IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE)

e-ISSN: 2278-1684,p-ISSN: 2320-334X, Volume 12, Issue 6 Ver. I (Nov. - Dec. 2015), PP 72-79
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The impact of engine operating variables on emitted PM and Pb

for an SIE fueled with variable ethanol-Iraqi gasoline blends
Miqdam T Chaichan
Mechanical Engineering Dept., University of Technology, Baghdad, Iraq

Abstract: The replacement of gasoline with ethanol is increased worldwide indicating the need to understand
the air quality impacts of this exchanging. In the recent study, variable experimental tests conducted to evaluate
the impacts of several ethanol-gasoline blends (E20, E50, and E80) on particulate matter (PM) and lead (Pb)
concentrations emitted from a four-stroke, single cylinder, water-cooled spark-ignition (SI) engine. PM and Pb
exhaust emissions measured and analyzed at variable engine operation parameters.
The emitted PM emissions reduced with increase concentration of ethanol in the blend. Compared to the
baseline gasoline (E0), E20 gave relatively lower reductions in PM emissions, while E50 and E80 both reduced
PM emissions under the conditions studied. Ethanol was observed to impact Pb emissions depending on the
ethanol share in the blend.
Keywords:- Ethanol-gasoline blends, gasoline engine, PM, Pb, emissions.
I.

Introduction

Many valuable epidemiological studies estimated the health impacts of ambient PM and showed the
associations between the various health endpoint measures and the ambient concentrations of PM mass.
Epidemiological studies of long-term and short-term found associations between PM 2.5 and PM10 and
increments in all stroke-related deaths, cause mortality, and respiratory disease-related deaths [1, 2 & 3].
Many regulations lay out to force vehicle manufacturers to make new cleaner vehicles; these steps
managed to reduce the emitted emissions even though the fuel use rates grow dramatically [4]. Previous works
have shown that there is a close relationship between fuel quality and vehicle emissions [4, 5 & 6]. Gasoline
quality includes octane, Reid vapor pressure, lead content, sulfur content, and shares of olefins, aromatics, and
oxygenates [7]. Air pollution constituted of particulate matter (PM) suspended in air as solid and liquid particles
[8]. The particulate matter (PM) formation is constantly changing both in the motor vehicle exhaust stream and
in the ambient air. PM exhaust emissions from gasoline-powered cars have changed significantly over the past
25 years [9 & 10]. The reformulation of fuels resulted in these changes, especially the removal of lead additives,
the broad application of exhaust gas treatment in gasoline-powered passenger cars and trucks, and changes in
engine design and operation [11].
Lead, which was the major PM component in gasoline vehicle exhaust, was virtually eliminated with
the introduction of unleaded gasoline mandated in the United States for the 1975 model year vehicles and the
later phase-out of lead in all automotive gasoline. Lead (Pb) is a ubiquitous and versatile metal that is nonessential to human uptake, unlike other heavy metals that required nutrients such as chromium, manganese,
molybdenum, nickel and selenium. Pb linked with blood poisoning and anemia [12], and exposure to excessive
levels leads to damage of almost all organs and organs systems especially the central nervous system and
kidneys. There is no safe blood lead level by which children are not affected [13 & 14].
The production of biofuels and encouraging its wide use is a significant approach to reducing the
dependence on fossil fuels. Biofuels combustion results in significant reductions in emitted greenhouse gasses
compared to fossil fuels [15]. Many researchers indicated a crucial reduction in emitted PM concentrations from
diesel engines fueled with biodiesels [16]. However, the biofuels (as bio-ethanol) impact on petrol engines PM
is rather controversial [17 & 18]. Ericsson et al., 2008, studied the tailpipe particulate emissions from the port
and direct-injected vehicles with E5 and E85 fuels. They found lower PMs and total mass by using biofuels
[19]. Czerwinski investigated the emitted nanoparticles emissions from two-stroke scooters fueled with ethanol
blends [20]. The study results show that the addition of ethanol led to little effects on the emitted nanoparticles
emissions. Muralidharan studied the characterization of particulates with different blends of ethanol-gasoline in
scooters. The increase of ethanol percentage in gasoline from 5 to 30 percent did not affect the average PM
concentration [21]. Until today, there is a necessity for more studies to reveal the influences of biofuels on the
emitted PM emissions from SIE.
Many countries as United States, Canada, and European adopted E85 (85% ethanol and 15% gasoline)
as the highest using blend in current and future flex-fuel vehicles. In the US, ethanol production from corn
approached about a half billion gallons, this quantity managed the production of over 10.5 billion gallons.
Ethanol use rose since the mid-1980, because of this huge production [22]. In Iraq, there are excellent
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The impact of engine operating variables on emitted PM and Pb for an SIE fueled with
opportunities for producing bio-ethanol from rice, corn and palms. Nowadays ethanol produced in Iraq as an
alcoholic drink called Araq [23].
Until recently there has been less interest in the analogous question of ethanols influence on gasoline
vehicle emissions. As long as the soot is naturally low from the stoichiometric combustion that occurs in spark
ignition engines [24]. There are few studies of ethanol effects on engine PM emissions to date. Studies by Chen
[25] and Price [26] report PM reductions for E20 blends (20% ethanol), but their results for E10 are mixed.
Chen [25] found that particle emissions can be increased or decreased depending on fuel injection timing, which
they attribute to competing influences of fuel vaporization and oxygen content. Chaichan studied the effect of
single cylinder engine variables on PM and Pb concentrations. The study demonstrated that PM concentration
increased with increasing equivalence ratio and engine speed and torque. Also, it confirmed that engine
variables have no effect on emitted Pb concentrations, and these concentrations depend only on leaded gasoline
quantity burned [23].
The evaluation of the effect of many engine variables on PM and Pb concentrations is the primary
objective of this study. The engine fueled with variable ethanol-Iraqi conventional gasoline blends. The study
answers whether it is possible to substitute Iraqi gasoline with a green fuel.

II. Expermintal Setup

2.1.

Experimental apparatuses
The experimental tests performed using petrol engine, type (PRODIT GR306/0001). The engine is a
single cylinder, and water cooled spark ignition of four strokes and variable compression ratio. Fig. 1 shows the
general arrangement of the experimental rig while Table-1 lists the engine specifications. The engine connected
to an air tank used to damp out the air pressure fluctuations before it enters the carburetor. The air drawn into
the cylinder volume measurement calculated from the pressure drop across an orifice utilizing a manometer. The
engine supplied fuel flows from the main fuel tank across a graduated measuring fuel gauge (burette). A
hydraulic dynameter used to measure the engine output torque. Exhaust gas temperatures measured using type K
thermocouples at the beginning of the exhaust tube. All the devices mentioned above calibrated in the laboratory
by comparing its readings with that of a set of calibrated ones.
Table1 Engines pacifications
Manufacturer
Cycle
Number of cylinder
Diameter
Stroke
Compression ratio
Max .power
Max .torque

PRODIT
OTTO or DIESEL, four strokes
1 vertical
90mm
85mm
4-17.5
4 kWat 2800 rpm
28 Nm at 1600 rpm

Fig. 1, single cylinder Prodet spark ignition engine

No load speed range

Load speed range
Intake star
Intake end
Exhaust start
Exhaust end
Fixed spark advance
Swept volume

500-3600 rpm (Otto cycle )

1200-3600 rpm (Otto cycle)
54o before T.D.C
22o after T.D.C
22o before T.D.C
54o after T.D.C
10o (spark ignition)
541cm3

Fig. 2, drawing air equipment to collect PM type

Sniffer

Fig. 2 represents Sniffer L-30 that is the low volume air sampler used to collect emitted PMs. Microfilters type Whatmann-glass used to collect PMs. The used filters weighted before and after the end of sampling
process that extend to one hour. The used filter temporarily kept in a plastic bag to the end of collecting samples
process until weighed and analyzing the results. The following equation determines the particulate matters
(PMs) concentrations [28]:
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The impact of engine operating variables on emitted PM and Pb for an SIE fueled with
PM in g m

w 2 w1

10

Vt

Vt calculated by the equation:

Vt Q t t

Fig. 3 represents the luminous microscope (Eclipse model ME600) built by Nicon company/Japan used
to study the air particulates specifications. Fig. 4 shows the atomic spectrum absorption system manufactured by
Shimadzu company type (AA-6200) made in Japan used to evaluate the lead concentrations in particles samples.

2.2.

Fig. 3, light microscope used to study PM

Materials specifications

Fig. 4, the system used in evaluating of Pb

concentrations in particulates (the atomic spectrum
absorption system)

Combustion tests carried out using the Iraqi gasoline with octane number (ON=82) produced by Al
Doura refinery/Baghdad. Iraqi gasoline characterized by its low octane number and high lead content. Gasoline
properties checked in the Fuel Laboratory in the Mechanical Engineering Department, University of
Technology. Table-2 reveals the gasoline and ethanol typical properties. Ethanol (99.7% purity) used in this
work. It was distillated from Iraqi drink named (Araq) for several times to purify it from any residuals. Ethanol
gasoline blended fuel was prepared by mixing the ethanol (20, 50 & 80% by volume); these blends were named
E20, E50 & E80.
2.3.

Test procedure
The tests were carried out under steady-state conditions. The engine was allowed to run until it reached
steady-state conditions, and then, the data were collected subsequently. The engine was firstly warmed up with
the coolant and lubricating temperatures stabilized.
The experimental tests started with neat gasoline (E0) at a compression ratio (CR= 8:1) which is the
higher useful compression ratio for gasoline fuel. The second set of tests was conducted this compression ratio
for each ethanol-gasoline blend. All tests carried out at optimum spark timing. The following round of tests
performed to evaluate equivalence ratio effects on PM and Pb concentration at optimum spark timing. The next
tests carried out at a stoichiometric air-fuel ratio to assess the effect of engine torque, speed and spark timing on
PM and Pb concentrations.
Engine speed impact studies at different speeds, starting by 1250 till 2500 rpm. The torque fixed
constant at (15 Nm) and engine speed varied (1250, 1500, 1750, 2000 and 2500 rpm). In the other set of
experiments, the engine speed fixed at (1500 rpm) and engine torque changed (10, 15, 20, 22.5 and 25 Nm). The
last set of tests: the experiments conducted on the engine with changing spark timing from 5BTDC to
50BTDC to estimate its effects on PM and Pb concentrations.

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The impact of engine operating variables on emitted PM and Pb for an SIE fueled with
Table 2 Properties of typical gasoline and ethanol
Property
Chemical formula
Oxygen content by mass [%]
Density at NTP [kg/l]
Lower heating value [MJ/kg]
Volumetric energy content [MJ/l]
Stoichiometric AFR [kg/kg]
Energy per unit mass of air [MJ/kg]
Research octane number
Motor octane number
Boiling point at I bar [C]
Heat of vaporization [kJ/kg]
Reid vapor pressure [psi]
Flammability limits in air []
Laminar flame speed at NTP, =1 [cm/s]
Adiabatic flame temperature [C]
Specific CO2 emissions [g/MJ]

Gasoline
various
0
0.74
42.9
31.7
14.7
2.95
89-95
85
25-215
180-350
7
0.26-1.6
28
2002
73.95

Ethanol
C2H5OH
34.8
0.79
26.95
21.3
9
3.01
109
89.7
79
838
2.3
0.28-1.99
40
1920
70.99

III. Results And Discussion

3.1.

Equivalence ratio effect

Fig. 5 shows the impact of operating the engine at a broad range of equivalence ratios on PM
concentration when the engine fueled with the tested fuels. Neat gasoline emitted the maximum PM
concentrations for all tested equivalence ratios.
1500 rpm, 15 Nm, OST

14
12
10

E0

E20

E50

E80

1500 rpm, 15 Nm, OST

18

16

Pb concentrations (g/m3)

PM concentrations (g/m3)

18

8
6
4
2

16
14
12
10
8
6
4

E0
E50

E20
E80

0
0.7

0.9
1.1
Equivalence ratio

0.7

1.3

0.9

1.1

Fig. 5, Equivalence ratio effect on PM

concentrations at 1500 rpm, 15 Nm and
optimum spark timing

Fig. 6, Equivalence ratio effect on Pb

concentrations at 1500 rpm, 15 Nm and
optimum spark timing

E80 emitted the lowest concentrations for all tested blends. Increasing ethanol portion in the blend
means increasing the oxygen content of it. All researchers agreed that oxygen presence improves combustion
efficiency and reduces emitted pollutions. The minimum PM concentrations exist on the lean side near
stoichiometric equivalence ratio (=0.9-1.0). PM concentrations reduced by 14.67, 39.65 and 67.77% for E20,
E50 and E80 respectively compared with E0. The results show that PM concentrations reduce with adding
ethanol to gasoline, but the reduction percentage did not equalize addition ethanol percentage. The homogeneity
and turbulence of air-fuel mixture inside the combustion chamber are the cause for this result.
There is no effect of equivalence ratio on Pb concentrations as Fig. 6 represents, but it clarifies that
adding ethanol to gasoline reduces these concentrations highly. Increasing ethanol portion on gasoline account
reduces lead concentration in the blend. So, as a result, Pb concentrations reduced in exhaust gasses. The
reductions measured in these concentrations were 11.39, 30.13 and 50.09% for E20, E50 and E80 respectively
compared to E0. Again, the reduction percentages did not equalize the ethanol percentage in the blends. The
aggregation of a part of burned lead on valves and piston rings and crevices is the cause of this result.

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1.3

Equivalence ratio

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The impact of engine operating variables on emitted PM and Pb for an SIE fueled with
3.2.

Engine torque effect

PM concentrations increased at very low torques and high torques, also, as Fig. 7 manifests. At low
torques, the combustion chamber temperature is low, and a part of the fuel burns partially or condenses on
combustion chamber walls, causing high PM concentrations. At high torques, the engine has to thrust more fuel
to the combustion chamber to preserve the required speed causing higher PM concentrations. Adding ethanol
reduced these concentrations by 5.61, 25.9 and 47.44% for E20, E50, and E80 respectively compared with E0.
Engine operation with E20 resulted in a low reduction of PM concentration while fueling the engine with E80
resulted in a high reduction of these concentrations.
Torque has no effect on Pb concentrations as Fig. 8 reveals. Adding ethanol caused a high reduction in
these concentrations. The reductions were 18.99, 40.625 and 65.5 % for E20, E50 and E80 respectively
compared with E0. Pb concentrations affected by its weight in the fuel as References [23 & 29] concluded.
Ethanol (with no lead in its structure) addition reduced Pb concentration with ratio approximately close to its
percentage in the blend. The differences are due to sticking of part of lead compounds on walls and valves of the
combustion chamber as mentioned above.
N=1500 rpm, OST

4
3.5
3

E0

E20

E50

E80

N=1500 rpm, OST

4
Pb concentrations (g/m3)

PM concentrations (g/m3)

4.5

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5

3.5
3

E0

E20

E50

E80

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0

10

20

30

Torque (Nm)

Fig. 7, Engine torque effect on PM

concentrations at 1500 rpm, 15 Nm and
optimum spark timing

10

20

30

Torque (Nm)

Fig. 8, Engine torque effect on Pb

concentrations at 1500 rpm, 15 Nm and
optimum spark timing

3.3. Engine speed effect

PM concentrations relatively high at low engine speed and very high at high engine speeds, as Fig. 9
represents. The minimum values of PM concentrations are at moderate speeds. At low speed, the combustion
chamber temperature is low causing condensation of molecules of high weights and partially burned. In the
other hand running the engine at high speeds need more fuel to be burned to achieve the required speed at
specific load causing higher PM concentrations. Adding ethanol reduced these emissions by 5, 21.1 and
42.857% for E20, E50, and E80 respectively compared with E0. Fueling the engine with E20 resulted in a
limited reduction in PM concentrations.
Pb concentrations increased with increasing engine speed, as Fig. 10 clarifies. Adding ethanol reduced
these concentrations with about 17.08, 41.77 and 65.189% for E20, E50, and E80 respectively compared with
E0. The figure shows that at high engine speeds, higher reductions achieved. The increments in temperature and
turbulence inside combustion chamber resulted in better reactions that throw out higher lead compounds
concentrations compared to low speeds.

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14

15 Nm, OST, =1

12

Pb concentrations (g/m3)

PM concentrations (g/m3)

The impact of engine operating variables on emitted PM and Pb for an SIE fueled with

10
E0
E50

E20
E80

6
4
2

15 Nm, OST, =1

12
10
8

E0

E20

E50

E80

6
4
2
0

0
1000

1500
2000
Engine speed (rpm)

1000

2500

Fig. 9, Engine speed effect on PM

concentrations at 15 Nm and optimum spark
timing and stoichiometric equivalence ratio

1500
2000
Engine speed (rpm)

2500

Fig. 10, Engine speed effect on Pb

concentrations at 15 Nm and optimum spark
timing and stoichiometric equivalence ratio

3.4.

Spark timing effect

PM concentrations increased at spark timing far away from optimum one, as Fig. 11 demonstrates. At
engine timings near optimum spark timings, PM concentrations reached its minimum values. The engine
temperature and pressure inside combustion chamber reduce due to retarding spark timing away from the
optimum timing. Also, it reduces preparation time for complete combustion resulting in higher PM
concentrations. Severe spark timing advancing caused engine knock that caused a disturbance in combustion
operation resulted in higher PM concentrations.
1500 rpm, 15 Nm, =1

10

(g/m3)

Pb concentrations

PM concentrations

(g/m3)

12

6
4

E0

E20

E50

E80

0
0

20
40
Spark timing (BTDC)

Fig. 11, Spark timing effect on PM

concentrations at 1500 rpm, 15 Nm and
stoichiometric equivalence ratio

1500 rpm, 15 Nm, =1

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

E0
0

60

E20
20

E50

E80
40

Spark timing (BTDC)

Fig. 12, Engine torque effect on Pb

concentrations at 1500 rpm, 15 Nm and
stoichiometric equivalence ratio

As ethanol has higher flame propagation than gasoline, the optimum spark timing of E50 and E80 were
less than OST of E0 and E20. Ethanol addition continued to reduce PM concentrations. The reductions were
12.44, 32 and 51.44% for E20, E50 and E80 respectively compared with E0. Iraqi gasoline characterized by its
high lead contents and large molecules with weights, these two parameters prevented ethanol from reducing PM
concentrations more than the measured values. Improving gasoline by reducing lead and sulfur contents
accompanied by the reduction of high weights molecules produced better PM concentrations when ethanol
added.
Pb concentration seems to be not affected by spark timing variation, as Fig. 12 illustrates. There is a
little increment in Pb concentrations at advanced timings compared with retarded ones. Advancing spark timing
resulted in increasing temperature and pressure inside the combustion chamber, causing better reactions for the
lead. As a consequence, Pb concentrations increased a little. Adding ethanol reduced Pb concentrations due to a
reduction in its weight in the blend where ethanol has zero lead content. The reductions in Pb concentrations
were 16.92, 35.87 and 71% for E20, E50 and E80 respectively compared with E0.
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60

The impact of engine operating variables on emitted PM and Pb for an SIE fueled with
All the results demonstrated that adding ethanol to gasoline reduced Pb concentrations in higher rates
compared to PM reductions. Lead compounds in exhaust gasses are mainly a part of PM compounds but not all
these compounds. Hence reducing Pb concentration reduces PM concentration but not necessarily at the same
rate. PM concentrations depend not only on lead compounds but also on sulfur and the aromatic compound in
gasoline.

IV. Conclusions
Ethanol added to Iraqi conventional gasoline to evaluate the effect of this addition on PM and Pb concentrations
in the exhaust gas. The effect of equivalence ratio, engine torque, speed and spark timing variation on theses
concentrations also studied. The following conclusions summarize the results:
1. Increasing ethanol portion in the blend means increasing the oxygen content of it resulting in PM
concentrations reduction. This decrease happened in different ratios with changing engine parameters like
equivalence ratio, torque, speed and spark timing.
2. The minimum PM concentrations exist on the lean side near stoichiometric equivalence ratio (=0.9-1.0).
3. The reduction in the temperature and turbulence inside combustion chamber caused higher PM
concentrations at low torques and speeds.
4. Increasing the inner fuel quantity increased PM concentrations at high torques and speeds.
5. PM concentrations increased at spark timing far away from optimum one.
6. Pb concentrations reduction was proportional to ethanol rate in the blend. Although the reduction was not
equivalent to the ethanol addition, it was relatively close to it.
7. There is no effect of equivalence ratio, torque, speed or spark timing on Pb concentrations. The only effect
was for lead weight in gasoline.
8. Adding ethanol to Iraqi gasoline increases its octane number, besides, to extricate it from dangerous lead
content.

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NOMENCLATURE
BTDC
CA
HUCR
OST
SIE

PM
Pb
E0
E20
E50
E80
w1
w2
Vt
Qt
t

Degree before top dead centre

Crank angle
Higher useful compression ratio
Optimum spark timing
Spark ignition engine
Equivalence ratio
Particulate matters concentration in (g/m3).
Lead
Gasoline
20% ethanol + 80% gasoline
50% ethanol + 50% gasoline
80% ethanol + 20% gasoline
The filter weight before sampling operation in (g).
The filter weight after sampling operation in (g).
The drawn air total volume (m3)
Elementary and final air flow rate through the device (m3/sec).
The sampling time in (min).

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