefore

(ZXi)

Hence by
lt

Again,

and

let

ratio
is

let

(ZX

cos a 1 :r2 cos a 2

orthogonally a fixed circle coaxal with the

cut

at the angle a3
is

constant

Then by the

that

is,

and

X.,,

last article,

the

denote any other circle coaxal with

(ZX3 )

(ZX ) = r

Z cuts

329,

X X

circles

the ratio rx cos a x r3 cos a 3

:

constant.

Therefore a3

is

a constant angle.

Hence we have the theorem

fired circles

of the

same system

Now

two

at

variable circle ivhich cuts two

a constant angle.

circles of

touch a given

circle.

a coaxal system can always be drawn to

We

infer

from the

be the two circles coaxal with

of a coaxal system at constant angles, cuts every circle

X X
lt

theorem that if X, X'

which touch the variable

last

any position, then X, and X' will touch Z in all its

Thus: A variable circle which cuts two fixed circles of
a coaxal system at constant angles, will always touch two fixed
circles
<f the same system.

circle

in

positions.

331.

Kx.

Show

that

if

the powers of a variable circle with respect to

three given circles be in constant ratio, the variable circle will be coaxal with
the circle which cuts the given circles orthogonally.

RELATING TO COAXAL CIRCLES.

205

Ex. 2. If X, Y, Z be any three given circles, and if circles X', Y', Z' be
drawn cutting a fourth given circle orthogonally, and coaxal respectively with
the pairs of circles Y, Z; Z, X
X, Y; show that the circles X', Y', Z' are
;

coaxal.

Ex.

Show

3.

that

which cut three given

all circles

circles at

the same

angle form a coaxal system.

Ex.

Show

4.

that

all circles

which cut three given

circles at the

same or

supplementary angles form four coaxal systems, whose radical axes are the
axes of similitude of the given
Ex.

given

circles.

If the product of the tangents,

5.

P to two
P to a third

from a variable point

has a given ratio to the square of the tangent from

circles,

given circle coaxal with the former, the locus of

is

circle of

the same

system.

Ex.

If the product of the powers of a variable circle with respect to

6.

two

has a constant ratio to the square of the power of the circle with
respect to a third circle coaxal with the former, the variable circle will cut
given

circles,

orthogonally a circle of the same system.

Ex.

7.

at

Q and
Ex.

if
it

straight line cuts two given circles in the points P,

Show

respectively.

that the tangents at

Q' in four points which

If

8.

ABC be a triangle

lie

on a

P and

P'

P'

Q, Q'

will intersect the tangents

circle coaxal

with the given

circles.

inscribed in a circle of a coaxal system

and

P, P' be the points of contact of .5(7 with the two circles of the system which
touches; Q, Q' the similar points on CA and R, R' the similar points on
;

A B show
;

that

The

i.

point-pairs P, P'

Q,

Q'

R, R' are

the pairs of opposite

vertices of a tetragram.
ii.

The

AP, AP'

line-pairs

BQ, BQ'

CR, CR' are the pairs of

opposite connectors of a tetrastigm.

Ex.
in

9.

The

sides of the triangle

linear,

circles

ABC touch three circles of a coaxal system

concurrent, or if X, Y, Z be colshow that the centres of the circles will form with the centres of those
of the system which pass through the points A, B, C, a range in invo-

the points X, Y, Z.

If

AX, BY, CZbe

lution.

Ex. 10.

If A, B,

denote their

radii,

be the centres of any three coaxal

circles,

and

if a, b, c

show that

BC.a* + CA

b2 + AB. c2

Ex. 11. If A, B, C
denote their powers with respect to

= -BC. CA AB.
.

any three coaxal circles, and

any other circle, show that

be the centres of

if p, q,

BC.p + CA.q+AB.r = 0.
332.

In the theorems given in

coaxal system

the system.

may be

328, 329, any circle of the

replaced by one of the limiting points of

Hence we have the

following theorems

PROPERTIES OF THE

20G

any point on a fixed circle of a coaxal system, the

distance from P to a limiting point of the system is

If

(i)

be

square on the
proportional

perpendicular from

to tlie

on the radical axis.

If P be any point on a fixed circle of a coaxal system, the

drawn
from P to any other circle of the system is proportangent
(ii)

(iii)

tional to

be

P from

of the system.
circle
be proporto
a
point
a
// the tangent drawn from
point will
the
locus
of
its distance from a fixed point, the

tional to the distance of

circle coaxal with the fixed

Ex.

333.

either limiting point

point and the given

If through either limiting point of a

1.

circle.

system of coaxal

circles,

a straight line be drawn intersecting a circle of the system, show that the
rectangle contained by the perpendiculars from the points of intersection on
the radical axis

Ex.

2.

is

Two

constant.

circles are

drawn, one lying within the other. From L, the

drawn tangents to the circles,

limiting point which lies outside them, are

touching the outer circle in

in C,

and the inner

in B.

If

LB cut the

outer circle

and D, prove that

LA* =LBT-+CB. BD.

[St John's Coll. 1886.]

circles touch each other internally at the point 0, and a

drawn cutting the circles in the points A, B and C, D respectively.
The tangent at A intersects the tangents at B and C in E and Fi
and the tangent at B intersects the tangents at B and C in G and H. Prove
that E, F, G, and
lie on a circle which touches each of the given circles

Ex.

3.

Two

straight line

is

at 0.

Ex.

4.

If a variable circle touch

gents drawn to
Ex.

5.

it

If a variable circle

6.

If

circles of

a coaxal system, the tanratio.

touch two circles of a coaxal system,

drawn

varies as the square of the tangent

Ex.

two

from the limiting points have a constant

to

it

its

radius

from either limiting point.

a variable circle cut two circles of a coaxal system at given

angles, the tangents

drawn to

it

from the limiting points have a constant

ratio.

Ex.

7.

From

touch a given

the vertices of the triangle

Show

circle.

that

if

the

sum

ABC, AP, BQ, CR

of

are drawn to

two of the rectangles

BC.AP, CA.BQ, AB.CR,

be equal to the third, then the circle will touch the circumcircle of the triangle

ABC.

[Purser.]

Suppose we have given

On

the arc

BC find

a point

n '"

D such that
BD:CD = BQ:CR.

BC.AD = CA.BD+AB.CD.
AP.BQ:CR=AD:BD:CD.

"""<
It follows

circles

BC AP= CA BQ+ AB.CR.

A BC,

from
I'QIt.

322

(iii),

that

D must be one of the limiting points of the

207

LIMITING POINTS.

Hence the
Ex.

8.

circles

ABC,

Show that

PQR

must touch each other*.

the nine-point circle of a triangle touches the inscribed

circles of the triangle.

and escribed

F be the middle points of the sides of the triangle

Let D, E,

points of contact of the sides with the inscribed

the sides of the triangle,

and therefore

Hence by the

it is

Then,

circle.

P, Q, R, the
denote

if a, b, c

easy to see that

DP = %{b~c), EQ = \{c~a), FR=h{a~b),

EF DPFD EQDE. FR = 0.
.

last

theorem the nine-point

circle

touches the inscribed circle

of the triangle.

Ex.

9.

A chord of a circle subtends a right angle at a fixed point 0.

that the locus of the middle point of the chord

is

circle coaxal

Show

with the

given circle and the point-circle 0.

Ex.

10.

Show

that the locus of the foot of the perpendicular from a fixed

on any chord of a given

point

circle coaxal

Ex. 11.

circle

which subtends a right angle at

with the given circle and the point-circle

If

a chord of a

circle

0, is

0.

subtend a right angle at a fixed point 0,

will be a circle coaxal with the

show that the locus of the pole of the chord

given circle and the point-circle 0.

Ex. 12. If P and Q be points on two circles of a coaxal system such that
PQ subtends a right angle at a limiting point of the system, show that the
tangents at P and Q will intersect in a point, the locus of which is a circle
of the

same system.

L be the limiting point

PQ cut the circles again in

Let
Let

intersect in R,

and let 0, 0' be the centres of the circles.

P' and Q'. Then if the tangents at P and Q

we have

RP RQ =sin RQP
:

This proof

sin
is

RPQ =coa &QQ

due to

1
:

cos OPP'.

Mr A. Larmor.

PROPERTIES OF THE LIMITING POINTS.

208

RP:RQ=QQ'.OP:PP'.0'Q.
PL Q-:PQ.PQ'=LO:0'0.

Therefore

But

Let

LX be drawn perpendicular to PQ

Therefore

and therefore

'

Hence

Similarly

Therefore

Hence the locus of R

Ex. 13.

then

PL*=PN.PQ.
PN PQ' = L0 O'O
PN Q'N=L0 LO'.
QN P 'X= LO LO.
PP' QQ' = L0 :L0'.
RP RQ = L0' .OP.LO.

Show

is

O'Q.

a circle coaxal with the given circles.

that the locus of the point

(see figure Ex. 12) is

circle

coaxal with the given circles.

Ex. 14.

One

circle lies

within the other, and the tangents at any two

PROPERTY OF A CYCLIC TETRASTIGM.

P,

points of the former cut the latter in the points P, Q;

If L be a limiting point of the system, show that

PP'
By

332,

(ii),

we

respectively.

R, R' be the points of contact of PQ, P'Q,

PQ

if

PR PL = P'R'
Let

QQ'=PL+P'L QL + Q'L.

have,

209

cut P'Q' in T, then

P'L = QR

it is

QL=Q'R'

Q'L.

evident that

PR+P'R' = PT+P'T,
QR+Q'R'=QT+Q'T.
But, since the triangles TPP',

PP'
PP'

Hence

TQ'Q

are equiangular,

QQ' = PT+P'T
QQ' = PL + P'L

TQ'+TQ.

QL + Q'L.

Poncelet's theorem.
334.
If a tetrastigm be inscribed in a circle of a given coaxal
system so that one pair of opposite connectors touches another circle
of the system, then each pair of opposite connectors will touch a circle

of the system, and the six points of contact will be

Let A, B,
touch another

Q and

Q'

The

C,

and AD,

triangles

Again,

D be

circle at

any four points on a circle, and let AG, BD

the points P, P'. Let PP' cut AB, CD in

BG in R and

AQP, DQ'P'

R.

are obviously similar

therefore

But the angles APQ, QP'B are

l.

AQ:AP = DQ':DP'.
AP.AQ = sin AQP sin APQ,
BP' BQ = sin BQP'

and

collinear.

sin

BP'Q.

equal.

14

PROPERTIES OF A TETRASTIGM

210

AP AQ = BP' :BQ.
AP AQ = BP' BQ = DP'

Therefore

Hence

DQ' = CP

CQ'.

Let Z Zit Z3 Z denote the circles whose centres are A, B, C,

D, and whose radii are AQ, BQ, CQ', DQ', respectively. Now only
one circle can be drawn coaxal with the given circles, which will
,

x ,

cut

by

orthogonally

325, ex.

Let this

1).

circle

be denoted

A'.

By

329 we have

(AX) (BX) (CX) (DX) =

:

AP

BP' CP DP'.
:

Therefore

(AX) (BX) (GX) (BX) = AQ BQ CQ' DQ'.

(AX) = AQ;
But
(BX) = BQ, (CX)=CQ', (DX)=DQ\
therefore
= BQ, it follows that X must cut Z.2 orthogonally.
(#X)
Since
:

Therefore

Zu
A'

2L

But

must pass through the limiting points of the

touch at the point Q.

these circles

must touch

AB at the

circle

point Q.

X will

Similarly, the circle

circles

Hence the

cut orthogonally the circles

Z Z
,

4.

Therefore, since these circles touch at the point Q', the circle

must touch

CD

Thus the

at

Q.

AB, CD touch the same circle of

Q and Q'.
may be proved that the pair of con-

pair of connectors

the coaxal system at the points

In a similar manner
noctors

AD, BC

the points

R and

It should

PP'

will

it

touch a circle coaxal with the given circles at

R.

be noticed that when the points, in which the line

cuts a pair of opposite connectors of the tetrastigm

are internal

to the circle

pair of connectors will

ABCD,

have

radical axis as the centre

its

sponding

circle will

centre on the same side of the

of the circle

points are external to the circle

A BCD,

the circle which touches this

ABCD,

ABCD.

But when the

the centre of the corre-

be on the side of the radical axis opposite to

the centre of the circle

ABCD. Thus of the three circles which

touch the pairs of connectors, two of the centres will lie on the
name

side of the radical axis as the centre of the circle

335.
Let us consider the case when the connectors
the inscribed tetrastigm intersect in a limiting
point.

ABCD.
AC,

BD of

211

INSCRIBED IX A CIRCLE.
Let

be the point of intersection of

bisectors of the angles

pair of connectors

connectors

Then

between these

A B, CD in

Q, Q'

AD, BC in R, R' and

and

r, r'

A C and BD

lines

and

let

the

be drawn, cutting the

q, q'

respectively,

and the

respectively.

easy to show that

it is

AR:AL = DR:DL = BR:BL = CR CL,

and
AQ:AL = DQ':DL = BQ:BL = CQ' CL.
Hence it follows, as in 334, that AD and BC will touch a
and that AB, CD will
circle of the system in the point R and R'
:

touch another

circle of

In the same way

the system in

it

Q and

may be shown

a circle of the system in the points

that

q, q'

touch another circle of the system in r and

Hence we have the theorem

Q'.

AB, CD

will

and that AD,

touch

BC

will

r'.

If any four points be taken on a

of a given coaxal system, so that one pair of opposite connectors
of the tetrastigm formed by them intersect in a limiting point of the
:

circle

system, the other pairs of opposite connectors will each touch two
circles

of the system.

It should

touches two

be noticed that although each pair of connectors

circles,

tangents of the two

336.

Ex.

1.

they do not constitute a pair of

common

circles.

If a tetrastigm be inscribed in a circle,

and

opposite connectors touch two circles coaxal with the former,

if

one pair of

show that one

of the centres of the tetrastigm coincides with a limiting point of the system.

142

PROPERTY OF A TRIANGLE

212

A BCD

Let

and

B',

circle in r

and

let

Then

r'.

AD,

BC

touch one

circle in

easy to see that BR' will

it is

at right angles.

//

cut

be the given tetrastigm, and

and another

be the point of intersection, then since the circles whose diameters

Let

Br and BY intersect in the limiting points of the given circles, it follows

Again, the range {Br, AD] is
that L must be one of these limiting points.
harmonic, therefore LB and Lr must bisect the angles ALD. Let AL, DL
meet the circle A BCD in C and B' respectively. Then from 335, we see
that BC" must touch the same circles as AD at the points in which it is cut
bv rr" and BR'. Therefore B'C must coincide with BC, that is, B' coincides
with either B or C. Hence L must be one of the centres of the tetrastigm
A BCD.
are

If a tetrastigm be inscribed in a circle of a coaxal system, so that

Ex. 2.
two pairs of its opposite connectors touch another circle of the system, show
that the remaining pair of connectors will intersect in a limiting point of the

system.

Let A BCD be the given tetrastigm, and let

of the system at the points Q, R,

circle

from
in

334, that

AB,

CD

will

DA

AB, BC, CD,

R',

respectively.

touch a

It

follows

touch another circle of the system at the points

Hence

which these lines cut the line BR'.

in Ex.

Q',

this

theorem follows from that

1.

Ex.

If

3.

A BCD be
Q and

respectively at

a tetrastigm inscribed in a
Q',

a coaxal

circle,

circle,

show that

if

and

QQ

if

AB,

CD touch

pass through a

limiting point of the system, this point will be a centre of the tetrastigm.

Ex.

and

if

If

4.

AB,

A BCD

CD

be a tetrastigm inscribed in a circle of a coaxal system,

touch one circle of the system at the points Q, Q', and AD, BC

BD

another circle of the system at R, R', show that the connectors AC,
will
intersect in a limiting point of the system, provided that
Q, Q', R and R' are
not collinear.
Ex.
points

The

4.

PmQ,

sides of the triangle

B.

If the lines

ABC
PQ

QR, RP,

touch the inscribed

circle in the

cut the lines BC, CA,

AB in the
ABC at

points X, Y, Z, and the tangents to the circumcircle of the triangle

it.-,

Z and

Z'

triangle

BC,

will

AX'

at

Z'

and X'

ABC.

337.
the

show that the three circles which touch

CA, BY' at Y and Y' and AB, CZ' at
be coaxal with the circumcircle and the inscribed circle of the

vertices, in the points X', Y',

res^-ctively

// the vertices of a triangle

same direction, on

move continuously, and in

of a circle of a given coaxal

sides touch two fixed circles of the system,

the circumference

system, so that two of its

the third side tvill touch another fixed circle
of the system.

Let A,
the circle

B,C be any
X; and let

positions of the vertices of the triangle on

Xu

envelopes respectively of

X.,

denote the circles which are the

AB, AC,

as the points A, B,

describe

213

INSCRIBED IN A CIRCLE.
continuously the circle X.

AC,

AB with

of q and r
A',

F,

when the

Let

X X

the circles

r be the points of contact of

q,

and

points A, B,

let

r be the

q',

new

have moved to the positions

C".

Since the points A, B,

G move

in the

obvious that the centres of the circles

X X

1 ,

same
must

direction,
lie

X.
between
Similarly if qq', rr' intersect CC, BB' in R and Q,
between C and C, and Q between B and B'.
evident that qq' and rr' will intersect

Now
the lines

since the four points

AC, A'C touch a

334, that

AA' and

A, A',

circle

CC

will

C,

A A'

lie

touch a

circle,

is

Also

it is

A and
R will

A'.
lie

circle

X, and

q, q', it

follows

on a

in the points

it

on the same

side of the radical axis as the centre of the circle

from

positions

coaxal with

and X,, at the points in which qq cuts them. Similarly it may

be proved that A A' and BB' will touch a circle, coaxal with
and
which
rr'
points
in
cuts
them.
But
the
since
at
A'
A
can
only
1}
touch one circle of the given coaxal system at a point between A
and A', it follows that qq' and rr must intersect AA' in the same

and that AA', BB',

point,

CC

must touch the same

circle of the

system.

Let us denote the

Then

since BB',

pair of connectors BB',

Q and

R,

it

circle

CC is a

which touches

A A',

BB',

CC

by X'.

tetrastigm inscribed in a circle X, and a

CC

follows from

touch another circle X' at the points

334 that

BC

and

EC must

touch a

POXCELETS THEOREM.

214
circle,

say, coaxal

with

and

',

which

at the points in

QR

cuts these lines.

Let
that

QR meet

p must

the circle

p and p'. Then

the lines BG, B'C' in

it is

obvious

B and C, and p between B' and C. Hence

touched by BG and B'C' will have its centre

between

lie

which

is

on the same side of the radical axis as the circle X.

Thus

as A, B,

a fixed circle

BG will envelope

X, the side
and 2

describe the circle

X,

coaxal with

1}

The proof given above requires but slight modification when

the restriction that A, B, G should move in the same direction is
removed. Thus if A move in the opposite direction to B and C,
it is easy to see that the circles X lt X must have their centres on
the side of the radical axis opposite to the circle X, and in this
case

it

may be proved

that

X, which

is

the envelope of

BG has

its

centre on the same

X.
A and B move
in one direction and C in the other, then
must have its centre
on the same side of the radical axis as X, and
2 must have its
centre on the opposite side of the radical axis, and then it may be
proved that 3 the envelope of BG will have its centre on the same

Again,

side as the circle

if

side of the radical axis as

Hence we may
inscribed in

state the

2.

theorem in the form

circle so that tivo sides touch

If a

triangle be

two given circles coaxal

with the former, the third side will touch a fixed circle of the
coaxal system.

same

Let us suppose that AB, BG touch respectively the

X, and
and let
%
3 denote the circle which is always
touched by CA, as the vertices of the triangle move in the same
338.

circles

direction round the circle

and

C, so that

ABC.

Let us take the point

AD touches the circle Z

2.

Then by

between

334, since

COAXAL CIRCLES.

PORISTIC SYSTEM OF

AD and BC touch the same circle X>, therefore

same circle as AC, that is the circle 3

BAB

Thus

BD

215
touch the

will

a triangle, the vertices of which occur in the

is

ABC, and the sides

opposite order to those of the triangle

of which

touch the same circles as the corresponding sides of the triangle

ABC.
But

we

if

consider the triangle

same order

in the

DA

AB, BD,

lt

X X X
1}

2,

when two

see that the sides

vertices

ABC always in the

which order the sides touch the

ABC

If

339.

we take the

if

order, it is immaterial in

circles

ABC, we

X X X

touch the circles

Hence, we infer that

same

A BD with its vertices occurring

as the vertices of

X, such that
coaxal with X, the en-

be a triangle inscribed in a

two

sides touch

velope of the third side

circles

X ,X
X the circles X
2

the circle

is

circle

lt

X.2

are

said to form a poristic system with respect to the circle X.

Suppose that we have given any three

coaxal with a given circle X,

it is

X so that
X X X

inscribe a triangle in the circle

respectively the three circles

X X X

the circles
circle

lt

But when

X.

poristic
will

problem.
3

,"

ly

common

X X
1}

3)

tangents,

if
;

of circles

Y X
2

inscribed in

Xi,

X X
2,

3.

touch

when

indeterminate

be the

we

Thus,

be the

circles

common
when X ly X 2

1}

which form with

we may

obtain

tangents of the pairs

,

do not constitute
in general be

may

twelve triangles

circles,

circles

the

shall find four solutions to the

respectively, poristic systems,

Y ,X

circle of

which forms with X, and

eight other solutions by drawing the

a poristic system of

1}

form a poristic system with respect to the

this is not the case, let

Similarly

and

X X X

its sides shall

is

system with respect to X, then since the

have four

X X

lt

X X X

coaxal system (X,

circles

evident that the problem " to

so that their sides touch respectively the circles

But of these twelve

solutions

some or

all

may be

imaginarjr.

340.

Let A, B,

C,Dbe any

four points on a circle of a given

coaxal system, and let

AB, BC, CD touch

circles of the system.

Then

the circle

ABC (taken

so that A'B',

B'C, and

in the

CD'

respectively three fixed

C, D' be

four other points on

same order as the points A, B, C, D),
touch respectively the same circles as
if A', B',

POXCELETS THEOREMS.

216

BC and CD, it may be proved in the same manner as in 337,

that A A', BB, CC and DD' will touch a circle of the system, and

AB,

that A'D',

A'C

and B'D'

of the system as

The second part

touch respectively the same circles

will

AG and

AD,

BD.

may

theorem

of this

be deduced from the

AB and BC always touch fixed

circles of the system, therefore AC must always touch a fixed circle
And since AC and CD always touch fixed circles
of the system.
of the system, therefore AD must touch a fixed circle of the
Similarly, it may be proved that BD must always touch
system.
theorem in

For since

337.

a fixed circle of the system.

Now

circles

Let

CE be

that

EA

For

AB,
Then

us suppose that

let

the

X u X.

and

s.

drawn to touch the

must touch the circle

CA

will

BC

circle

CD

and

touch respectively

AD must touch a circle, X

may

then

it

say.

say.

be proved

always touch a fixed

circle,

Therefore by

DA touch the circles X X X respectively, if CE touch X

EA must touch X
Hence, we infer that If A, B, C, D be four points taken in

338, since

CA,

CD

and

the

same

so that

order, on a fixed circle belonging to

AB, BC,

CD

in,*!,

further, if AB,

circles

Xu

X.,,

touch, respectively, the fixed circles

DA

of the system, then

must touch a fixed

BC,

X X
3

a given coaxal system,

it

CD

then

X X X
x

2,

of the system;
touch respectively any three of the four

DA

circle,

must touch

the

i}

remaining

circle.

341.
In exactly the same wa}r we may prove Poncelet's celebrated theorem: If A lt A,,...A be any number
n
of points taken
in order on a circle of a given coaxal system, so that A^*,
A*A ,. .A n _ A n touch respectively (n - 1) fixed circles x X,,. .Xn_t
,

of the system, then A n A

system; and, further, if

any

n-\

remaining

of the

must touch a fixed

A,A

circles A',,

A tA t,...A

2t

...Xn

^JL n

then

circle,

Xn

of the

touch respectively

A n A must
x

touch the

circle.

The theorem may also be stated in the form: If a polystigm

ran be inscribed in a circle
of a given coaxal system, so that each
one of a complete set of connectors
( 137) touches respectively a
fixed circle of the system, then an infinite

can be inscribed.

number of such polystigms

PARTICULAR EXAMPLES.

217

Ex.1. If A lt A 2 ,...A n ben points on a circle A' of a coaxal system, so

A X A 2 A}A ii ...A n -iA ni A n A 1 touch respectively the circles of the system

342.

that

Xv A'

which form with respect

,...A*,

that
&c.

to the circle

X a poristic system

and

A 2',...A n be n other points taken in the same order on the circle X, so

A A 2 A 2 A 3 &c, touch respectively the same circles as A X A 2 A 2A 3t
show that A A A 2 A 2',...A nA n will touch a circle of the coaxal system.
'

if ill',

'

Ex.

2.

connectors
connectors

If A lt A 2 A 3 A it A & be five points on a circle, such that the

il^, A 2 A 3 -4 3il 4 -44-45, ilsi^ touch another circle, show that the
A X A 3 -4 3 il 5 A hA 2 A 2 A ti A t A x will touch another circle coaxal
,

with the given

circles.

A lt A 2 A 3 A t A s A 6 be six points on a circle, and if the

A A 2 A 2 A 3 -4 3 -4 A i A b A R A 6 A G A l touch another circle, show
that the connectors A A 4 A 2 A 5 A 3A Q will intersect in a limiting point of the
given circles, and that the connectors -4i-4 3 A 2 A iy -4 3 4 5 A A A 6 A &A lt A 6 A 2
Ex.

3.

connectors

If

will

touch a circle belonging to the same coaxal system.

Ex.

4.

Show

that

if

2n points

A A 2 ,...A in
x

a complete set of connectors touch another

be taken on a

circle,

circle

such that

there exists a set of

n con-

nectors which intersect in a limiting point of the circles, and that there are
(n

2) other complete sets of connectors which touch respectively

(n 2) circles

coaxal with the given circles.

The 2n (n1) connectors which do not

be arranged in n (ncircles of the system.

1) pairs,

intersect in the limiting point

each pair being

common

may

tangents of two of the

CHAPTER

XIV.

THE THEORY OF INVERSION.

Inverse points.
If on the line joining a point

343.

given

circle,

a point

of a

to the centre

OP OQ

be taken so that the rectangle

equal to the square on the radius of the circle

the point

is

is

said

to be the inverse point with respect to the circle of the point P.

If

be the inverse point of P,

Hence

inverse of Q.

with respect to the

The

P and Q

it

evident that

is

is

the

are called a pair of inverse points

circle.

inverse of any point with respect to a circle

might

also

be defined as the conjugate point with respect to the circle

which

lies

Thus,
P,

if

P,

on the diameter which passes through the given point.

be a pair of iuverse points with respect to a

circle,

and therefore every

circle

are a pair of conjugate points,

which passes through

and

will cut

the given

circle ortho-

gonally.

344.
If we have any geometrical figure consisting of an
assemblage of points, the inverse points with respect to a fixed
circle will form another figure, which is called the inverse figure
with respect to the circle of the given figure.
It will

be shown that when certain relations exist between the

parts of any figure, other relations

may be

corresponding parts of the inverse figure.

may be

inferred concerning the

And

as the inverse

more complicated character we are thus able

to obtain properties of such figures from known properties of
ampler figures.

figure

of a

219

peaucellier's cell.

The fixed circle is called the circle of inversion, and the process
by which properties of inverse figures are derived is known as
'

It will be seen that as a rule, the nature of the in-

inversion.'

inversion, but

independent of the magnitude of the circle of

depends on the position of the centre of this circle.

Consequently

it is

verse figure

phrase

'

is

usual to designate the process briefly by the

inverting with respect to a point

when

bered that

with respect to a

;
'

but

it

must be remem-

this phrase is used, the inversion is really

circle

whose centre

is

taken

the point.

It is often convenient to invert a figure with respect to

imaginary

circle,

having a real centre.

centre of inversion, and P,

lie

In this

case, if

an

be the

P and Q will
PO OQ mil be con-

a pair of inverse points,

on opposite sides of 0, and the rectangle

stant.

Ex.

345.

1.

Show

that the limiting points of a system of coaxal circles

are inverse points with respect to every circle of the system.

Ex.

2.

If a pair of points be inverse points with respect to

they must be the limiting points of the

Ex.

3.

Show

two

circles,

circles.

that the extremities of any chord of a

circle,

the centre, and

the inverse of any point on the chord, are concyclic.

We may mention here a method by which the inverse of

346.
any given figure may be drawn with the aid of a simple mechanical
instrument.
Let A BCD be a rhombus formed by four rigid bars
of equal lengths hinged together; and let the joints B, D be
connected with a fixed point 0, by means of two equal rigid bars
hinged at 0. Then the points A and C will be inverse points with
respect to a circle whose centre is 0.

INVERSE OF A STRAIGHT LINE.

220

It is evident that the points 0,

be the point of intersection of

0A.0C=
Hence

centre

is

will describe

The
347.

Let

BD and AC.

0E- - AE* =

This arrangement of bars

circle

let

be

Let

collinear.

Then we have

0D - DA
n
-

2
.

is

the inverse curve.

called Peaucelliers

cell.

inverse of a straight line.

The inverse of a straight line with respect to any circle

which passes through the centre of the circle of inversion.

P be
0A

line A B, and
whose centre is

any point on the straight

inverse point with respect to a circle

Let

will

and C are inverse points with respect to a circle whose

0. Consequently if the point A be made to describe any

curve the point

A,

be the perpendicular from

let

is

P' be the

0.

on the straight

line,

and

A' be the inverse point of A.

Then we have

0P.0P'=0A.0A'.
Therefore the points A, P, A', P' are concyclic; and therefore
A' is equal to the angle GAP, which is a right

the angle

OP

angle.

Hence

is

a point on the circle

whose diameter

Thus, the inverse of a straight line

through the centre of inversion.

Tun

is

is

0A'.

a circle which passes

v.rs.ly, it is evident that the inverse of a

circle which
passes through the centre of inversion is a straight
line.
In other

INVERSE OF A CIRCLE.
words

The inverse of a

circle

with respect

221

to

any point on

it is

straight line.
Ex.

348.

Show

1.

that the inverse of the line at infinity

is

a point-circle

coincident with the centre of inversion.

Ex.

If

2.

inversion,

which

is

Ex.

and

C be

the centre of a circle which passes through the centre of

C be the

if

inverse of the point C,

the inverse of the given circle bisects

Show

3.

show that the

straight line

CC.

that the inverse circles of a system of parallel straight lines

touch each other at the centre of inversion.

Ex.

If a

4.

inverse to

Ex.

system of

them are

The

5.

lines be concurrent,

show that the

circles

which are

coaxal.

inverse circles of two straight lines intersect at the

same angle

as the lines.

The

radii of the circles

drawn

to the centre of inversion are perpendicular

respectively to the lines.

Inverse circles.
The inverse of a

349.

circle

with respect

to

any

circle is

circle.

Let

be.

the centre of the given

circle of inversion.
let

and

the centre of the

circle,

and

P' be the inverse point.

Let

to

Let

circle,

be any point on the given

OP

OA

But

OP

OP',

OP OQ are
.

since

AQ, BP'

parallel

in B.

Then since the rectangles

OP' OQ is constant.

ratio

P'B be drawn

cut the given circle in Q, and let

QA, and meeting

are parallel,

BP':AQ=OB: OA =

OP'

OQ.

constant, the

INVERSE CIRCLES.

222
Therefore

is

the locus of the point

to

X denote

If

350.

BP' a

a fixed point, and

is

any

circle

and X'

circle,

inverse of X', so that

B.

is

inverse with respect

its

easy to see that

circle of inversion, it is

any

X and X'

Hence

constant length.

whose centre

may be

will

be the

called a pair of inverse

with respect to the circle of inversion.

circles

If the circle

point P'

cut the circle of inversion orthogonally, the

with the point Q, and the circle X' will

Thus, the inverse of a given circle with respect to
which cuts it orthogonally coincides with the given circle.

will coincide

coincide with X

any

circle

Ex.

351.

Show that the

1.

Ex.
C,

may be so chosen that the

be coincident with themselves.

circle of inversion

inverse circles of three given circles shall

2.

If three circles intersect

and

if

through any point

OCC

B,
be described,

two and two in the points A, A'

the circles OAA', OBB',

prove that these three circles will be coaxal.

Ex.

Show

3.

that the nine-point circle of a triangle

the inverse of the

is

circumcircle with respect to the polar circle of the triangle.

and Y be so related that a triangle can be inscribed

Ex. 4. If two circles
X, so that its sides touch Y, show that the nine-point circle of the triangle
with respect to Y.
formed by the points of contact with Y is the inverse of
in

Ex.

5.

the fourth

and

C,

Show that the nine-point circle of a triangle ABC is the inverse

common tangent of the two escribed circles, which are opposite

with respect to the circle whose centre

which cuts these escribed

Ex.

6.

Show

is

of

to

the middle point of BC, and

circles orthogonally.

that McCay's circles ( 233, Ex. 3) are the inverses of the

with respect to the circle

sides of the first Brocard triangle of a given triangle,

whose centre

is

the median point of the triangle, and which cuts the Brocard

circle orthogonally.

352.

It is

evident that the centre of inversion

and

of inversion

the nomothetic centre

is real, its

centre

is

the circle of inversion is imaginary,

its inverse.

its

centre

is

a nomo-

is

When

thetic centre of the given circle

the circle

and when

the antihomothetic

centre of the pair of inverse circles.

Let X, X' denote a pair of inverse circles with respect to any

circle of inversion, S.

Then these

circles are coaxal.

For, referring to the figure in 349,

(P'S)

we

have,

(FX) = P'O* - OP OP'

= OP' QP'
= OB AB.
.

FQ PF
.

PROPERTIES OF INVERSE CIRCLES.

Thus the powers with respect

P" on the

circle X', are in

the circle

X'

is

to the circles S,

a constant

ratio.

coaxal with the circles

S and

Hence we may

X of

any point

Therefore, by 330,

X.

X and X' two

X and X' are a pair

infer that, given a pair of circles

can be found, which will be such that

circles

223

For these two circles of

homothetic

of inverse circles with respect to either.

inversion will be the circles whose centres are the

centres of

Ex.

353.
circles

*S'

Ex.

X and X', and which are coaxal with X and X'.

X

If
and X' be inverse circles with respect to each of the
show that S and *S" cut each other orthogonally.

1.

and

*S",

Show

2.

that the circumcircle of a triangle, the nine-point

circle,

and

the polar circle are coaxal.

To find

354.

Let

R denote

the radius

of the inverse of a

circle.

the radius of the circle of inversion, and

denote the radii of the given circle and

we have

figure in 349,

r:r'=0Q:0P' = 0P.0Q: OP.

Therefore

= (OX) R

OP'.

where {OX) denotes the power of the point

given

let' r,

Then from the

its inverse.

with respect to the

circle.

rR

Thus
inus

r'
r

Ex.

355.

Show

1.

that

if

~(0Xy
on a certain

circle,

r ly r2 denote their radii.

Then

the centre of inversion

lie

the inverse circles of two given circles will be equal.

X X

Let

lt

denote the given

we must have {0Xt )

coaxal with the circles

Ex.
circles

Show

2.

may

356.

is

X X
lt

r2

Let

and let
Hence

must

lie

on a

fixed circle

that there are two points with respect to which three given

circles.

be the centre of a given

and

circle,

with respect to a given

let

A' be the
whose

circle of inversion

0.

common

Let OTT' be the

inverse.

be inverted into three equal

inverse point of

centre

circles,

(0X2 )=r

Then we

shall

tangent to the given

have (see

OA OA' = OP
.

fig.

OP'

circle

and

its

in 349),

= OT or.
.

Therefore the points A, A', T, T' are concyclic, and therefore

the angle
angle.

OA'T

will

be equal to the angle

OTA, which

is

a right

ANGLE OF INTERSECTION

224

Hence A'T' is the polar of with respect to the circle P'T'Q'

with respect to the circle
is, A' is the inverse point of

that

P'T'Q'.

Thus, the inverse of the centre of a given circle

is the inverse

with respect to the inverse circle of the centre of inversion.

Hence

it

system of con-

follows that the inverse circles of a

system of circles having the centre

a limiting point. For the polars with respect to

centric circles will be a coaxal

of inversion for

the inverse circles of the centre of inversion will evidently be

coincident and the result follows from 345, Ex.

2.

Corresponding properties of inverse figures.

If two

357.

circles touch each other, the inverse circles will also

touch each other.

If

two

circles

touch they intersect in two coincident points.

follows that the inverse circles will intersect in

points,

and therefore

It should
will

will

It

two coincident

touch each other.

be noticed however that the nature of the contact

not necessarily be the same.

similar theorem

358.

If two

is

evidently true for any two curves.

circles intersect, their

angle of intersection is equal

or supplementary to the angle at ivhich the inverse circles intersect.

Let P,

be two near points on any

inverse points on the inverse circle.

circle,

and

let

F,

Q' be the

225

OF INVERSE FIGURES.

Then

OP

since

OP'

- OQ

OQ',

the points P, P', Q, Q' are concyclic. Therefore the angle OPQ is
equal to the angle OQ'P\ It may happen however that the point

within the circle which can be drawn through the points

falls

P, P', Q, Q'; in which case the angles OPQ, OQ'P', will be

supplementary.

Now

let

the point

so that the line

time

Hence

PT,

if

approach indefinitely near to the point P,

will

FT'

Then

the tangent at P.

become the tangent at

Q'P' will

FPT, T'FP

PQ becomes

at the

same

P'.

be the tangents at

and F, the angles

be equal or supplementary.

It follows that if

any two

circles intersect in

the point P, the

angle between the tangents to the circles at this point will be

equal or supplementary to the angle between the tangents to the
inverse circles at the point P'.

two

If the

circles cut orthogonally the inverse circles will also

cut orthogonally.
Ex.

359.

If

X and Y denote any two circles, and if X',

inverse circles with respect to

any point

show that X' and Y'

Y' denote the

will intersect

and Y, when the point is either external to both the

same angle as
circles
and Y, or is internal to both but when the point is internal to one
circle and external to the other, the angle of intersection of
and Y will be
supplementary to the angle of intersection of X' and Y'.
at the

Ex.

2.

Show

and escribed
This
Ex.
circles

may

3.

and

that the nine-point circle of a triangle touches the inscribed

circles.

be deduced from the theorem in

Show

351,

Ex.

5.

that four circles can be drawn which shall touch two given

their inverse circles with respect to

Discuss the case

when one

any

circle of inversion.

of the given circles cuts the circle of inversion

orthogonally.

If P and Qbe a pair of inverse points with respect to any

and if P', Q' be the inverse points of P and Q, and S' the
of S, with respect to any circle, then P' and Q' will be inverse

360.

circle S,

inverse

points with respect to the circle S'.

Since

P and Q are

inverse points with respect to S, therefore

any circle which passes through P and Q will cut S orthogonally.

Consequently P' and Q' will be two points such that any circle
which passes through them will cut S' orthogonally.
L.

15

INVERSION APPLIED TO

226
It follows at

two figures Fu Fz
and if F/, F/, S' be
S with respect to any circle of

once from this theorem, that

if

be inverse figures with respect to a circle S,

Fu F

the inverse figures of

inversion, then F/,

'

will

be inverse figures with respect to the

circle S'.

Given the distance between any two points

361.

distance between the inverse points with

respect to

to

any

find the
circle

of

inversion.

BL--

Let A,

be any two points, and

points with respect to

Then

OA

since

any

.OA'

=0B .OB,

Therefore the triangles

concyclic.

let A',

B' be the inverse

whose centre

circle of inversion

is

0.

the points A, A', B, B' are

OAB, OB' A'

are similar; and

therefore

AB

A'B'

= OA

= OB

OB'

OA'.

Therefore

:AB=0A. OA' OA

A'B'
Also

A'B'*-

Again

AB,

if

AB = OA'

OB'

A'B :AB=p'
we

OB.

OB.
on the

lines

have

shall

In the case
0,

OA

p, p' denote the perpendiculars from

we

A'B',

when the

points A,

:p.

are collinear with the point

have

shall

0A.0B'=0B: OA' = AB B'A',

FA' AB = OA OA' .OA.OB;
A'B* AB' = OA' OB' OA OB.
:

whence

362.

If
/;.

and

(
',

11',

I),

Ex.

<",

we

1.

/)' l>c

shall

B,C,Dbe any four points on a straight

AB. CD-VAC. DB + AD.BC = 0.

If J,

the inverse points, with respect to the point

have

RC' + C'D' + DB^O.

may be deduced by

Hence the above relation

361.

line,

show that

of the points

227

METRICAL RELATIONS.
Ex.

If A, B, C,

2.

be any four points taken in order on a

show

circle,

that

AC.BD=AB.CD+AD.BC.
BD. CD.BC+AD. BD.AB=BC. AC. AB+CD.AD.AC.

i.

ii.

Ex.

{AC,

If A, B, C,

3.

BD)

is

be four points on a circle such that the pencil

harmonic, where

any variable point on the

is

show

circle,

that

AB.CD=AD.BC.
Ex.

angles with each other, and

L, 3f, N,

Ex.

drawn through a point 0, making equal

any other straight line cut them in the points

If three straight lines be

4.

show that

5.

Show

A B and CD
A', B', C' y

that

if

0.V+ ON.

OL+OL.OM= 0.
D on a

four points A, B, C,

if

D' with respect to any

6.

be such that

\\
O

B and

D, respectively

C,

inverse circles cut

them

i//

are con-

any two

circles cut

them

in the

'

O'

and

if

the line joining the centres of the

in the points A', B'

and

AC.BD AB. CD=A'C .B'D'

:

CD"

circle.

If the line joining the centres of

points A,

be such that A'B',

circle will

jugate lines with respect to the inverse

Ex.

circle

are conjugate lines with respect to the circle, the inverse points

CD'
A'B'.

show that

CD

152

POWER RELATIONS

228
where the points

D are supposed to occur in the same order as the

C,

A', B',

A,B,C,D

joints

respectively.

Let X, Y denote the given circles, and let X\ Y' denote the inverse circles
with respect to a circle of inversion whose centre is 0. Then if P, Q, R, S be
the inverse points of the points A, B, C, D respectively, these points will lie

on a

circle

and cut the

through

will pass

which

Also we shall have from

circles X', Y' orthogonally.

361,

AC.BD AB.CD = PR.QS:PQ.RS.

:

Now
two

the radical axis of the circles

Let

points.

whose centre

inversion the circle

is 0'

PQRS

Y' will cut the circle

A'',

Then

be one of these points.

and which cuts

in

we take for circle of

X' and Y' orthogonally,

if

common diameter A'B'C'D' of the circles A'' and Y' will clearly be the
It follows that the lines A'P, B'Q, C'R, DS will
inverse of the circle PQRS.
the

intersect in one of the points in

PQRS.

circle

Hence,

if

A'C B'D
.

Therefore

we

shall

way

In the same

it is

A'B'

PR.QS :PQ. RS.

.C'D'=

AB.CD = A'C

may

it

AD.BC
Now

which the radical axis of X', Y' cuts the

we shall have by 361,

this point as 0',

have

BD

AC.

we take

B'D'

CD.

be proved that

AB.CD =A'D B'C

AC

A'B'

easy to prove that the rectangles

A'B'

CD.

BD, 'and AD

BC are equal

common tangents of the circles A' and Y. Hence, if

T, t denote the common tangents, and rXi r 2 the radii of the circles X, Y, and
denote the common tangents and rt\ r2 the radii of the inverse circles
if T',

to the squares

on the

'

t'

A'', Y',

we

shall

have

T2
Ex.

If A', B',

7.

T'*=f-

t'

=r r2
x

r{r{.

be the inverse points of three given points A, B,

with respect to any centre of inversion 0,

show that the

PQR, where P, Q, R are the points

AO, BO, CO cut the circumcircle of the triangle ABC.

be similar to the triangle

lines

Ex.

which

which the

A, B, C form a triangle
show that the centre of inversion must
two fixed points which are inverse points with

similar to a given triangle,

coincide with one or other of

respect to the circumcircle of the triangle

Power
363.

any

circle.

and X' denote a pair of inverse

8' denote the circle

and A".

ABC.

relations connecting inverse circles.

Let

respect to

-V

in

If the inverse points of three given points

8.
is

C,

triangle A' B'C will

Then

Let

circles

with

denote the circle of inversion, and

let

which cuts & orthogonally and is coaxal with

and X' are also a pair of inverse circles with

respect to the circle

S\

Let A, A' denote the centres of the circles X, X'\ and

let

CONNECTING INVERSE CIRCLES.

0, 0' denote the centres of the circles

the homothetic centres of

are

{00',

AA'}

8 and S'. Then

and X' ( 352),

since 0, 0'

the range

harmonic, and therefore

is

OA

O'A _
U
+ 0'A'-

OA'
But

229

X,

since the circles

X', 8, S' are coaxal,

we have by

cut orthogonally,

(SX)

(SX')

and the

circles S,

8'

329,

(S'X):(S'X')

and

= OA
= O'A

:0A';
:

O'A'.

Hence we have
(S'X)

(S'X')

+ (SX')~

(SX)

Let

364.

which cuts

denote the

Then

imaginary.

the coaxal system

which

circle

The

orthogonally.

X,

(TX)
Hence the formula

will

be real when

is

and 8' cut one circle, 8, of

orthogonally, therefore by 329,

since the circles

[8,

concentric with 8, and

is

circle

X'},

{TX')

= {S'X)

of the last article

(S'X').

may

be written,

(TX )_
(SX)^(SX')
(TX)

Consequently the ratios (TX)

(SX), and (TX')

(SX') have

opposite signs.

We

365.

also have

from

329,

(TX) :(TS') = (S'X)

Therefore

if

:(S'S').

R, R' denote the radii of the circles S, S',

we

shall

have

(TS') = (SS')-(SS) = 2R'i,

and therefore

Hence
(S'X)

if

will

TX) (S'X) = R* - R'\

S and >S" be imaginary,
:

either of the circles

have the same

(SX)

It is easy to see that the ratio

X does, or does not,

ing as the centre of

Hence,
circle for

circle of

if

we

the pair,

366.

ratio

we can

Again

it is

(TX)

(S'X) is negative or positive accordbetween

and 0'.

lie

the pair of inverse circles X, X', the positive

call that circle of

which the

the powers {TX),

sign.

(SX)

and the other the negative

between the circles.

is positive,

easily discriminate

easy to see that

(TX) = (SX)-(SS).
Hence from the relation of 364, we may deduce the
(SX)

(sxo

(ssy

relation

POWER RELATIONS

230

From

this

we may deduce the more general formula

(ZX)(ZJr)_(ZS)
(SX)
where

denotes any

+ (SX')-\SS)>

circle.

Y denote the circle which

Z orthogonally. Then
cuts
which
and X', and
centre of Y, we have by 329,
To prove

this, let

(ZX)

= BA BA'
BO _ BO
- -^ +

(ZX')

(ZS)

|^ + |^ =

and (363)

if

coaxal with

denote the

BO.

^ ^

BO

But we have,

is

0.

Therefore

(ZX)
(SX)

ilence

361

and A',
whose centre
(Si,

WY
(ZS)
(SS)'

(AB) denote

may be

if

0, then

is

A&- = OA' OB'

.

as usual the

0A

OB.

power of the points

and B,

this

written in the form

(A'B')
for,

(SX')

was proved that

it

A'B'-

formula

(SX')(ZX')_

and B be any two points,

the inverse points with respect to any circle of inversion,

In

367.

If

(SX)

(AB) = (A'S) (B'S)

as proved in 363,

(AS) (BS),

we have

(A'S):(AS) = A'0: OA,

(B'S)

(BS)

= B'O

OB.

368.
We shall now show that a similar formula connects the
powers of inverse circles: If X', Y' be the inverse circles of
and

Y vnth

respect to

any

circle

of inversion, S, then

(XT') (XY) = (X'S).(Y'S) (XS).(YS).

:

S and A",
any point on U, and let a
circle V be described coaxal with S and the point-circle P, and
cutting X orthogonally. Then if Q be any point on the circle V,
we have by 320,
Let a

circle

and cutting

a,ld

be described coaxal with the circles

Y orthogonally.

Let

P be

(XY):(YS) = (PX):(PS);
(XP):(XS) = (QP) :(QS).

CONNECTING INVERSE CIRCLES.

231

Therefore

(XF) (XS).(YS) = (PQ) (PS).(QS).

:

Let

U',

be the inverse

evident that U' will be coaxal with

is

evident that

Then

and V.
and X', and

it

is

will cut

Y'

F be the inverse of P with respect to

F will be a point on V. Also V will cut

X'

Also

orthogonally.

circles of

S, it

if

orthogonally and will be coaxal with P' and S.

Hence we

(XT)
But by

have

shall

(X'S) (Y'S)

= (FQ') (FS)
:

(Q'S).

367,

= (TO)

(FQ')

(PQ)

(X' F')

(X Y) =

(Q'S)

(PS)

(QS).

(XS)

Therefore

369.

(X')

The proof given above

of the given circles

Y'S)

YS).

requires modification

when

either

Y cuts

the circle of inversion orthogonally.

Y cuts S

orthogonally, then Y' will coincide

X,

Let us suppose that

with F.

Now
which

is

since

F is

circle

which cuts orthogonally the circle

and X', therefore by 329,

coaxal with the circles

(XF):(FX') = (M :0A',
where A, A' are the centres of the

circles

X,

X'.

S,

POWER RELATIONS.

232

But

was shown that

in 363, it

OA OA' = (S'X)
where '

the

is

coaxal with

circle,

= - (SX)

(S'X')

(SX'),

and X', which cuts S ortho-

gonally.

(XF) (XT') =

Hence
This relation

easily seen to be in

is

of the last article

- (X'S).

agreement with the relation

we suppose

for if

F and

F' to be nearly coin-

are small quantities which are ultimately

(YS) and (Y'S)

cident,

(Zflf)

equal but have opposite signs.

Ex.

370.

respect to

Prove that

1.

any

circle

(XY)
Ex.

2.

Show
i.

when

is

when

is

Ex.
the

3.

that

(AT)

(X'Y') = (0X)

If T,

X and

2,

(OX').

the radii of the circles

X, Y, X',

Y'-,

a'b',

Y, or is internal to both circles

(XY):(X'Y') = ab:-a'b',

common

denote the

and internal to the

other.

tangents of the circles X, Y, and T',

t'

= t*:t'* = ab:a'b',

be internal to both the circles X, Y, or external to both.

have

T* = (XY) + 2ab,
result follows

from Ex.

t*

2,

= (XY) - 2ab.

i.

be internal to the circle X, and external to Y,

If

Y, with

tangents of X', Y', show that

Hence the
Ex.

(OY') = (OY)

denote

(X'Y') = ab

T2

We

X and

is 0,

external to one of the circles X, Y,

common

provided

X', Y' be the inverse circles of

if a, b, a', b'

external to both
ii.

if

whose centre

ii.,

T
Ex.

4.

Ex.

5.

,!

Deduce the theorem of

we

shall

have from

T' 2 = ab :-a'b'.
359, Ex.

from Ex.

1,

2,

of this section.

X X

series of circles
,...Xm ,... are described, so that each
x
2
system touches two given circles (one of which lies within the
other), and its two neighbours in the series.
If
m + 1 coincide with u so
that there is a ring of circles traversing the space between the given circles n
,

circle of the

show that the radii of the given circles are connected with the distance
between their centres by the formula,
times,

(r-r^-^r'tan 2

X X

=S
,

[Steiner.l

Ex. 6. Show that if the circles

A"3
x
2
the same sense, the direct common tangents
by a relation of the form
,

touch another circle each

TU2 Thst

in

&c, are connected

Ti.2 2V.4^i.3. ^2,4 TUi T, t3 =0.

[Casey.]
we invert the figure with respect to any point on the common tangent
circle, we shall have a group of four circles
touching a straight line and lying

If

COAXAL CIRCLES.
on the same side of the

If A, B, C,

line.

233

be the four points of contact,

it is

evident that

AB.CD+AC.DB+AD.BC=0.
Hence by the theorem

of Ex. 3, the above result follows.

when the given

similar relation holds

circles

do not touch the

circle in

the same sense, provided that in the cases of two circles which touch

common

opposite senses the direct

transverse

common

tangent

is

it

in

replaced by the corresponding

tangent.

be carefully noticed that the converse of this important theorem

cannot be inferred from the nature of the proof here given. In the next
It should

chapter, however,

we

and

shall give another proof of the theorem,

that the converse theorem

is

shall

show

also true.

Inversion applied to coaxal circles.

To

371.

illustrate

the advantage of using the method of

inversion to prove propositions relating to geometrical figures

circles

may be

in real points,

derived.

348, Ex. 4)

points,

When

we may take

and thus obtain

(

we

show how the principal properties of a system of coaxal

shall

a system of coaxal circles intersect

either point as the centre of inversion,

for the inverse figure

a system of concurrent lines

and when the coaxal systems have

real limiting

by taking either as the centre of inversion we obtain a

system of concentric

circles ( 356).

Consequently the properties

may be

derived from the properties of

of a system of coaxal circles

the simpler figures consisting either of concurrent

centric circles.

In either

case, it will

lines, or

con-

be observed that the centre

of inversion will not have any particular relation to the simple

figure.
372.

Ex.

1.

Every

circle

which

touches two given straight lines cuts

orthogonally one or other of two
...
7, ,.
.,
straight lines concurrent with the
.

..

_.

Every

circle

...
which

touches

.,

two

given circles cuts orthogonally one

or other of two circles coaxal with the

Every

circle

which touches two

^ ven c rc es
j

given concentric circles cuts orthogonally one or other of two circles

concentric with the given circles.

Ex. 2. If a variable circle touch

two given concentric circles, the locus
of its centre is one or other of two
circles concentric with the given
circles.

If a variable circle touch

circles,

two given

the locus of the inverse point

with respect to

it

of either of the

limiting points of the given circles, is

one or other of two

the given circles.

circles coaxal

with

INVERSION WITH RESPECT

234

If a variable circle cut two

Ex. 3.
given concentric circles at constant

ingles

If a variable circle cut

two given

circles at constant angles

It

orthogonally

cut

will

with the given

fixed circle concentric

ii.

circle

circles

circles.

It will cut

every concentric

It will

cut

orthogonally

coaxal with

the

given

every coaxal circle

It will cut

ii.

at a constant angle.

circle at a constant angle.

iii.

will

It

i-

fixed

touch two circles con-

It will

iii.

touch two circles co-

centric with the given circles.

axal with the given circles.

If the powers of a variable

4.
with respect to two concentric
circles are in a constant ratio, the

If the powers of a variable circle

with respect to two given circles are
in a constant ratio, the circle will cut

Ex.

circle

circle will

concentric

circle

orthogonally a fixed circle with the

cut orthogonally a fixed

with

given

the

given

circle,

circles.

Ex.

5.

The powers

two concentric

The powers

of a variable

point on a fixed circle with respect to

circles are in a con-

of a variable point on a

given circle with respect to two coaxal

circles are in

a constant

ratio,

stant ratio.

Miscellaneous Theorems.
373.

Hitherto

we have supposed

of finite dimensions.
circle of inversion is

the circle

the circle of inversion to be

remains to consider the case when the

a point-circle, and the case when the radius of

is infinitely

When
what

It

great.

the circle of inversion

a point-circle, 0, let us enquire

is

part of the given figure pass through the point 0,

a circle drawn having

which

If no

be the form of the inverse of a given figure F.

will

will

not cut

F in

for centre,

and

real points.

its

The

we may imagine

radius small but

inverse figure of

finite,

F with

respect to this circle will evidently lie entirely within the circle,

and

will therefore

be evanescent when the radius of the circle

indefinitely diminished.

Hence, when the

point-circle, the inverse of

the point

is

circle of inversion is

is

any figure which does not pass through

evanescent.

But if any part of the figure

be a straight line or a circle
which passes through the centre of inversion, such line or circle
may be considered as cutting the point-circle of inversion orthoand will therefore coincide with the corresponding part of
the inverse figure.
Hence, when the circle of inversion is a point-

gonally,

TO A STRAIGHT LINE.
circle,

every straight line or circle which passes through the point

coincides with

374.

its

When

great, the circle

line

235

and the

inverse with respect to the point.

the radius of the circle of inversion

may be

is infinitely

considered as consisting of a finite straight

line at infinity.
IB

Let

AB

be any straight

with respect to the line

on the line

of a diameter of the

and

let

us find the inverse point

of any given point P.

Let

PA

be

AB, then the point A

may be considered as opposite extremities
line-circle AB, (that is the infinite circle whose

drawn perpendicular
infinity

line,

AB

to

and the point at

PA

part is the straight line AB).

If P' be the inverse point of
and P' must be harmonically conjugate with the point A and
the point at infinity on the line AP.
Hence PP' is bisected in
the point A.
finite

P,

If four circles be mutually orthogonal, and if any figure be inverted

375.
with respect to each of the four circles in succession, the fourth inversion will
coincide with the original figure.

EXAMPLES OF INVERSION.

236

be a point of intersection of two of the

Let

we

inverted with respect to the point 0,

then

circles,

have a real

shall

if

the figure be

circle centre 0,

two

rectangular diameters, and an imaginary concentric circle.

P be

Let

any

point,

Then

the two circles.

and

P.,

bisected

be the inverse points with respect to

shall

have

P with respect to the diameter OA, then P^P^ is

that P2 P will be bisected by OB that is, P3 will

by OA.

It follows

the point

if

with respect to OB.

be inverted with respect to the two circles, and the

two diameters successively, the fourth inversion

from

It follows

360, that if

with P.

circles,

the fourth position

with the original position of the point.

will concide

Hence

will coincide

any point be inverted successively

with respect to four mutually orthotomic

also if

any figure be inverted successively with respect

mutually orthotomic

to four

we

be the inverse of

be the inverse of
Hence,

P P

OP.OP^+OP.OP^O.
OP = P3 0.

Therefore

Let

let

since they cut orthogonally,

circles,

the ultimate figure will coincide

with the original figure.

drawn through a fixed point cutting a

P and Q. Show that if the
direction of the line PQ vary, two of the four circles which can be drawn to
touch the circles OPC, OQC, CPQ belong respectively to two coaxal systems
and the other two cut orthogonally the circle whose diameter is OC.
Ex.

376.

1.

straight line is

given circle whose centre

Ex.

If

2.

C, in the points

is

be the median point of the triangle

ABC, and if AG, BG, CG

B, C show that the

cut the circumcircle of the triangle in the points A',

symmedian point of the

triangle

A'B'C

through the Tarry point of the triangle

ABC

[E. Vigarie.

Ex.
circles

Three

3.

may

by another

circles are

on the diameter which passes

( 135, Ex. 7).

lies

E. T. Eeprint, Vol.

drawn through any point

0.

Show

m.

p. 73.]

that four

be drawn to touch them, and that these four circles are touched
circle.

If the first set of circles intersect in

which touches the second set

points /', Q, R, such that

B,C show that the circle

BOC, COA, AOB in three

the points A,

will cut the circles

i.

The

ii.

The groups

lines

AP, BQ, Cli

of points

are concurrent.

B,

C,Q,R;

C, A, R,

A, B, P,

are

concyclic.
iii.

circle

The

circle

PQR

is

the inverse of the circle

which cuts orthogonally the three

circles

ABC with

respect to the

BCQR, CARP, ABPQ.

CHAPTER

XV.

SYSTEMS OF CIRCLES.

System of three

The

377.

concurrent

circles.

radical axes of three given circles

( 305),

taken in parrs are

the point of intersection being called the radical

centre of the circles.

If,

with this point for centre, a

described cutting any one of the circles orthogonally,

each of the circles orthogonally

( 304).

circle

it will

It follows also

be
cut

from the

properties of the radical axis of two circles ( 308), that this circle
is

the only circle which cuts each of the three given circles ortho-

gonally.

This

circle is called

of the given system.

the orthogonal

It has

circle,

or the radical circle

an important relation to

all

the groups

of circles which are connected with three given circles, owing to

the fact that

circles

such groups occur in pairs, each pair being inverse

with respect to the orthogonal

When
circles,

all

the radical centre

the orthogonal circle

is
is

circle of

the system.

internal to each of the three given

evidently imaginary.

In this case

a concentric circle can be drawn so as to be bisected by each of

the given circles ( 315, Ex.
378.

If

P and Q are

9).

opposite extremities of a diameter of the

radical circle of three given circles, it follows from 261, Ex. 1,

that the points

P and

of the given circles.

whose polars
379.

It

are conjugate points with respect to each

Hence, the radical

ivith respect to three

was proved in

circle is the locus

of a point

given circles are concurrent.

321,

that the homothetic centres of

three circles taken in pairs are the six vertices of a tetragram.

The

four lines of this tetragram are called the homothetic axes, or

axes of similitude of the given circles.

It will

be found that these

SIGN OF THE RADIUS OF

238

CIRCLE.

axes have important relations in connection with the geometry of

three circles.

Convention relating to the sign of the radius of a

circle.

was proved that the angle of intersection of

two circles is equal or supplementary to the angle of intersection
If
of the inverse circles with respect to any circle of inversion.
and 7 denote two given circles, and if X', Y' denote the inverse
In

380.

358

it

circles

with respect to a circle whose centre

is

0,

it is

easy to see

that the angle of intersection of the circles X', Y' is equal to the
is either
angle of intersection of X, Y, provided that the point

when the point

that

is

or external to both circles

X, Y,

internal to both the circles

other, the angle of intersection of

X' and Y'

is

X and Y ( 339, Ex.

the angle of intersection of

Now

but

external to one circle and internal to the

the radius of a circle

may be

or as a negative magnitude.

But,

supplementary to
1).

conceived either as a positive

if r,

?',

d denote the

radii

and

the distance between the centres of two circles, their power ( 313)

=
Hence,

if at

d-

2
i-

r'-

2rr' cos

&>.

be regarded as the angle of intersection of the circles

when r, r' are considered as of like sign, their angle of intersection

must be regarded as ir w when r, r are considered as of unlike
sign.

It will

be found that considerable advantage will accrue

from the use of this idea in the case of pairs of inverse

Let us consider the radii of the inverse pair of

circles.

circles

X, X'

as

having the same sign when their centres are situated on the same
side of the centre of inversion,
their centres are situated
version.

and as having

different signs

when

on opposite sides of the centre of

we regard the

It is easy to see that, if

as positive, the radius of

X'

ing as the centre of inversion

will
is

in-

radius of the circle

be positive or negative accord-

external or internal to the circle

X, when the circle of inversion is real and that the radius of X'
be positive or negative according as the centre of inversion is
;

will

internal or external to the circle

X, when the

circle of inversion is

imaginary.

Hence,

may
the

if

we adopt the above rule of sign as a convention, we

two given circles intersect at

say that the inverse circles of

same angle as the given

circles.

GROUPS OF CIRCLES.

When

inverse circles

may

convenient to specify which circle of a pair of

is

it

239

is

to

be considered as having

say that the radius of that circle

is

its

we

radius positive,

positive

whose centre

lies

on the opposite side of the centre of inversion to the radical axis

Now when

of the circles.

the circle of inversion

is

imaginary, and

the centres of two inverse circles are situated on opposite sides of

the centre of inversion, they are also situated on opposite sides of
Therefore,

the radical axis.

we may say

ginary,

positive,

when the

circle of inversion is

ima-

that the radius of that circle of the pair

whose centre

lies

is

on the same side of the radical axis as

the centre of inversion.

381.

and

let

Let us suppose that we have three given circles X, Y, Z

be the radical circle of the system. Then each of the

given circles coincides with

Now

let

circles at

its

inverse with respect to the circle S.

us imagine a circle

Then

given angles.

with respect to S,

if

the problem

be drawn cutting the given

to

V denote the inverse

follows from

same angles

circles at the

Hence,

it

if

380 that

V will

as U.
:

To draw a

circle cutting three given

admits of one solution,

circles at given angles,

circle of

cut the given

it will

admit of two

solutions.
It must be noticed, however, that the two circles which can be
drawn cutting the given circles at angles 0,
yfr will be coincident
which
can
drawn
circles
be
cutting
the given circles
with the two
</>,

at the angles

tt

0, it

<f>,

it

i|r.

Assuming then, for the present, that a circle can always be

drawn cutting three given circles at given angles 0,
yfr, we infer
that
a pair of circles can be drawn cutting the given circles at
angles 0,
yjr
a pair cutting them at angles v 0,
ty; a pair

it
and
a
pair
cutting
them at
cutting them at angles 0,
yfr
</>,

<j>,

<f>,

<f>,

angles

0,

4>,

it

yjr.

Thus, every pair of circles which cut three given circles at

given angles

may be

considered as one of four associated pairs of

circles.

Four such pairs of

circles are called a

group of

circles.

Circles cutting three given circles at given angles.

382.

To describe a

given angles.

circle

which shall cut three given

circles at

CIRCLES CUTTING THREE GIVEN

240

Let X, Y,

Z be

which cuts them

330, that

the three given circles, and let

at the angles

d,

yfr

<j>,

denote a circle
It follows

respectively.

from

must cut orthogonally three circles U, V, W, which

X,
are coaxal with the pairs F, Z\ Z,
are coaxal circles;
these circles U, V,

centres of X, F. Z, and D, E,

F;

Now

respectively.

A, B,

be the
the centres of U, V, W, we have
for if

C,

as in S 329,

BD:CD = (tY):(2Z);
CE:AE = aZ):(2X);
AF:BF = (1X):(ZY).
BD CE AF = l
CD' AE BF
points D, E, F are collinear.

Therefore

>

'

and therefore the

circles U, V,

Consequently the

W are coaxal.

Also since

(2F)
where
found,

r.2

(2.Z)

=r

cos

</>

cos

?*

yfr,

r3 are the radii of the circles Y, Z, the point

and likewise the points

DEF may

and

is

easily

Therefore the line

F.

be constructed.

Again the

U, V,

circles

radical circle of the system

see that the circles 2,

X, Y,

S belong

evidently cut

Denoting

Z.

the

orthogonally
this circle

by

we

S,

to the orthogonal coaxal system of

the system U, V, W.

Hence the centre

of the circle

2 must

on the straight line

lie

which passes through the radical centre of the

is

DEF.
2 must touch two

circles

X,

Y, Z,

and

perpendicular to the line

Again, the circle

Z (

330).

Let these

circles

be

(Tj

and

circles coaxal

Then

with

JJ^

a pair of inverse circles with respect to the circle U.

and

F and
Z72

are

Hence,

if

a circle be drawn through the limiting points of the system

(U, V,

W)

to touch

lt

it will

also touch Z72

Now

two

circles

may be drawn passing through two given points and touching a

given circle. Hence we infer that two circles can be drawn cutting
the circles U, V,

W orthogonally, and touching

circles will evidently

cut the circles X, Y,

To show that the construction

show that the

circles

lt

is

Z at

C7\

practicable,

U can be drawn.

and

U.>.

These

the given angles.

Now

we have only

to

the locus of the

centre of a circle which cuts a given circle at a given angle

is

CIRCLES AT GIVEN ANGLES.

241

with the given one.

Therefore two circles can be
drawn having a given radius and touching the two given circles
Y Z. If then we draw ( 325, Ex. 2) the two circles coaxal with
Y and Z which touch either of the two circles of given radius
which cut Y and Z at the given angles, these circles will evidently

circle concentric

be the circles

U U
lt

( 330).

If the limiting points of the system (U, V,

we can

still

draw two

touching the circles

W)

circles cutting these circles

U U
1}

as in 325, Ex.

are imaginary,

orthogonally and

2.

Thus, we can in general always describe two circles which shall

cut three given circles at given angles.

Circles
383.

which touch three given

The eight

circles

circles.

which touch three given circles consist

namely, a pair which touch the

of four pairs of circles ( 381)

given circles each in the same sense, and three pairs which touch

one of the given

circles in

one sense and the other two

circles in

16

CONSTRUCTION OF THE CIRCLES WHICH

242

The construction

the opposite sense.

from the general case given in the

indicated in 322, Ex.

of any pair

may be deduced
may be done as

last article, or it

But the simplest method

5.

is

to proceed

as explained below.

Let us suppose the given

be external to each other,

circles to

so that the radical circle of the system is real and let us suppose
that the two circles which touch each of the given circles in the
;

same sense have been drawn. Let P, Q, R be the points of contact of one of the circles, and P', Q', R! the points of contact of the
other.

Let us denote the given circles by X, Y, Z; the radical circle

and the tangent circles by T, T'. Then,
circles
and
Z touch the circles T and T' in the same
the
F
since

of the system by S;

sense, the radical axis of T, T'

Z (

centre of Y,

320, Ex.

must pass through the homothetic

Similarly the radical axis of T,

9).

must pass through the homothetic centres of the pairs of circles

Hence the radical axis of the circles T, T' is a
Z, X and X, Y.
homothetic axis of the circles X, Y, Z.
;

Again, let the tangents to the circle

meet

LP = LP',

Then, since

in L.

the radical axis of

thetic axis of

T and

X, Y,

Z.

T'

But

it

therefore

at the points P, P'

follows that

is

a point on

a point on the homo-

is

since the circles T, T' are coaxal with

the radical circle of the system X, Y, Z, therefore the point

the radical centre of the radical

Consequently,

if

circle,

and the

the radical circle cut the circle

circles

X,

is

T.

X in the points D

and D' the chord DD' must pass through the point L.

Hence we have the following simple construction

the circles
S,

S,

Tand

Y;

T';

Draw

the radical axes

S,Z ; and from

the points

of

of

for

the pairs

drawing
of circles

intersection of these axes

with that homothetic axis of the given circles, which passes through
these homothetic centres, draw tangents to the given circles ; then the
points of contact are points an the circles which touch the given
circles.

Similarly, the other pairs of tangent circles may be constructed

by finding the points in which the radical axes of the pairs of
circles S,
S, Y; and S, Z; cut the other three homothetic axes

of the given circles.

will

Corresponding to each homothetic axis there

be one pair of tangent

circles.

TOUCH THREE GIVEN CIRCLES.

Let

384.

since the circles

radical circle,

it

243

be the radical centre of the given circles. Then

T and T' are inverse circles with respect to the

RR must intersect

PP', QQ',

follows that the lines

in the point 0.

Again, since the tangents at

X, Y,

thetic axis of

Z, therefore

and P' intersect on a nomopass through the pole

X.

PP' must

of this line with respect to the circle

Hence, we have the following construction

of the given

thetic axis

and find

circles,

respect to each of the circles

Draw any homo-

the poles

with

this line

of

then the lines joining these poles to the

radical centre of the given circles, will cut them in the six points of
contact of

a pair of tangent

This method
one, but

is

impracticable

radical circle is imaginary.

Let any

385.

not of such easy application as the preceding

always practicable, Avhereas the former

it is

when the

is

circles.

U be

circle

drawn coaxal with the

circles T, T',

which (see fig. 383) touch each of three given circles X, Y, Z in

the same sense. It follows from 329, that the powers ( TJX), ( UY),
{

UZ)

will

be in the same ratio as the powers of the

with respect to the radical axis of

axis of the circles
( UZ)

X,

S and

that

S',

is

Y,

( UX), ( UY),
X, Y, Z. Hence
S and S' will cut the

Therefore the powers

Y, Z.

are in the ratio of the radii of the circles

every circle which

circles

X, Y,

Z at

coaxal with the circles

is

equal angles.

Hence, to construct a

same angle, 6

at the

with the

circle coaxal

circles

X at the angle

Hence

it

circle

say,

we

circles

which

shall cut three

S and S', and

6.

circles,

and

let

of the four triads of circles.

same
1}

angle.
2

Let

X X X X
1}

intersect in

0.

Ex.

1.

Show

Let the perpendiculars from

Then

argument that a circle whose centre

circles at the same angle.
386.

it

is

be the radical centres

the homothetic axes of the triads of circles

lt

draw a

cutting one of the given

appears that a circle can always be drawn which shall

denote the four

X X X

given circles

infer that it is sufficient to

cut four given circles at the

on

X,

circles

the homothetic

1}

X X X
2

follows

from the above

will cut

each of the given

that eight circles can be drawn each of which will cut

four given circles at the same, or supplementary, angles.

162

;;

CONDITION THAT FOUR CIRCLES

244
Ex.

From

2.

the radical centre of each triad of four given circles, lines are
to the four homothetic axes of the triad.

drawn perpendicular

by four through

sixteen lines, so obtained, pass four

System of four
It has

387.
circles

have a

common tangent

having a

circles

been already proved

common tangent

four circles are connected

Show

circle,

370, Ex. 6) that,

common

the

by a certain

that the

eight other points.

circle*.

when

four

tangents of the

relation.

It

was pointed
theorem

out, however, in that article, that the converse of the

We

does not follow from the proof there given.

propose

now to
same

give a different proof of this important theorem, and at the

time to show that the converse

Let

X,

lt

X,,

X X
3)

A, B,
X,
lf

in the points

C, D.

Also

let

true under

Let 0, lt
and
4

X X X X

of the circles
their radii.

is

circumstances.

X X

3,

let r,

us denote the direct

all

denote any four circles which touch a

circle

be the centres

rx r r3 rt denote
,

common

tangents of the

pairs of circles
&c, by the symbols 12, 13, &c.
lt X>;
1}
3
and the transverse common tangents of the same pairs by (12)
;

(13); &c.

Firstly let us suppose that the circle

circles

By

Xu X X X
s

320, Ex. 16,

in the

touches each of the

same sense

we have

IV:AR- = 00 .00,:0A.0B;
1&:AC"- = 00 .00 :0A.0C;
1

The greater part of

M. S. vol. xxrn,

Proc. L.

this section is
p. 135.

(1891.)

taken from a paper by

Mr

A.

Larmor ;

HAVE A COMMON TANGENT

But

A, B, G, D are concyclic,
AB CD + AD BG = A G BD.

since the points

.

12.34 + 14.23-13.24 =

Hence

Secondly, let us suppose that the circle

opposite sense to that in which

Then, by

Hence

And

34

(12).

00,

(14). 23

thirdly, if the circle

X in the
X X X

touches

OA

t.

OB.

-(13). 24

(ii).

touches the circles

opposite sense to that in which

it

X X in
X X
1}

the

touches the circles

we

have
12. 34

Thus, when four

common
(ii)

touches the circles

it

A& = 00,

(i).

we have

320, Ex. 16,

(12)

shall

245

CIRCLE.

or

+ (14).

circles

(23)

-(13). (24)

have a

(iii).

common tangent

circle, their

tangents must be connected by a relation of the type

(i),

(iii).

It is to

be noticed that the product which

is

affected with the

negative sign corresponds to the pairs of circles for which the

chords of contact intersect in a point which

circle

is

internal to the

X.

Let us suppose that the circle

t is a point-circle.
point
on
either
of
the circles which
Then we see that, if 4 be a
388.

touch

X X X
1}

all

internally or all externally,

12.34-14.23 + 13.24 = 0,
12.34 + 14.23-13.24 = 0,

-12.34+14.23 + 13.24 = 0,

or

according as the point

on the arc 23, 31, or 12, respec-

lies

tively.

If

circle which has contacts of similar

and of the opposite nature with
lf then

be a point on either

nature with

X X
2

3)

(12) 34

- (14)

(12) 34

-(12). 34

or
If

X X
3

1}

+ (13) 24 = 0,
23 (13) 24 = 0,
23

+ (14). 23 + (13). 24 = 0.

be a point on either

nature with

circle

which has contacts of similar

and of the opposite nature with

- 14
34 + 14

= 0,
(12)
(23) - 13 (24) = 0,
- (12). 34 + 14. (23) + 13. (24) = 0.
(12) 34
.

or

(14)

(23)

+ 13

(24)

then

CONDITION SUFFICIENT

246

be a point on either circle which has contacts of similar

then
and of the opposite nature with
nature with
3
2
1}
If

X X

12 34

- (14)

12 34

+ (14)
+ (14)

- 12

or

34

+ (13)
(23) - (13)
(23) + (13)
(23)

= 0,
(24) = 0,
(24) = 0.
(24)

In each case these alternatives hold according as the point

on the arc 23, 31, or 12, respectively,

lies

circle

the

circle as

3.

if any one of the relations which occur in the

between the common tangents of the circles

Conversely,

389.

last article subsist

Xj, X,,

on the same side of the tangent

point-circle lying

being regarded as a

3}

and the

point-circle

4,

particular relation has here

must

that point

other of the pair of tangent circles of

X X X
lt

been proved to

lie

for

on one or

which that

subsist.

The proof depends on the following lemma Given three circles

X.2 X3 and a point P there is only one other point Qfor which
:

lt

1Q:2Q:3Q = 1P:2P:3P.
This theorem follows at once from

312, Ex.

3.

The point Q

in fact the other point of concourse of the three circles

is

can be drawn through

X X X X
3

P,

it

P coaxal

with the

Also from

respectively.

pail's

345, Ex.

1,

we

which

X X

of circles

3 ;

see that

are inverse points with respect to the radical circle of the

X X X

system

lt

Let us suppose now that the

390.
circles

X X X
lt

and the

common

point-circle

tangents of the

are connected

by the

relation

12 34
.

14

23

12 34
.

0.

This relation holds for any point on either of the arcs of the pair
of circles (F,
in the

same

F, say) which touch each of the

Through the point

and

let it

circles

describe a circle coaxal with

cut either of these arcs in Q.

Then, by

X X
x

X,

sense.

388,

12.3Q-23.1Q + 13.2Q = 0;
and, by hypothesis,

12.34-23.14 + 13.24 = 0.

and

:i>

AS WELL AS NECESSARY.
But, since

lie

on a

with

circle coaxal

247

and

by

329,

24:34 = 2Q:3Q.
14 24 34 = 1Q 2Q: 3Q,

Hence

Lemma,

and, by the above

which are inverse

X X X

system

1}

it

since

on one of the

is

with respect to the radical

circles
3

follows that

circles Y,

circle of

the

must be a point on the other

circle.

Suppose now that the common tangents of four given

391.

X X X X

circles

lt

2)

3,

are connected

by a

relation of the form

12.34 + 14.23 + 13.24 = 0,

(12)
or

34 + (14) 23 (13) 24 = 0,
.

(12). (34)

Then the

common tangent

four circles have a

For, take that circle,

+ (14). (23) + 13. 24 = 0.

say,

whose radius

it

together with

circle,

or difference of its radius

according as the

common tangent

not greater than

centre of each of

whose radius is
and that of the circle
and 4 is transverse or

the remaining circles as centre describe a

sum

is

With the

that of the three remaining circles.

equal to the

circle.

of

direct.

These three new

centre of

X a

the same

common

given relation

circles

point-circle)

must

X X
2

lie

circles, so

and

circles

(the

having

that the

by 390
on one or other of a pair of common
this

system

tangent circles of the system X/,

X X
2

',

it

follows

and hence, that

common tangent

touches one or other of a pair of

circles of the

X X X

system

1}

3.

2,

If the given circles

circle,

',

form a group of four

tangents as the four given

is satisfied for

that the point

X/,

then

it is

X X X X have a common orthogonal

X will touch both circles of the
lt

easy to see that

pair.

Ex.

392.

1.

Show that the circle which

passes through the middle points

of the sides of a triangle, touches the inscribed and escribed circles of the
triangle.

This theorem follows at once by treating the middle points of the sides as
point-circles.

Ex.

2.

Show

that a circle can be drawn to touch the escribed circles of

a triangle in one sense, and the inscribed circle in the opposite sense.

ALTERNATIVE PROOF OF THE

248
Ex.

If the circles

3.

with respect to any

X X

A'2 are the inverse circles of

lt

respectively,

show that the common tangents of the

circle,

connected by the relations

circles are

23.14 = 12.34 + 13.24;

(23).(14) = (12).(34) + 13.24.

When

393.

in real points,

which touch the same

four circles

we may obtain

which are equivalent to the relations given in

intersection

If two circles whose centres are

n
whose centre is 0, at the points P and Q,
if

the circles cut at the angle

PQ W,P
2

PQ-

40

when the contacts are

Hence,

if

X, we

when

cos &> 3

touch another circle

easy to prove that,

\<o

= OP.OQ: 00, 00
.

\a>

and that

= OP.OQ: 00, 00
.

2,

of the opposite nature.

2,

l}

be four

which touch a

circles

fifth

have

+ sin |G>

X touches all

sin &>i >2

Q cos

X X X X

shall

sin ia> 1)2 .sin^a) 3i4

when

387.

&>

Q sin

it is

when the contacts are of the same nature

circle

circle intersect

relations connecting their angles of

X touches X

.sm&> 2i3

1)4

sm I^m- sm i 0, 2,4 = 0...

(i),

the circles in the same sense

sin

\w 23

cos

^&>i, 4

in one sense,

sin

and

h(o h3

cos ^&> 2i4

X X X
1}

= 0.

.(ii),

in the opposite

sense
sin a>] !2

when

sin a> 3>4

+ cos|&>

touches X, and

2>3

cosa> lj4

in the

cos^a>

same

li3

sense,

cos g) 2

and

= 0.

X X
3

.(iii),

in the

opposite sense.

Conversely,
A' 3)

if

the angles of intersection of the circles

be connected by any one of the above relations,

proved, as in 391, that the circles will have a

it

X X
1}

may be

common tangent

circle.

394.
We propose now to give an alternative method* by
which the truth of the theorem of 391 may be inferred.
If the circles

evident that their

lt

X,.

common

touch the same straight

relation,

23

31 12 = 0,

or by a relation of the type

23(31)(12) = 0,
*

line, it is

tangents must be connected by the

This method was suggested by

Mr

Baker.

SUFFICIENCY OF THE CONDITION.

according as the circle X\

The converse

on the same

is

X X

the line as the circles

side, of

of this theorem

seen from a figure that

it is

true

side, or

the opposite

249

not so obvious, but

is

when any one

it is easily

of the circles

is

point-circle.

When

the radius of each circles

whose radius

X X

let circles

sum

with

Then the

X X

circles

that the given relation

the point Oj must

X X
2

common

Xu X X
2

lt

circle

with radii

of these circles,

common

tangents

lie

is satisfied for

(the centre of

X X X
1}

so

and therefore

this system,

on one of the common tangents of the

must touch one of
circle

X
X X

Consequently the

tangents of the circles

touch the same

point-circle

tangents as the circles

2,

that

is,

the circles

line.

Let us suppose now that the common tangents of the

are connected by a
a point-circle
2
3 and
4

395.

X X X

circles

be that

and

according as their

and the

',

common

Xj) have the same

the

are transverse or direct.

circles

circle

of the radii

difference

or

and the

respectively,

be drawn concentric with

equal to the

is finite, let

not greater than the radii of the other two, and

is

lt

relation of the form

23.14 + 31.24 + 12.34 = 0.

X X

Let Xi,

denote the inverse circles of

respectively, with respect to

and

any

whose radius

is

Then we have by

1}

Xi, &c.

let

both

2' 2

and

370, Ex. 3,

=rr

:r1 V/,

be external to both the

X X

circles

1}

or internal to

and
12 2

when

(1'2') 2

= (12)

354,

we

Hence

it

X X
,

= r,r r^,
2

have,

14 2 :B?

1'2'2

external to one and internal to the other circle.

is

Also by

Xi,

l}

is

rlf r/, &c. denote the radii of the circles

12 :l
provided

X X X

whose centre

circle

follows that the

will

= r r,'.
common
:

tangents of the circles

be connected by a relation of the type

3T + l 2' = 0,
(2'3') 3T 1'2' = 0.
2'3 /

or

Therefore,

tangent

line.

by

394, the circles X/,

X X
2

will

have a

common

EXAMPLES.

250

Hence

follows that the circles

it

passing through the point

We may

connected by

Xu X X
2

Show

1.

equal angles, and

must touch a

circle

when the common

and the

(ii)

or

(iii)

may be deduced

that, if the circle

point-circle

are

of 387.

as in 391.

cut the circles

Xu X X
2,

at

if

sin ^o> lf 2

Ex.

+ sin a> 3 sin <o 3 = 0,

2(

lt

X X X

and the two circles Y, Y' which touch the circles

t
2
3
t
the same sense, will touch each other at the same point. [A. Larmor.j

the circle

each in

either of the relations

Finally, the general case

Ex.

l}

proceed in the same manner

tangents of the circles

396.

X X X

If three circles

2.

the circle which intersects

X X X
lt

2,

them

intersect at angles

at angles

if

X be

respectively,

show

a,

3~y, y~a, a~0

/S,

and

y,

that:
i.

same

circle

can be drawn to touch the circles X,

X X X
lt

in the

sense.

ii.
Three circles can be drawn to touch two of the circles lt X,,
one sense, and the third circle and the circle
in the opposite sense.

It is easily verified that

- y) + sin | sin (y - a) + sin |y sin J (a - 3) =

sin a sin h (3

- y) +cos 3 cos |(y - a) - cos y cos (a - 3) =

cos a cos |(3

- y) - sin f3 sin \{y - a) - cos |y cos \

cos a cos (3 - y)

Ex.
B,

3.

C,

Three given

C.

by four other

(a

- fi) =

- cos |3 cos h (y - a) +sin y sin (a - )9)=0.

circles intersect

Show that the

circles.

in

(j3

the following relations subsist connecting the

angles of intersection of the four circles

sin a sin

circles

two- by two in the points A, A'

ABC, AB'C, A'BC,

A'

EC

are touched
[A. Larmor.]

CIRCULAR TRIANGLE.
If the given circles intersect at angles a,$, y,

angles of intersection of the circles

the scheme

251
it is

AB'C

A'BC

A'B'C

~y

y~a

a~/3

ADC

AEC

~y

A'BC

y~a

it

a /3

A'B'C

a~d

7T

n a /3

Ex.

Show

4.

it

ay

ir--y
7r-3-y

Hence, the theorem follows from the theorem in Ex.

tangent

are given by

ABC

Ex.

easy to see that the

ABC, AB'C, A'BC, A' EC,

that the circles ABC, A'B'C,

2.

A EC, A'BC have four common

[A. Larmor.]

circles.

Show

5.

the circumcircles of the eight circular triangles which are

formed by three given

circles are

touches four of the eight

touched by thirty-two

circles,

each of which
[A. Larmor.]

circles.

Properties of a circular triangle.

Let

397.
arcs,

and

ABC be

any triangle formed by three given

circular

the complete circles be drawn, intersecting again in

let

We thus obtain three triangles A'BC, AB'C,

which may be called the associated triangles of the given
triangle ABC; and four triangles A'B'C, AB'C, A'BC, A'B'C,
which are the inverse triangles, with respect to the circle which
cuts the given circles orthogonally, of the given triangle and its

the points A', B', C.

ABC,

associated triangles respectively.

Each of the above

triangles has a circumcircle,

and each has an

inscribed circle, the eight inscribed circles being the eight circles

which can be drawn to touch the three circles which form the
Each of these systems of circles have some remarkable
properties, in the discussion of which we shall meet with other
circles which will be found to correspond to some of the circles

triangles.

connected with a linear triangle.

We
as

shall find it convenient to consider the angles of a triangle

measured

The angles

in the

same way

as the angles of a linear triangle.

of a triangle will not necessarily be the

angles of intersection of the circles which form

figure

we take

a, /8,

it.

same

Thus,

as the angles of the triangle

if

as the
in the

ABC, the

hart's extension of

252

angles of intersection of the circles will be the supplements of

these angles.

The angles of the several triangles formed by the

CA, AB are easily seen to be given by the scheme

circles

BG,

ABC

A'BC

7T-8

TT

AB'C

na

TT

ABC

ir

7T

AB'C

TT-8

A'BC

na

TT-y

A' B"C

it

n-8

2n-8

2-K-y

A'EC

2-ir-a

v
TT

398.
circles

The inscribed

circle

of any triangle and the inscribed

of the three associated triangles are touched by another

which touches the former in one sense

sense.

and

circle

the latter in the opposite

253

feuerbach's theorem.
Let T,

Tlt

To,

denote the inscribed

ABC, A'BG, AB'C, ABC; and

the common tangents of the pairs

the triangles

circles of

let 01, (01); 12, (12);

Then, since the

internally,

BC

circle

we have by

lf

&c.

and

T,

T T

+ (12). 03.
CA touches T externally,

and

T,

T T

Similarly, since the circle

T T

externally,

387,

(13). 02

of circles T, 2\;

&c, denote

touches

2,

(ii),

(01). 23

l}

internally,

= (02).13 + (23).01;

(12).03
and, since the circle

AB

touches

externally,

and

T,

T T
1}

in-

ternally,

(13).02

= (23).01+(03).12.

(03). 12

Hence, we have,

Therefore
ternally

391) a

and the

This theorem

is

(02). 13.

can be drawn touching the

circle

circles

(01). 23

T T T
x

circle-

T in-

externally.

evidently analogous to Feuerbach's theorem

concerning the inscribed and escribed circles of a linear triangle.

The extension
given above

is

of the theorem

is

a modification of

due to Dr Hart, and the proof

Dr

Casey's proof.

PROPERTIES OF THE HART

254

The

399.

and

triangle

circle

its

which touches the inscribed

associated triangles

Hart

a circular
the

circle of

which are analogous

It has several properties

triangle.

circles of

called the

is

to the

properties of the nine-point circle of a linear triangle.

We

have already seen

the sides of the triangle

396, Ex.

that the circle which cuts

2,

ABC at angles

respectively, touches the

circles T,

~ y, y - a,

equal to

T T T
1}

a-

fi,

Hence, we infer

ABC

cuts the sides at angles

that the Hart circle of the triangle
equal to the differences of the angles of the triangle.
If

we denote the

circle of

circles

the triangle

ABC

BC, CA, AB by X, Y, Z, and the Hart

by H, we see that the circles form a

system touched by four other circles T,

T1} T T
2

T touches X, Y, Z, H in the same sense

T touches X, H in one sense, and Y, Z in
T touches Y, H in one sense, and Z, X in
Ts touches Z, H in one sense, and X, Y in
x

Hence, we infer that the

that each

is

other three
400.

circles

X,

Y, Z,

such that

the other sense

the other sense

the other sense.

H form a system such

the Hart circle of one of the triangles formed by the

circles.

There being a Hart

circle

connected with each of the

we have in all a system of

Hart circle of any triangle
touches the inscribed circles of its own triangle and the three
associated triangles, we see that
The Hart circle of any triangle
and the Hart circles of the three associated triangles have a common

eight triangles formed

eight Hart circles.

by three

And

circles,

since the

tangent circle which touches the

in

which
401.

it

former in

the opposite sense to that

touches the latter.

In

the triangles

one of them,

396, Ex.

3, it

was proved that the circumcircles

of

ABC, AB'C, A'BC, A'B'C form a system such that

ABC, for instance, cuts the others at angles equal to

the differences of the angles at which they intersect.

Hence, we have the theorem

triangle is the

Hart

circle

The circumcircle of any circular

of the triangle formed by the circumcircles
:

of the inverse associated triangles*.

402.
Several properties of the Hart circle of a triangle may be
derived by considering that the circle
is the Hart circle ol

ABC

This theorem was

first

stated by

Mr

A. Larmor.

CIRCLES OF A CIRCULAR TRIANGLE.

the triangle

A'B'C, formed by the

circular arcs

255

AB'C, A'BC,

A'B'C.

Thus

let

us consider three circles

BCQR, CARP, ABPQ,

inter-

A, P; B, Q; C, R\ each pair
being inverse points with respect to the circle which cuts the three
circles orthogonally.
It follows that the circle PQR is the Hart
circle of the triangle ABC formed by the circular arcs BPC, CQA,
secting in the three pairs of points

ARB.
Hence we
cuts the arcs

infer that the

BC, CA,

AB

such that the straight lines

Hart

circle of

a circular triangle

in three points

AP, BQ, CR

ABC

P, Q, R, respectively,

are concurrent.

If
be the point of concurrence of the
have the theorems

lines

AP, BQ, CR, we


PROPERTIES OF THE HART

25G

Each group of points

i.

P,

B, C, Q,

R;

A, R,

C,

A, B,

are concyclic.

The point

ii.

the radical centre of the circles

is

BCQR,

CARP, ABPQ.
The Hart

iii.

ABC

PQR is

circle

the inverse of the circumcircle

BCQR,

with respect to the circle which cuts the circles

CARP, ABPQ,

circumcircles of the triangles

The

iv.

orthogonally.

which cuts the

circle

The

circles

points P, Q,

AQR, BRP, CPQ

BPC, CQA, ARB, with

the inverses of the circles

are

respect to the

BCQR, CARP, ABPQ,

orthogonally.

are evidently analagous in the case of a

linear triangle to the feet of the perpendiculars

from the vertices

The circle which cuts the circles

BCQR.

on the opposite

sides.

CARP, ABPQ

orthogonally, or the circle of similitude of the

Hart

circumcircle and the

circle, is

analogous to the polar

circle of

a linear triangle.
Ex.

403.
circles

ABC

If the angles of a circular triangle

1.

be drawn through the pairs of points B,

C,

be

A,

a,

ft,

y,

and

if

cutting the

BC, CA, AB, at angles equal to J (n + a + fi+y) show that these circles
three points P, Q, B respectively, such that
the circumcircle of the triangle PQR is the Hart circle of the triangle ABC.
arcs

will cut the arcs of the triangle in

Ex.

with B,

circle of the triangle

Q, Q'

P with

R,

ABC cut the arcs BC, CA, AB in

R being concyclic
C, A
and P, Q with A, B show that the circumcircles

Hart

If the

2.

the points P, P'

R, R'

respectively, the points Q,

of the triangles AtyR', BR'P', CP'Q', touch the circumcircle of the triangle

ABC at

the points A, B, C, respectively.

When

404.

Hart

the given circles do not cut in real points, the

circles of the

tence

may be

system are in general real

inferred in a similar

manner

circles.

Their exis-

to that adopted in

398, by using the relations of 387.

If

T T!
2

we denote the
:

T T9'\ and
3

the pairs of Hart circles

by T,
by H, H'

pairs of tangent circles

T T
lt

lt

'
;

fT/;

H H and we consider the radii of the circles T, T

H, Hu H H as positive, we see that, for the figure of
308, the radii of T and H' will be positive, and the radii of the
circles T
TJ, T
H H negative, in accordance with the
i/ 2

//./;

^si Tj,

if

';

2,

1}

,',

convention of

//",',

380.

several circles will

',

Hence the nature of the contacts of the

be those given in the scheme:

A CIRCULAR TRIANGLE.

CIRCLES. OF

in

h;

ex

ex

H4

ex

in

in

in

in

ex

in

ex

in

in

in

in

#3'

ex

in

in

ex

ex

ex

ex

7"
'3

Ts

ex

in

7"

T*

ex

in

H'

It will

T{

Tx

257

in

in

in

in

in

in

be found that for any other figure the nature of the

contacts will be the

same

as in this scheme, provided

the signs of the radii of any four of the circles T,

them with the

the contacts of

circle

we choose

T ,T ,T

so that

Zy

H are as here indicated.

For

instance, let us consider the case of three given circles external to

Let T be the circle

T T T3 be the circles

which touches each internally,

which
touch one of the given
lt
2
here the words
circles internally and the other two externally,
have
their
ordinary
meanings.
Then it is
and
external
internally
each other.

and

let

easy to see that the circle

T T
2

internally.

positive,

and the

But

radii of

H will
we

if

touch each of the

consider the radii of

Tl} T T
2

generalised sense, will be the

circles T,

same

Tlt

H as

and

as negative, the contacts, in the

as given

by the scheme and the

;

nature of the contacts of any other group of circles

may be

inferred.

Circular reciprocation.
405.

We

propose

now

to explain a

method of polar reciprocation (Ch.

from

known

properties.
kvill

properties of

figures

method analogous to the

by which we may derive

consisting of

It will be seen, however, that

in general

circles,

other

the reciprocal figure

be a more complicated figure than the original

consequently the method

is

not so powerful as polar reciprocation

when used as an instrument of

L.

XI.),

research.

17

RECIPROCAL CIRCLES.

258
Let

denote a fixed

one

Then

P, P' be a pair of inverse

let

there can be found

orthogonally and

This circle we shall

\8,P,P'}.

which cuts

circle,

and

circle,

points with respect to S.

of the point-pair P, P'

call

is

325, Ex. 1)

coaxal with the system

the reciprocal with regard to

or simply the reciprocal of the point

The circle S will be called the circle of reciprocation.

The reciprocal circle of a point will evidently be a real circle
Consequently
only when the circle of reciprocation is imaginary.
we shall assume, unless the contrary is stated, that the circle of
P.

reciprocation

We
circle,

is

an imaginary

having a real centre.

when

the locus of a point

These

reciprocation.

which

Further,

is

406.

circles y,

circles reciprocal to

circles reciprocal to Y,

to

last

with respect to S, and

cutting

that the ratios

shall

theorem,

it

it is

which are inverse

circles

a circle

show that

orthogonally

circles

let

T be

shall call that circle of the pair for

with

the circle concentric

then we have shown

(XT) (XS), (X'T) (X'S) have

:

necessary to

Let X, X' be a pair of

respect to a given circle of inversion.

S and

we

touch, the circles x, x will each touch

apply the

between two

circles inverse

of

y.

To be able

distinguish

circle

be called the reciprocal of the

x denote the pair of

We

is

the locus of P.

if x,

y, y the pair of
and
when the circles

one of the

with respect to the

circles

circles will

X, and

with

the reciprocal of the point will envelope two circles, consti-

tuting a pair of inverse

circle

circle

prove that

shall presently

which

in 364,

opposite signs.

this ratio is positive,

the positive circle of the pair, and the other circle the negative
circle of

inversion

the pair.
is

X, X' must

In 365

it

was shown that when the

circle of

imaginary, the centre of the negative circle of the pair

lie

between the centres of the circles S, S', where S'

X and X' which cuts S orthogonally.

is

that circle coaxal with

It will be necessary to use the convention as to the sign of the

radius of a circle, which was given in 380 and we shall suppose

the radius of either of a pair of inverse circles to be positive,
;

when

its

centre

is

situated on the

same

side of the radical axis as

the centre of inversion.

It is to be noticed that the positive circle

of a given pair of inverse circles may have a negative radius, and
that the radii of both circles of a pair may have the same sign.

Assuming the convention as here stated to be always under-

CONSTRUCTION OF THE RECIPROCAL OF A POINT.

259

and using the definitions given above, we shall find that the
theorem stated in the last article may be stated in the form

stood,

When two
circles

of

circles

X,

and negative
; and

touch internally, the positive

the reciprocal pairs x, x'

y, y' touch respectively

when X, Y touch externally, the positive and negative

pair x, x touch respectively the negative and positive
pair

circles

of the

circles

of the

y'.

y,

To construct

407.

the reciprocal

of a point.

Let

P be

Let

G be the centre of p and let p

T in the points R, R'. Let q

any given point, and let P' be the inverse point with
respect to an imaginary circle S whose centre is 0.
Let T denote
the circle whose centre is
which cuts S orthogonally. Then if p
denote the reciprocal of the point P with respect to S, p will have
its centre on the line OP, and will bisect the circle T.
;

the circle

diameter

is

PP'.

cut

OP

in

Q and

denote the

circle

and
whose

Q',

Then, since P, P' are by definition the limiting

S and p, the circle q must cut these circles

Therefore the circle q will pass through the points
and the pencil
{PP', QQ) will be harmonic. Hence

points of the circles

orthogonally.

R, R'

'

will bisect the angle

QRQ'.

RP

But the angles QRQ',

ORG evidently

have the same bisectors therefore RP, RP' bisect the angle ORG,
and therefore the range [OG, PP') is harmonic.
:

Hence we have the following construction for the circle p

with respect to the
Find the harmonic conjugate of the point
points P, P', and ivith this point for centre draw a circle cutting
the circle T in the same points as the diameter perpendicular to the
line OP.
:

172

THE RECIPROCAL CIRCLES OF

260

When

408.
infinity,

the point

coincides with the point 0, P'

and therefore the point

T is

then that the circle

C must

coincide with 0.

at

is

We infer

the reciprocal of the point 0, and also of

the line at infinity.

Again

if

P and

P' be points on the

obvious that

circle T, it is

be the point at infinity on the line OP.

That is to say the reciprocal of any point P on the circle T is the
diameter of this circle which is perpendicular to OP.

the centre of

To find the reciprocal of a given

409.

Let

will

be any point on a given

circle.

circle

X, and

let

P' be the

inverse point with respect to S, the circle of reciprocation, on the

inverse circle X'.

with respect to

Then the

S will

circle

p which

is

the reciprocal of

touch two circles coaxal with

X and X'

we

shall prove that these circles are fixed for all positions of P.

Since the circle

power (XP)

is

zero)

(p, S, P, P'\

it

follows

passes through the point

which

by

is

329,

(so that the

a limiting point of the system

that

{Xp):(XS) = PC:P0.

CP:PO = p:k,

But (407)
where

p,

k denote the

Hence,

if

radii of the circles p, T.

r denote the radius of X, and 6 the angle of inter-

section of the circles

X,

p,

we

shall

have

C0Sff

irk

A GIVEN PAIR OF CIRCLES.

Similarly, if r

261

denote the radius of X', and

we

intersection )f X', p,

cos

8'

the angle of

have

shall

^=-

Hence the circle p belongs to a system of circles which cut the

X, X' at constant angles. Therefore ( 330) the circle p
will touch two fixed circles coaxal with
and X'.

circles

The

circles

enveloped by

are called the reciprocal pair of

corresponding to the pair X, X'.

circles

It is evident that these circles are a pair of inverse circles

with

respect to the circle of reciprocation.

Let

410.

Then

it is

x,

x denote the

evident that

each of the circles

x,

if

will

reciprocal circles of the circles

either of the latter

is

touch the circle T.

Also

X, X'.

a straight
if

line,

the circles

X, X' are point-circles, the circles x, x will evidently coincide with

the circle which is the reciprocal of the points.

To construct the reciprocal pair of circles of a given pair

411.

of

circles luhich

Let

X be

are inverse with respect

any given

circle,

to the circle

X' the

of reciprocation.

inverse circle with respect

to S\ let L, L' be the limiting points of

Xand

X'

and

let

P, P'

be a pair of inverse points on them. The points P, P', L, L' are

let Z denote the circle which passes through them.
concyclic
:

The

circle

Z evidently

cuts orthogonally the circles S,

reciprocal of the point P.

Z cuts
x,

p,

Q and

Hence,

if Q,

Q' will be the points in which

x, which are the reciprocal pah' of

Let

407),

with respect to Z.

it

follows that

Also, since

cuts

touches the circles

X and X'.

M be the centre of the circle p.

harmonic

X, and p, the

Q' be the points in which

and

Then, since {MO, PP')

is

are conjugate points

Z orthogonally, M is

the pole

of QQ' with respect to Z.

It follows that, if

N be the

pole of

PP' with

respect to Z,

and that
will be the centre of the
must pass through
q which is the reciprocal of the point-pair Q, Q'.
;

Hence we have the following construction

circles x, x' the reciprocal pair of X, X'
y

for

QQ'

circle

drawing the

DISCRIMINATION BETWEEN THE RECIPROCAL

262

P on X, and draiv the circle Z cutiing X orthoP and X' orthogonally in F. Let PP' merf the polar of

Take any point

gonally in

with respect to

front,

rut

to

the point

let

X which

be the tangents

passes through
a,

a\

Let us suppose that

variable circle cutting

MQ, MQ'

a'Q' will be the circles reciprocal to

in the points a,

and whose radii are aQ,

and A".
412.

M, and

Then, if the diameter of

Z.

MQ, MQ'

Z in

a',

the circles

Z is

a given

whose centres are

circle,

and

let

orthogonally in the point P.

X be any
Let

be

the centre of X, and let 0' be the centre of the circle S', which
cuts

will

also cut

orthogonally and

radical axis of

positions of

Now

S and

X,

X will

is

coaxal with

is

Z, that

is

the polar of

be the positive

The circle S'

must lie on the

S and X.

orthogonally, and therefore 0'

to say the locus of 0', for different

with respect to Z.
circle of

the pair X,

X\ when

its

between
and 0' ( 406). Hence, if a line
FF' (see fig. 411) be drawn through the point
parallel to
MX, the polar of 0, cutting the lines NP, NP' in F and F', we

centre

does not

lie

Circles of a given pair of circles.

see that the circle

provided

x,

its

will

263

be the positive circle of the pair X, X',

ceitre does not

between

lie

N and F.

Let x denol e the positive, and x' the negative circle of the pair
Then x and x' cut Z orthogonally in the points Q, Q'. If Q

x.

denote the positive point of the pair Q,

Q',

we

see from the figure

(411) that:
i.

ii.

iii.

When A
When A
When A

Again,

lies

between

lies

between

P and F, x will cut Z in Q'

F and N, x will cut Z in Q

when

radical axis of the system (X, X', x,

OA

in a point

the centre of the circle Z.

which

the line OF.

lies

Therefore,

point P, the radius of

Also

we

on the

when
is

circle

see that the radius of

on the opposite side of G' to

Let X,

413.

FN.

x) evidently cuts the line

whose diameter is OG, where

lies

X'

will

be negative when A'

lies

and that the radius of x or x

on the same side of

as Q, or

Q'.

be any two

circles

touching at the point

the pair reciprocal to X, and let y and y

be the positive and

negative circles of the pair reciprocal to Y.

centres of

(ii)

have

411); let x and x be the positive and negative circles of

touch

x, x'

negative.

be negative when a or a

(fig.

Z in Q.

The tangent to this circle at

is
lies on the same side of F as the

on the opposite side of F' to P'

will

will cut

has different positions on the line

The
is

PN, x

has any other position on

us enquire which of the circles X, X',

let

negative radii,

(i)

at

be the

Y.

at the point

and F.

Let A,

Then we see that the positive circles x, y will

the point Q' when A and B both lie between P and F

X,

provided that neither

nor

lies

between

and Y must touch internally

where the word internally has a generalised meaning

In either case the circles

at the point P,

in accordance with the convention stated in 406.

Again if A lie between P and F, and if B do not lie between

and F, that is to say if the circles X, Y touch externally, it
follows that the positive circle x will touch the negative circle y'
at the point Q', and that y will touch x at the point Q.

Hence we have the theorem

the positive reciprocal

negative

reciprocal

circles

circles

When two

circles touch internally,

touch each other,

touch;

but

when

and
the

likewise the
circles

touch

APPLICATION OF THEORY TO

264

externally, the positive reciprocal circle

toucl.es the negative

of either

reciprocal circle of the other.

We

can evidently determine the nature of the contacts of the

by considering whether the given circles are

reciprocal circles

positive or negative circles.

Thus, when the given circles X,

are both positive, or both negative circles, the reciprocal circles

must touch internally; and when one of the circles X, Y is a

and the other a negative circle the reciprocal circles
must touch externally.

positive circle

414.

To

illustrate the use of the

method

of circular recipro-

cation, let us consider the case of three given circles intersecting in

the three pairs of points

imaginary radical

A, A'; B, B'

Then,

circle.

if

C,

we take the

and having an

radical circle of the

system as the circle of reciprocation, the reciprocals of the pointpairs

A, A'

B, B'

C,

will

be three

circles

having the

circle

of reciprocation for their radical circle, and intersecting in the

point- pairs P, P'

Q, Q'

which will evidently be the reAgain the reciprocals of the group

the given circles will obviously be the group
;

R,

ciprocals of the given circles.

<>f

tangent circles of

of circumcircles of the reciprocal system.

Hence, the properties of

the group of tangent circles of a given system of three circles must
correspond reciprocally to the properties of the group of circumfircles of such a system.

THE CASE OF A CIRCULAR TRIANGLE.

Let

T, T'\

circles of the

H H
3,

Tlt 2Y; T,, T/ T3 T,' denote the pairs of tangent

given system; and let H, H'';
Hi] 2
x
2
;

H H
,

denote the pairs of Hart circles of the system.

P, Q,

265

R be

Then,

if

the positive points of the pairs of points in which the

reciprocal circles intersect,

PQR, P'QR, PQ'R, PQR'

the pairs T,

lt

2\';

easy to see that the circumcircles

it is

will

Tit

be the positive reciprocal

T./

T T
3

'

respectively.

circles of

LetK,^,

K denote respectively the positive reciprocal circles, and K',

K K K the negative reciprocal circles of the pairs of Hart
circles of the given system.
Then, since H touches T internally,
K.2
x

Tu T.,, T3 externally ( 404), it follows by the last article that

must touch the circumcircles PQR, PQ'R', P'QR', PQ'R.
Also, since
touches T externally and T T2 T3 internally, it
follows that Ki must touch the circles PQR, PQ'R', P'QR', and
PQ'R. Similarly it follows that the circles
must touch
2
3
the same four circles.
and

',

K K
',

Hence the
four

four circumcircles

common tangent

dered as a Hart
Similarly

PQR' have
Mr

circles

circle of

PQR,

that

PQ'R', P'QR', P'Q'R, have

is to

say any one

may be

consi-

the system formed by the other three.

we may show that the circles P'Q'R, P'QR, PQ'R,

common tangent circles (cf. 401).

four

A. Larnior was the

first, I

believe, to state the

which

theorem in

401,

and

between the circumcircles and

the tangent circles of a system of three circles, in a paper communicated to
the British Association in 1887. The theorem stated above in 413, although
arrived at independently, is merely the equivalent in plane geometry of
to point out the reciprocal relation

exists

Lemmas (a) and (/3) given in his paper on 'Contacts

London Math. Soc. Proc. Vol. xxin., pp. 136 157. In

is

treated at greater length than in this treatise.

of systems of circles,'
this paper the subject

CHAPTER

XVI.

THEORY OF CROSS RATIO.

Cross Ratios of ranges and pencils.
If

415.

P be any point

The

on the line AB, the ratio

called the ratio of the point

ratio of the ratios of

the points

and

with respect to

two points

P and

and B.

with respect to

called the cross ratio of the points P,

is

and

AP BP is

with respect to the points

or briefly the cross ratio of the range

\AB, PQ).

PQ]
we have

be convenient to use the notation {AB,

It will

the cross ratio of the range

it is

so that

to

mean

= AP.BQ:AQ.BP.

{AB, PQ}
In this definition

AB, PQ},

necessary to observe the order in which

the points are taken.

Now
that

is

four points

may be

Thus the points A, B,

From
Ij

C,

determine twenty-four ranges.

determine the ranges:

[AB, CD),

{BA,DC},

{CD, AB},

{DC, BA),

{AB,DC},

{BA,GD},

{DG,AB},

{CD, BA],

{AC,BD},

{CA,DB},

{BD, AC],

{DB, CA],

AC, DB],

{CA, BD],

{DB, AC],

{BD, CA},

{AD,BC},

{DA,CB},

{BC, AD},

{CB, DA},

[AD,CB\,

{DA,BC},

{CB, AD},

{BC, DA}.

row of

taken in twenty- four different orders;

to say, four collinear points

the definition

it is

evident that the four ranges in each

scheme have the same cross ratio. That is to say :

any two points of a range be interchanged, the cross ratio
of the
this

;;

THE SIX CROSS RATIOS OF FOUR

POINTS.

'ange is unaltered, provided that the other two points are

267
also

Interchanged.

Again, we have from the definition,

{AB, CD)

\AB, DC\

-1

{AC,BD}

{AC,DB\ =

[AD, BC]

{AD, GB\

\;
1.

D
AB.CD + AC.DB + AD.BC = 0,

And, since A, B,

are four collinear points, so that

C,

+ {AC, BD) = 1
+ {AD, BC} = 1;
{AC,DB} + {AD,CB} = 1.
CD] = k, we have
{AB, CD}

we have

{AB, DC]

Hence,

{AB,

if

{AB, CD]

= k,

BD} = 1-

{AC,

md

{AC,

k,

^^,

{AD,BC} =
416.

{AB, DC}**-,

DB) -

~-

{AD,CB) =

-1

A and B coincide,
AC.BD = BC.AD;

If the two points

{AB, CD}

therefore that

it is

obvious that

= 1.

In this case we have

{AC,BD} = {AD,BC} = 0,
{AC, DB} = {AD, CB} = x

and
Conversely,

AB.CD= AB.DC

and therefore

Therefore either

Hence,
value

1, 0,

417.
this case

if

If

and

coincide, or else

=0.

C and

coincide.

the cross ratio of the range {AB, CD} have the

or oo

we

if k = 0, we have
{AC,BD} = {AD,BC} = 0;

two of the points must coincide.

{AB, CD}

= - 1,

the range {AB,

CD}

is

harmonic.

In

have,

BD} = {AD, BC}=2;

{AC, DB} = {AD, CB} = J.
{AC,

and
Conversely,

if

the cross ratio of the range {AB, CD} have

CROSS RATIO OF A PENCIL.

268
the value

1,

or

2,

the points A, B,G, D, taken in some order,

form a harmonic range.

In fact we have the following theorems

When {AB,CD} = {BA,CD},

(i)

the range {AB, CD}

is

the range [AD,

BG\

is

CB], the range {AC,

BD)

is

harmonic.

When {AB,CD} = {AC,BD},

(ii)

harmonic.

When {AB,CD] = {AD,

(iii)

harmonic.
There

418.
ratio of

is

another special case of some importance.

{AB, CD), that

is k,

satisfy the equation k 2

If the cross

< + l=0, we have

= {AC, DB} = {AD, BC} = k,

BD) = {AD, BC) = {AB, DC}= -*.

{AB, CD}
{AC,

In this case the points

419.
ratio

If

of sin

may be

If

will

OD
BOD

OA, OB, OC,

AOC

sin

cross ratio of the pencil

pencil

said to form a bivalent range.

be any four rays of a pencil, the

sin

BOC

sin

AOD

is

called

the

{AB, CD}.

C, D be any four points on the same straight line, the

{AB, CD], formed by joining these points to any point 0,

A, B,

have the same cross ratio as the range {AB, CD}.

For, if

OX be

perpendicular to the line

AB, we

have,

ON .AB = 0A.0B sin A OB.

I

heivfore

AC. BD

BC.AD = sin AOC

sin

BOD

sin

BOC

sin

AOD.

CONSTRUCTION OF A GIVEN RANGE.

Ex.

420.

1.

If

{ADCD} be any

range,

and

if

269

the circles described on

AB,

?D, as diameters intersect at the angles 2d, shew that

{AB, CD} = - cot2 0, {AB,

DC} = - tan 2 0,
{AC, BD}=cosec*6, {AC, DB} =sin 2 0,
{AD, BC} = cos2 0,
{A D, CB} = sec2 6.
Ex.

If

2.

{ABXYZ}
{YZ,

Ex.
)f

If A, B, C, I,

3.

[Casey.]

be any range, show that

AB} {ZX, AB} {XY, AB} = 1.

.

J be

any

five

the cross ratios of the pencils

coplanar points, show that the product

{BC, IJ},

B{CA,

IJ},

C {AB,

IJ},

is

squal to unity.

Given any three collinear points A, B, G:

421.

on the

same

line,

such that the

range {AB, CD]

to

may

find a point

have a given

woss ratio.
B'

Draw any straight

it two
GA' CB' is equal to the given
)ross ratio.
Let the lines A A', BR meet in P, and let PD
oe drawn parallel to A'G meeting AB in D.
Then D is a point
such that the range [AB, CD] has the given cross ratio.

line

through the point C, and take on

points A', B', so that the ratio of

AG:AD = GA':DP;
BG:BD = GB'.DP.

For,

md

AG .BD-.BG .AD=GA'

rherefore

CB'.

It is evident that there is only one solution to the problem.

Hence

it

follows that, if

{AB, CD]
the points

D and

419 we infer that, if

OD, OD' must be coincident.

Also from
the rays

422.
said to

= {AB,

CD'},

D' must coincide.

{AB,

CD}=0

Ranges and pencils which have equal cross

be equicross.

{AB, CD'),

ratios are

FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTY OF

270

It is often convenient to express the fact that

two ranges or

pencils are equicross by an equation such as

{AB, CD}

But when

= {A'B',

CD'}

{PQ, RS}.

this notation is used, it is necessary to observe the order

of the points, or rays.

419 we proved that, when the points of a range

{AB, CD} are joined to any point 0, the range {AB, CD} and the
423.

pencil

In

{AB, CD} are

Hence,

if

equicross.

the rays of a pencil be cut by two transversals in the

points A, A'; B, B'; C, C'\ D, D'; the ranges {AB, CD}, {A'B',

CD'}

are equicross.
It is also evident that, if

A BCD}

be any range, and

if

and Q

be any two points, the pencils P\AB, CD], P' {A'B', CD'} are equicross.

Let {AB, CD}, {A'B', CD'} by any two equicross ranges,

424.
and let 0,0' be any two points on the line AA', then the lines
OB, OC, OD will intersect the lines O'R, O'C, O'D', respectively,
in collinear points.

Let OB, OC meet O'B', O'C, in B", C"; and let B"C meet
Let OD, O'D' meet B"C" in D", D'", respectively.

in A".

AA'

HOMOGRAPHIC RANGES.

Then we have

\A"B",

271

CD"} = {AB, CD},

- {A'B\ CU}.

{A"B", CD"'}

and

{AB, CD}

But, by hypothesis,

{A"B",

Therefore

Hence, by

{A'R, CD'}.

CD"} = {A"F'

421, the points D", D"'

CD'"}.

must coincide

that

is

to say,

the lines OD, OD' intersect in a point on the line A"B"G".

The theorem

of this article

two equicross pencils have a

common

also

be stated in the form

If

ray, they will also have a

transversal.
Ex.

425.

may

common

If

1.

ABC, A'B'C be two

triangles such that AA',

BE, CC

are concurrent, the corresponding sides of the triangles will intersect in

collinear points ( 161).

Let AA',

OB

BE, CC meet

in

and

B
let

BC,

EC intersect

in the point

X.

Then we have

{BC,

Hence by
collinear with

Ex.

2.

If

0X}=0

424,

AB,

{BC,

AC

AX}=0 {EC, A'X}=A' {EC, OX}.

will intersect

A'E, A'C,

in points

which are

X.

ABCD

be any tetrastigm, and

if

E, F,

be respectively the

EXAMPLES.

272

{EF,

AB}

harmonic

is

BD

AB, CD; AC,

points of intersection of

BC

AD,

show that the

GF cut AB in

H, and CD in K. Then we have,

AB} =F{EK, CD} = G{EF,
AB}=F{EH,
&{EF,
Therefore, by 417, the pencil G {EF, AB} is harmonic.
Let

Ex.

{ABC}, {A'B'C} be two ranges on

If

3.

points of intersection of the pairs of lines

be collinear.

will

Let BC, B'C

YX, YZ, TB.

Then

it is

intersect in

common

Y; and AB', A'B

Join

in Z.

=A {CA',

BB'},

BB'}

BB'} = C{CA', BB'}.

{C'A',

Y {AA', BZ} = Y{CC,

Therefore the points X, Y,

If {abc}, {a'b'c'}

pairs of points

be', b'c

The

points A, B,
lines

transversal A'B.

V {CC, BX} = C {CA',

Hence,

5.

show that the

AB', A'B

CA', C'A

evident that

it is

Ex.

easy to see that,

Similarly,

4.

different lines,

BC, B'C

CA', C'A in

Y{AA', BZ}

Ex.

BA}.

( 157.)

since these pencils have the

But

pencil

( 141).

Z must

be any two pencils, show that the lines joining the

ca', c'a

ab', a'b

sides of a triangle

C and two
;

PQR

will be concurrent.

pass respectively through the fixed

of the vertices,

which intersect in the point

that the locus of the point

BX}.

be collinear.

will

0.

Q and

R,

move on

If the points 0, B,

be a straight

C be

fixed straight
collinear,

show

line.

Involution.
426.
If [A A', BB', CO'} be a range in involution the ranges
{AA', BG\, [A' A, B'C) are equicross and conversely.

Let

be the centre of the involution, then by definition

we have

OA OA' = OB
.

OB' - 00.

OCT.

66)

PROPERTY OF RANGE IX INVOLUTION.

Let us suppose that each point

(i)

he centre as

its

lies

on the same side of

Then the double

conjugate.

273

points of the range

ire real.

Let
he

E be one of

circle

his circle

ince
:ircles

let P be any point on

and radius OE. The circle which cuts
orthogonally and passes through A will pass through A',

the double points, and

whose centre

is

OA.OA' = OE =OP
PA A', PBB, PCC will
2

It

is

evident therefore that the

touch each other at P.

Hence the angles OPA, OPB, OPC, &c, are equal to the
PA'O, PB'O, PC'O, &c. and therefore the angles APA',

ingles

3PB', &c. have a

it

common

bisector, the

tangent to the circles

P.

Hence the
(ii)

pencils

P {A A', B(T P {A'A,

i}

B'G) are

Let us suppose that each point of the range

pposite side of the centre to its conjugate.

equicross.
lies

on the

Then the double

)oints are imaginary.

Let the

circles described

Then the angle

L.

CPC

on

A A',

will also

BB'

as diameters intersect in

be a right angle

80

Ex.

18

8).

EXAMPLES OF INVOLUTION.

274

at

AB

any segment such as

It is evident that

subtends an angle

equal or supplementary to that subtended by the conjugate

segment

A E.

Hence the

pencils

Conversely,

if

the range {AA',

For

P {AA', BC}, P [A'A, EG}

the ranges {AA', BC], {A'A, B'C) be equicross,

BB CC}

if not, let

are equicross.

',

will

be in involution.

us find the point

the involution determined

C" the conjugate

,

by the point

A, A'

pairs

Thus we have, because {AA', BB', CG"\

point of G, in
;

B, B'

( 68).

a range in involution,

is

= {A' A, B'G"}.
B'C'} = {A' A, EG"}.

{AA', BC]
Therefore

{A' A,

Hence the points C,

C must coincide.

Ex.

427.

1.

If {AA', BB',

CC, DDf) be a range

in involution,

show that

the ranges {AB, CD}, {A'B, CD") will be equicross.

Show
Ex.

2.

that the converse of this theorem

Show

that any straight line

is

is

not true.

cut by the pairs of opposite con-

nectors of a tetrastigru in a system of points which form a range in involution.

We have,

A {XX', YZ) = {EX, CD]

B {X'X, YZ) = {X'E, DC) = {EX,
;

aud
Therefore

and therefore
Ex.

3.

Show

{XX, YZ) = {X'X,

{XX, YY', ZZ) is a range
that

if

vertices of a tetragram,

CC)

will

Ex.

4.

A, A'

and

if

CD).

Y'Z),
in involution.

B,
C,
be the pairs of opposite
be any other point, the pencil
{AA', BB",
;

be in involution.

The middle points

tctragrams formed by

on a

line

that the diameters of the

five

of the diagonals of

called the diameter of the tetragram.

Show

five straight lines are

a tetragram

concurrent.

lie

CROSS RATIO PROPERTY OF THE CIRCLE.

275

Cross ratio properties of a circle.

428.

Four fixed points on a

circle subtend

:ross ratio is constant, at all points

A, B,

If

P AB, CD)
{

P on

C,

on the

be four fixed points on a

has a constant cross ratio for

the circle since the angles

all

pencil, whose

circle.

circle,

the pencil

positions of the point

APB, APG,

&c. are of constant

magnitude.
429.

If the tangents

Intersect the tangent at

Ihe

at four fixed points

A,B,G,

D on a circle,
C ,D

a variable point P, in the points A',B',

range [A'B', CD') and the pencil

A'

B*

P {AB,

CD) are

<r

equicross.

D'

Let
be the centre of the circle. Then, since the angles
PA'O, PB'O are respectively complementary to half the angles
A.OP, BOP, the angle A' OB is equal to half the angle AOB, and
s therefore equal to the angle

Eence we have,

P [AB,

APB.

CD) =

[A'B, CD').

P {AB, CD) is constant

Four fixed tangents to a circle

Hence, since the cross ratio of the pencil

'or all

positions of P, it follows that:

ietermine on a variable tangent a range whose cross ratio is constant.

430.

Ex.

1.

If A, B, C, D, E,

F be any six points

on a

circle,

show that

182

pascal's theorem.

276

the points of intersection of the pairs of lines

(Pascal's theorem.

are collinear.

DE intersect in X

Let AB,

Then the

pencils

{FB,

DE}

If a,

C {FB, DE}

{FB, DE},

F; and CD,

BC,

be six tangents to a

joining the pairs of points ab, de

ef; cd,

be,

FA

common

are equicross

EF; CD, FA

in Z.

by

transversal

428.

ED.

Therefore

Z are collinear.

Hence the points X, Y,

b, c, d, e,

DE

C {FB, DE} are equicross because

EF; and the pencils Z {AX, DE},

transversal

Z{FT, CE} = Z{AX, DE}.

2.

EF in

are equicross because they have the

But the pencils

Ex.

BC,

{FY, CE),

common

they have the

AB,

Cf. 181.)

circle,

prove that the lines

fa; are concurrent.

(Brian-

chon's theorem.)

Ex.

3.

Any

straight line is cut in involution

by a

circle,

and the opposite

connectors of an inscribed tetrastigm ( 273).

Let

ABCD

be a tetrastigm inscribed in a circle, and let a straight line be

circle in P, P, and the pairs of connectors of the tetrastigm in the points X, X'
Y, Y' Z, Z'.
Join AP, AF, CP, CP.

drawn, cutting the

A {PP, XZ} = A {PF, BD}

and
C {PP, X'Z' = C {PP, DB} = C {PP, BD}.
But by 428,
A {PP BD} = C {PF, BD}.
Therefore
A {PF, XZ} = C {FP, X'Z'}.
Then we have

Hence the range {PP, XX', ZZ'}

is

in involution.

Ex. 4. Show that if A, A' ; B, B' ; C,

be the pairs of opposite vertices
of a tetragram circumscribed to a circle, and if the tangents at the points P,
intersect in the point 0, the pencil 0{PF, AA', BF, CC'} is in involution

( 279).

Ex.

5.

If through

circle in the points

circle,

any point

A, A'

show that the pencil

three straight lines be drawn cutting a

B,

{AA',

C,

BE,

and

if

P be any other point on the

CC'} will be in involution.

PROPERTIES OF THE CIRCLE.

Let

BC cut A A' in the point R. Then we have,

P {A A', BC} = C {AA\ BC} = {A A',

RO}

P {A'A, EC}=B{A'A, EC} = {A'A,

and

277

OR}.

{A A', RO} ={A'A, OR}.

But,

P {A A', BC} - P {A'A, BC'},

rherefore

ind therefore the pencil

P{AA', BE, CC'}

is

in involution.

any straight line drawn through a fixed point

on a circle, cut
an inscribed triangle ABC in the points A', B', C and the circle
n the point P, show that the range {PA', B'C'} will have a constant cross
Ex.

6.

If

;he sides of

atio.

Ex.

7.

Two

points P,

BC, so that the cross

Show

squal.

are taken on the circumcircle of the triangle

ratios of the pencils

that the lines BC,

PQ

P {QA, CB} are

on the tangent at the

Q {PA, BC},

intersect in a point

x>int A.

Ex.
)f
t

8.

A chord PQ of the circumcircle of the triangle ABC cuts the sides

Show

the triangle in the points X, Y, Z.

constant cross ratio, the point

Ex.

9.

Four

A A'

and if
espectively, show that
in p,

Ap2
431.

B,

A'p2 =Ab.Ab'

If four points
a

the range {QX,

YZ} have

form a tetragram whose pairs of

C,

A'b. A'b'

'

= Ac Ad
.

be collinear the range

formed by

the polars

P
d,

A'c.A'c'.

formed by them
of

is

the points with

circle.

Let A, B, C, D be any four

PC, PD' be the polars of A, B,
;entre is 0.

if

C. If the tangent at any point

PB, PE, PC, PC meet A A' in the points b, b', c,
;

iquicross with the pencil

"espect to

that

be a fixed point.

fixed -tangents to a circle

>pposite vertices are A, A'

neet

P will

collinear points,
C,

and

let

D, with respect to a

PA', PB'
whose

circle

Then, since the lines PA', PB', &c, are perpendicular

THEOREMS RELATING TO THE CIRCLE.

278

OA, OB, &c., it

CD') are equicross.

to the lines

P {A'B',

Ex.

432.

Any

1.

triangle

{AB, CD],

follows that the pencils

and

its

conjugate with respect to a circle are

in perspective ( 267).

Let A'B'C be the conjugate triangle of

the point

D will

by

the range {B'X, DC'}

431,

AC.

be the pole of

is

ABC

Then,

sides intersect in the points X, Y, Z.

Also

and

let

the corresponding

AB in the point D,

if

B'C

is

the pole of AA'.

cut

equicross with the pencil

Therefore

A{TA',

C'B}.

{EX, BC}=Z{A'X, AC'} and A {FA', C'B}=Z {YA\ C'A). Therefore

Z{A'X, AC'}=Z{YA', CA}=Z{A'Y, AC'}. Hence the points X, Y, Z are
collinear, and therefore the triangles ABC, A'B'C are in perspective.
But,

Ex. 2. The tangents to a circle at the points A, B, C, form the triangle

A'B'C, and the tangent at any point P meets the sides of the triangle
ABC the points a, b, c, and the sides of the triangle A'B'C in the points

a',

V,

c'

Ex.

the

show that {Pa,

3.

be}

= {Pa',

b'c'}.

The tangent at any point P on a circle which touches

ABC, meets a fixed tangent in T. Show that

triangle

T{PA, BC} has a constant

Ex.

4.

On

the sides of
the pencil

cross ratio.

the tangent at any point

on the inscribed circle of the

pencil Q {PA, BC] has a
is a straight line which

ABC, a point Q is taken such that the

constant cross ratio. Show that the locus of Q
triangle

touches the
Ex.

circle,

circle.

If ABC, A'B'C be any two triangles self conjugate with respect to

show that the pencils A {BC, B'C}, A' {BC, B'C} will be equicross.

5.

HOMOGRAPHIC RANGES AND PENCILS.

Homographic ranges and

Any two

433.

pencils.

ranges {ABO...}, {A'B'O...}, situated on the

same, or on different

lines,

are said to be homographic,

any four points of one range

cross ratio of

279

'

is

when the

equal to the cross

ratio of the corresponding points of the other range.

two pencils are said to be homographic when the

any four rays of one pencil is equal to that of the
corresponding rays of the other pencil and a pencil is said to be
homographic with a range under similar circumstances.
Similarly,

cross ratio of

Any two

434.
(that

is,

when

ranges which have a one

to

one correspondence

to each point of one range corresponds one,

and only

one, point of the other), are homographic.

B be

two fixed points of one of the ranges, and

other range, any two
corresponding points P, P of the ranges must be such that the
ratios AP BP, A'P' B'P', have a constant ratio.
For, if

and

A', B' the corresponding points of the

1

Hence,

if

P,

be any two points of the range {AB...}, and

P', Q' the corresponding points of the

range {A'B...}, we shall

have

[AB, PQ]

That

is to say,

the ranges will be homographic.

Similarly, if

two

pencils, or if a pencil

to one correspondence, they will

Ex.

435.

Show

1.

Ex.

Show

2.

Ex.

Show

3.

and a range, have a one

be homographic.

that a variable tangent to a circle determines two

homographic ranges on any two

with respect to a

{A'B, P'Q'}.

fixed tangents.

that a range of points on any straight line and their polars

circle

form two homographic systems.

that the polars with respect to a fixed triangle of a range of

points on any straight line cut any other straight line in a range which is

homographic with the former.

Ex.

Show that if two homographic pencils have a common ray they

have a common transversal.

4.

will also

Let {ABC. ..}, {A'BC. ..} be any two homographic ranges

and let 0, 0' be the points of each range which

436.

on different lines

correspond respectively to the point at infinity on the other.

Then we
where

shall

x x
,

'

have
{AB,

Ox = {A'B', x '0'},
}

denote the points at infinity on the lines

AB,

A'B!.

DOUBLE POINTS OF HOMOGRAPHIC RANGES.

280

A0^Bx

A'*'.B'Q'

That
mat

is
is,

L_
BO. Ace ~ Bcc'.A'O'

m,

AO = B'O'
-^ -jtq,

Therefore
that

'

',

AO.A'0' = BO.B'0'.

is

Hence,

if

P, P' be any pair of corresponding points we shall

have,

OP

O'P'

= constant.

points 0, 0' are called the centres of the ranges.

The

be superposed, so that the points

be conju-

It is evident that if the lines

0' coincide, the pairs of corresponding points will

and

gate couples of a range in involution.

When

437.

situated on the

two nomographic ranges {ABC...}, {A'B'C...} are

same straight line, there will be two points of one

range which coincide with the corresponding points of the other

For, if 0, 0' be the centres of the ranges,

range.

and

a point of

the range {ABC...} which coincides with the corresponding point

of the range {A'B'C'...),

OS
Thus S

will

O'S =

we

is

O'A'

last article,

= OB O'R = &c.
.

be a point whose power, with respect to the

described on 00' as diameter,

a point

have by the

shall

OA

circle. whose

is

centre

constant.

is

But the

circle

locus of such

the middle point of 00'.

Hence

there are two points S, S' which are coincident corresponding

points.

These points are called the double points of the ranges.

By

joining the points of the ranges to any point not on the

any two homographic pencils having a common

have two double rays, that is to say rays which,
considered as belonging to one pencil, coincide with the corresponding rays of the other pencil.
line it follows that

vertex will

To find

438.

the double rays

of a pair of homographic pencils

wluch have a common vertex.

Let
Let a

P {ABC...}, P {A'B'C... },he

circle

any two homographic pencils.

P and cutting the rays
the points A, B, C...\ and A', R, C',...\ respec-

be described passing through

of the pencils in
tively.

Then,

if

X,

Y,

Z be

the points of intersection of the pairs of

DOUBLE RAYS OF HOMOGRAPHIC PENCILS.

ines

BC, B'C;

K, Y,

Z will

be

CA',

CA; AB,

collinear.

281

A'B; we know that the points

(Pascal's theorem.)

p
s;

XYZ cut the circle in S and S'. Then we shall have

P {A'B', C'S] = A {A'B', C'S] = A {A'Z, YS]
= A' [AZ, YS) = A' {AB, CS] = P \AB, CS}.
Therefore PS will be one double ray of the pencils P [ABC...},
Let

{A'B'C...}
Ex.

439.

1.

and similarly PS'

Show

that, if S, S'

will

be the other double ray.

be the double points of the homographic

is SS' will be coaxal

anges {ABC...}, {A 'B'C"...}, the circle whose diameter

rith the circles whose diameters are AB' and A'B.
Ex.

2.

If

PS, PS' be the double rays of two homographic pencils

{ABC...}, P{A'B'C'...}, show that the pencil P{SS', AB', A'B} will be in
ovolution.

Ex. 3. Show how to find a point on each of two given straight lines such
hat the line joining them shall subtend given angles at two given points.
Ex.

4.

Show how

to inscribe a triangle in a given triangle, such that the

ides of the triangle shall pass through three given points.

Let

ABC be

the given triangle

A', B',

C the
A

given points.

Through A'

CIRCLES TOUCHING THREE GIVEN ONES.

282
draw any
P' and P.
will

and

line cutting

CA

QR

5.

SC

Thus the problem admits

linear with A'.

let

QC, RB' meet

BC in

If the double points of these ranges be

evident that the lines SB',

S', it is

and

turns about the point A', the points P, P'

form two homographic ranges.

Ex.

AB in R;

Q and

in

Then, as the line

Inscribe in a circle a triangle

of

will cut

two

AC in

AB,

points col-

solutions.

whose sides

shall pass

through three

given points.
Ex.

6.

Inscribe in a circle a triangle whose sides shall touch three given

circles.

Ex. 7. Show how to find two corresponding pairs of points P, Q P', Q';
on the homographic ranges {ABGPQ...}, {A' B'C'P' $...}, such that PP, QQf
;

shall pass

Ex.

8.

through a given point

0.

Describe a circle which shall touch three given circles*.

C be

Let A, B,

the centres of the given circles

and suppose that a

circle

can be drawn touching them at the points P, Q, R, respectively. Then the

triangles PQR, ABC are in perspective and have one of the homothetic axes of
the given circles for their axis of perspective.

Let X, Y,

be the homothetic

centres of the given circles on this axis of perspective. Through

any straight line cutting the circles whose centres are
and

points

<?j

and

Ru

and P' v

Then,

pencils

A {PJ, A

if

and let ZQ X
a pencil of

YR

cut the circle whose centre

lines be

draw

drawn through X, it is clear that the

Hence if AP and AP' be the

{P\} will be homographic.

double rays of these pencils,

circle,

C in the
is A in P1

whose centre

is

and
will be the points of contact with the
A, of a pair of circles which touch the given circles.
*

This method

is

due to Casey.

NOTES.
Page

134

78,

In connection with the Brocardian geometry of the

"On the geometry of the circle" (1891) may
deduces several theorems from the theorem that, if P, Q, R

riangle, McClelland's treatise

He

e consulted.

any points on the sides BC, CA, A B of a

*PQ will have a common point.
e

triangle, the circles

AQR, BRP,

Page 113, 180, ex. 12. In conection with this subject a paper by
Jenkins "On some geometrical proofs of theorems connected with the
iscription of a triangle of constant form in a given triangle," Quarterly
ournal, Vol. xxl, p. 84, (1886) may be consulted.
Ir

Page 140,

The theory

223.

nd Tarry, whose papers

Page 145,

will

of similar figures

See a paper by

232, ex. 3.

is chiefly

be found in Mathesis, Vol.

McCay

due to Neuberg

II.

in the

Trans. Royal Irish

cademy, Vol. xxvin.

Page 189,
ircle

was

313.

first

le definition of the

Ecole

Normale

ition in
rst

The

power of a point with respect to a

Darboux gave
p. 164 (1826).
in a paper published in Annales de

definition of the

given by Steiner, Crelle, Vol. L,

power of two

circles

superieure, Vol. L (1872).

Clifford also

used the same

defi-

a paper said to have been written in 1866, but published for the

time in his Collected Mathematical Papers (1882).

Page 206,

The theorem

333, ex. 7.

in this

example which

is

afterwards

sed to prove Feuerbach's theorem was taken from Nixon, Euclid Revised,

od

edit. p.

350

(l>-88).

The theorem together with the proof

ue to Prof. Purser, but the proof given by Nixon

is invalid.

are said to be
I

am

informed

another proof has been inserted in a new edition of this treatise which
to appear shortly.
It may be mentioned that an elegaut proof by McCay

lat

is to be found in McClelland's Geometry of the circle,

McCay's proof depends on the theorem that the Simson lines
two diametrically opposite points on the circumcircle of a triangle iutersect
a point on the nine-point circle.

Feuerbach's theorem

183 (1891).

'

Page 235, 375. This theorem is taken from Casey, Sequel to Euclid,
It was first stated by Casey (Phil. Trans., Vol. clxvii.), and the proof
ven is attributed by him to McCay.
112.

'

INDEX.
Angle, trigonometrical ratios

harmonic section

Casey, 133, 232, 253, 269, 282.

of, 9.

of, 26.

Cayley, 116.

Brocard, 66.

Centre, of range in involution, 37.

of intersection of two circles, 189, 238.

of tetrastigm, 83.

equal or supplementary to that of

inverse circles, 224.

homothetic, 129.

Angles, measurement of,

Anharmonic see Cross

'

of similitude of two figures directly

8.

similar, 130, 136.

ratio.

Antiparallel, denned, 63.

of similitude of two figures inversely

Antipoints, 203.

Area, measurement

similar, 134, 139.

of, 10.

of circle, pole of line at infinity,

of a triangle, 12.

156.

Areas, fundamental theorems

relating

to, 20, 22.

radical, 185.

Centres, homothetic, of two circles, 193,

addition of, 20.

196, 222.

Axes, homothetic, of three circles, 197,

242.

Circles connected with a triangle

circumcircle, 66, 222.

Axis, of perspective, 101, 122.

inscribed, 72.

of homology, 101.
of

of perspective, 101, 122.

Nine-point, 70, 222.

similitude of inversely similar

figures, 134.

Cosine, 75.

Lemoine,

76.

of perspective of conjugate triangles,

163.

Tucker's system, 77.

radical, 185.

Brocard, 78.

Taylor's, 78.

Polar, 162.

Baker, 248.

Circumcircle, nine-point, and polar

Brianchon's theorem, for hexagram circumscribing acircle, 116, 172, 276.

for

hexagram consisting

of

two

triads of concurrent lines, 108.

Brianchon hexagram, defined, 118.

Brocard, angle of triangle, 66.
points, 65, 133.

triangle has

touching a given
Circle cutting

circle, 202.

two given

stant angles cuts

Circles,

triangles, 79, 132, 139, 143, 144.

first

system, cutting given

circle orthogonally, 202.

circles at con-

all

coaxal circles

at constant angles, 204.

circle, 78, 143, 144.

Brocard's

circles coaxal, 223.

Circle of coaxal

same median

point as original triangle, 81, 144.

passing through a point and

touching two

circles, 197.

touching three given

241, 282.

circles,

198,

INDEX.
Circles,

cutting three circles at given

285

Contacts, scheme

angles, 239.

gent

system of tanand Hart circles of a

of, for

circles,

cutting four circles at equal angles,

243.

Continuity, principle

passing through three of the six

points of intersection of three

Cross ratio, of a range, defined, 266.

of a pencil, defined, 268.

circular triangle, 257.

given circles, 250.

fundamental

inverse pair of, discrimination between, 258.

Circular points at infinity, 157
Circular reciprocation, 257.

De Eocquigny,

circles of, 254.

Envelope, defined,
of circle

how

to common tangents of
inverse circles, 228, 232.
of four circles touching a fifth circle,

1.

which cuts two

circles at

of third side of triangle inscribed in

circle,

such that two sides touch

coaxal circles, 212.

line,

Harmonic

248.

pencil, defined, 27.

conjugate rays
lines, 51.

pair of conjugate rays are

perpendicular, 28.

three pairs of points

should be in involution, 43, 274.
three pairs of rays should be in

straight line cut harmonically

rays

involution, 50.

52.

Harmonic

three points should be collinear, 58.

two triangles should be in perspec-

pencils having a

property

Harmonic

tive, 108.

common

ray,

of, 34.

properties, unaltered

by pro-

jection, 121.

should cut orthogonally,

189.

how

affected

Harmonic range,

four circles should have a

tangent

by

of, 27.

construction of conjugate rays, 28.

relation between angles of, 31.

three lines should be concurrent,

circles

of, 27.

when one

Rendition that,

common

lines with respect to

circle, 157.

points with respect to each of two

when one point at infinity, 26.

relations between segments of, 29, 30.
cross ratio properties of, 268.
Harmonic

point-pairs, 35.

ranges

having

common

point, property of, 33.

points of range in involution, 37.

points with respect to a circle, 157.
rays of harmonic pencil, 27.
triangles, defined, 161.

Harmonic
of an

and

nine-point

section, of a line, 24.

angle, 26.

of a chord of a circle, 25.

Hart

triangles in perspective, 163, 278.

inscribed

conjugate points,

25, 33.

points of harmonic range, 24.

circles, 74, 207.

by reciprocation, 177.
defined, 24.

construction of

circle, 245.

Conjugate diameters, 157.

of

74,

connected, 244.

three circles touching

Contact

174.

constant angles, 204.

related

two

of, 4,

87, 92, 236.

tangents, of two circles,

Concurrent

circle,

Educational Times, Reprint, 67, 69,

of reciprocal of a curve, 175.

how

for

60.

Duality, principle

Collinear points, 57.

of

theorem,

275.

Class of an envelope, 3.

Common

45,

d'Ocagne, 67.

Circular triangle, associated triangles,

251.

Hart

of, 4,

circles of

system of three

circles,

254.

Hart,

Dr,

extension

of

theorem, 253, 264.

Feuerbach's

INDEX.

286
Hervey, 92.

Involution, theorems on, 88, 90, 95, 167,

Hexagram, Brianchon, defined, 118.

circumscribing a circle, (Brianchon's

Isogonal points, 56, 63, 66.

274, 276, 277.

Isotomic points, 57, 80.

theorem), 116, 172.

consisting of two triads of concur-

Kirkman, 116, 119.

rent lines, 98, 108.

Hexastigm, consisting of two triads

collinear points, 97, 107, 272.

inscribed

in

circle,

(Pascal's

theorem), 113, 275.

Larmor,

A., 207, 244, 250, 254, 265.

Lemoine

circle of

a triangle, 76, 173.

Length, measurement

Pascal, denned, 117.

Homographic ranges and pencils, 279.

Homographic ranges, collinear, centres
and double points of, 280.
Homologous triangles, 101.
Homothetic,

Langley, E. M., 69.

of, 7.

Limiting points of coaxal

188,

circles,

201, 206, 211, 219.

Locus, defined,

Locus

of,

1.

centre of circle cutting two

circles orthogonally, 185.

figures, 129.

a point P, when sum of the areas

(PAB), (PCD) is constant, 22.
a point whose powers with respect
to two circles are equal, 184.
centre of similitude of two circles,

axes of three circles, 197, 242.

centres of two circles, 193, 196, 222.

Infinity, line at, 6.

circular points at, 157.

Invariable points of three similar figures,

192.

a point whose polars with respect

141.
triangle of three similar figures, 141.

to three circles are concurrent,

Inverseicircles, 221.

237.

discrimination between, 258.

M Cay's circles,
c

Involution, pencil in, defined, 43.

principal rays, 43.

Marks,

double rays, 44.

Mathesis, 60.

fundamental property, 46.

construction of double rays, and

Neuberg, 145.

145, 222.

S., 87.

principal rays, 47.

when two

pairs of rays are perpen-

dicular, 48.

of reciprocal of a curve, 175.

condition that three pairs of rays

should form, 50.

tetragram collinear, 91.

conjugate points, 37.

double points, 40.

Orthogonal

circles,

property

of, 160.

Orthogonal coaxal systems of

centre, 37.

circles,

202.

conjugate

points,

38, 39, 90.

Pascal lines, defined, 114.

metrical relations between segments,

42.

intersect in twenty Steiner points,

115.

condition that three pairs of points

should form, 42, 273.

fundamental connection with pencil

in involution, 49.

Involution,

Orthocentre of a triangle, 64.

Orthocentres of the four triangles of a

Involution, range in, denned, 37.

construction of

Order, of a locus, 3.

ranges

in,

four points, 41.

Pascal hexastigm, defined, 117.

Pascal's theorem, for hexastigm
sisting of

con-

two triads of collinear

points, 108, 272.

determined by

for

hexastigm inscribed in a

113, 150, 171, 275, 281.

circle,

287

INDEX.
Reciprocal figures, 174.

'eaucellier's cell, 220.

3

Reciprocation, circular, 257.

encil of, rays defined, 16.

fundamental relation be-

four rays,

tween angles, 17.

two equicross, having a common
ray have a common transversal,

Salmon, 119, 155.

271.

Similar, figures directly, 128.

Pencils,

Perspective, construction of figures in,

circle, 161.

figures inversely, 128.

figures described

123, etc.

construction of rectangle and tetra-

figures, 134, 139.

Polar of a point with respect to a circle,

construction

of,

of

circles

Similitude, centre of, for directly similar

figures, 130.

153.

Polars of a point with respect to coaxal

systems

on the sides of a

given triangle, 144.

Similitude, axis of, for inversely similar

gram, 126.
general theory, 121, etc.

concurrent,

for inversely similar figures, 134.

in case of a triangle inscribed in a

similar triangle, 131.

201.

Pole and Polar, with respect to a

circle,

Similitude, circle of, for two circles, 192.

for three similar figures, 140.

151.

with respect to a triangle, 61.

diagonals

line, 68, 81.

Steiner points of hexastigm inscribed in

of, 84.

Polystigm, defined, 83.

centres

Simson

Steiner, 116, 232.

Polygram, defined, 83.

Toncelet,

Self-conjugate triangle with respect to a

circle, 115.

Symmedian

of, 83.

point, defined, 62.

properties of, 64, 75, 144, 14f

4.

Poncelet's theorem, 216.

Power

of,

a point with respect to a

circle,

Tangent

to a curve, 2.

Tarry, 142.

183.

two circles, 189.

Powers of, coaxal circles, fundamental

Tarry's point, 81, 139.

Taylor, H. M., 78, 113, 133.

Taylor's circle, 78.

theorem, 203.

Tetragram,

inverse circles, 229.

vertices, 84.

Poristic system of circles, 215.

diagonals, 84.

Projection, 119.

circumcircles of

its

four triangles

its

four triangles

concurrent, 91.

Purser, 206.

orthocentres of
Quadrilateral (see also tetrastigm and

collinear, 91.

harmonic property, 92.

tetragram).

middle points of diagonals collinear,

middle

points

of

diagonals,

col-

linear, 93.

23.

involution property, 95.

Eadical axis of two

circles,

185

centre of three circles, 185.

circle of three circles, 237.

Eadius of a

circle,

convention as to

sign, 238.

Range, bivalent, 268.

Range

of,

points, defined, 15.

four points, fundamental relation

between segments, 15.

circles

described on diagonals co-

axal, 96, 203.

Tetragram circumscribed to a circle, 168.

diagonals form a self -conjugate triangle, 168.

involution property, 169.

Tetrastigm, connectors

of,

83.

centres, 83.

harmonic property,

86, 271.

INDEX.

288

Tetrastigm, involution property, 88, 274.

Tetrastigm inscribed in a

circle, centres

form a self-conjugate triangle, 164.

involution property, 167, 276.

when one pair of connectors touch

another

circle, 209.

when a complete
touch another

set of connectors

Triangle in a

circle,

touch coaxal

so that its sides

circles, 214.

in a similar triangle, 133.

in a triangle, so that

its sides

pass

through given points, 281.

Trigonometrical formulae for sum of

two angles, 17.

Tucker's system of circles, 77.

circle, 212.

Townsend, 133.
Triangle, inscribed, in a circle, so that
its sides

Vigarie", 236.

pass through given points,

Young,

165.

J., 74.

?4

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