Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Down A Group
Across A Period
REASONS
1) Atom gets bigger
DECREASES
2) Therefore electron further from Nucleus
3) Also more Shielding Electrons
4) Less attraction between nucleus and
outer electron
1) Increasing effective Nuclear Charge
INCREASES
2) Atoms get smaller
3) Whilst similar shielding
Ionisation Energy
IONISATION ENERGY
REASONS
1) Group 2 electron in lower energy S sub-level
Group 2 to 3
DECREASES
2) Group 3 electron in higher energy P sub-level,
therefore less energy required to remove it.
1) Group 6 is the first pairing of P electrons.
Group 5 to 6
DECREASES
These repel each other, therefore easier to
remove.
Takes place WITH or WITHOUT the impact electron.
Each Successive IE has a higher IE value than the previous one. REASON:
This is because the ion is gaining more charge; therefore the outer-electron is
closer to the nucleus, the ion is smaller and therefore it becomes more difficult
to remove electrons.
Large increases in IE values occur when we change energy level and smaller
increases when we change sub-levels. Why?
1) Electron removed from a shell of lower energy/smaller size.
2) Electron closer to nucleus.
3) Harder to remove an electron from +2 ion than from +1 ion / more highly
charged ion.
4) Less shielding.
Sometimes, the rule is broken. I.e. second ionisation of Na is higher than Mg,
why?
1) Because Na2+ requires loss of electron from a 2(p) orbital and Mg 2+ requires
a loss of electron from a 3(s) orbital/ Na2+ loses electron from a lower orbital.
2) Less shielding in Na, therefore ionisation higher.
3) Electron closer to the nucleus, therefore more attraction of electrons to
nucleus.
4) Ion gets smaller in radius, therefore more attraction between outer-electron
and nucleus.
As you go down group 2, it takes less energy to remove an electron. This is
evidence that the outer electrons are increasingly distant from the nucleus
and additional inner shells of electrons exist to shield the outer electron.
EXAMPLES:
Rb(g) Rb+(g) + e-
Mass Spectrometer
Benefits:
1) Determine Relative Atomic Mass
2) Determine Formula Mass
3) Determine Ionisation Energies
4) Determine Structure of Molecules
Sample kept under a high vacuum so that ions do not collide with air molecules.
1) Ionisation: Electron gun fires high energy electrons at GASEOUS/VAPOURISED
SAMPLE. Impact knocks an
electron. Using very high energy
electrons, it is possible to knock
down more than 1e-. I.e. Mg(g)
Mg(g)2+ + 2e-.
In a nutshell, how are gaseous atoms ionised:
High energy electrons knock out electrons in the
gaseous atom.
Importance of Ionisation:
1. Allows particles to deflect/accelerate
2. Generates a current in the detector which is proportional to the relative
abundance.
2) Acceleration: Negative plates accelerate ions. Slits in plates sometimes turn ions
into a beam.
3) Deflection: Depends on M/z ratio, therefore, less charged and heavier ions will be
deflected less. Highly charged and lighter ions will be deflected more.
The stronger the magnetic field, the stronger the deflection. The
magnetic field is at a right angle.
4) Detection: ions of increasing mass arrive at the detector, accept electrons, lose
charge and create a current which is proportional to the abundance of
each ion. Detection is the idea that ions are collected at the detector
and generate a current. Therefore the bigger the current is, the more
the abundance of that isotope. The ions are detected because they
produce a current on collision at the detector. The abundance of an
isotope is determined by detection which we can tell by a current.
Abundance is an important factor needed to be known to work out the relative atomic
mass, however, in molecules (when youre working out relative molecular mass), the
mass/charge ratio is the more important.
Why is an Ion deflected less or more?
1) Mass/Charge ratio
2) Magnetic field has less effect on heavier ions and less charged ions.
Electronic Structure
4s takes place before 3d, except in transition metals, in transition metals, the 4s
comes after 3d. Even in a transition metal, the 4s fills before 3d, but its written after
3d. When transition metals form ions, the 4s is totally empty.
Hence its like this normally: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s25p6
5s and 5p come before 4f and 4d.
The higher the sub-level, the higher the energy and therefore the easier it is to
remove the outer-electron (ionisation energy is low).
The elements in group 0 form no compounds because they have full sub-levels and
shells. Also they form no covalent bonds and are just one atom, with Vander Waals
forces between their atoms.
The atom radius decreases across a period: WHY?
1) Increasing nuclear charge
Metallic (all metal
groups)
Across a Period
Covalent (all
non-metallic
groups)
Reason
INCREASES
INCREASES/
DECREASES
Across a Period
DECREASES
Down a group
INCREASE/
DECREASES
Down a group
1) More Charge
2) Smaller ion
3) more delocalised
electrons
1) Higher intermolecular force
2) Group 5 is giant
molecular
1) the ionic radius
increases
2) attraction between
the delocalised
electrons and the metal
cations decreases
1) If VDW forces, then
its because the size of
the atom is getting
bigger
2) If H-Bonding, then
obviously no
explanation needed
3) Effective nuclear
charge remains the
same.
Note:
1) Why is there no mention of Ionic Bonding above? This is because Ionic bonding
takes place between metals and non-metals. Therefore Ionic bonding has 2 different
elements in a compound, unlike the above.
2) The melting or boiling of molecules has ABSOLUTELY NOTHING to do with
Covalent bonds; it is either to do with: Electrostatic force between oppositely charged
ions (in Ionic bonding), electrostatic force between positively charged ions and
delocalised electrons (in Metallic bonding) or inter-molecular forces (when theres a
covalent bond taking place between atoms). In inter-molecular force, when you melt
or boil something, the intermolecular force BREAKS or WEAKENS.
Electronegativity
The property of atoms involved in a covalent bond that is polar is the high
Electronegativity of one of the atoms involved in the covalent bond.
Electronegativity
DECREASES
Down A Group
Across A Period
INCREASES
Reasons
1) Atom radius increases
2) Effective nuclear charge
remains the same.
3) More shielding
electrons
1) Effective Nuclear
Charge increases
2) Radius of atom
decreases
3) Similar shielding
Bonding
As number of Protons increase, across period/down group, the nuclear charge
increases.
Metals, i.e. from Na till Al, form ions and therefore form no molecules-NO
COVALENT BONDING. But can form IONIC BONDS (with Non-Metals) and
METALLIC BONDS. Metals have a positive valency.
Non-Metals, i.e. Al onwards, form molecules and ions when reacted to metals;
therefore they can form COVALENT BOND and IONIC BONDS (with Metals). NonMetals have a negative valency.
Covalent Bonding: the electrons are shared between atoms.
Ionic bonding: electrons are transferred from metal atoms to non-metal atoms.
Metallic Bonding: electrons are spread between metal atoms to form a lattice of ions
held together by delocalised electrons.
BONDING
METALLIC
(Only Metals)
IONIC BONDING
(Metals & Non-metals only)
COVALENT BONDING
(Non-Metals)
Intermolecular
Forces
1) H-Bonding
2) Dipole-Dipole Interaction
3) Van Der Waals Forces
1) Hydrogen Bonding arises because: Large difference in Electronegativity between
H and N/O/F, which forms N/O/F - and H +.
Therefore lone pair on N/O/F attracts H+.
2) Dipole-Dipole arises because: Large difference in Electronegativity between X and
N, which forms X- and N +. Therefore there is an
attraction between opposite charge dipoles.
3) Van Der Waals arises because: temporary dipoles are in all molecules. As size
increases, Van Der Waals increase. In Isomers,
branched chains have lower boiling points
because their surface area is less which in turn
lowers their Van Der Waals forces. Van Der
Waals forces can become higher than
Hydrogen-Bonding, if the size of the molecules
is enormous.
HYDROGEN BONDING ONLY TAKES PLACE BETWEEN HYDROGEN AND
NITROGEN/OYGEN/FLUORINE. It wont take place between things like Hydrogen
and Phosphorous (P) because the DIFFERENCE in Electronegativity between
Phosphorous and Hydrogen is too small.
Ionic Bonding
Formed by: transfer of electron/s from X to X
Force: Electrostatic force between OPPOSITELY charged ions
What is it: Lattice of positively charged and negatively charged ions.
Poor conductor: Solid, because the ions cant move.
Good conductor: Liquid/dissolved, because ions can move.
Always Brittle: layers cant slide as the ions are of different size. Also ions of same
charge repel each other; therefore the layers dont slide over each
other
High Melting Point: Electrostatic force always strong.
Metallic Bonding
Formed by: The loss of electron/s which become delocalised within the lattice.
therefore forming a lattice of positive ions.
Force: Electrostatic force between POSITIVELY CHARGED IONS and
DELOCALISED ELECTRONS.
Conducts electricity: Because of the delocalised electrons. Conductivity increases as
you go along the period.
Malleable: Ions can SLIDE (must mention slide in exam) over each other when they
are the same size.
Brittle: When ions are of different size. (I.e. different elements ions)
Strengthens when:
1) More delocalised electrons
2) Higher charge
3) Smaller ion
Must be a regular repeating pattern.
Giant Covalent Structures
What is it?
A network of STRONG covalent bonds which require a lot of energy to break,
therefore it has a high melting point.
It involves: No molecules, just atoms.
How?
In Graphite:
Layers of carbon atoms connected by covalent bonds in a 2-D network. The layers
can slide past each other; therefore its soft, low density and brittle).
Forces BETWEEN layers: Van Der Waals
INSIDE layers: Strong Covalent Bonds
Conducts electricity: Because it has delocalised electrons.
Melting Point: Very high
In Diamond/Silicon:
Layers of carbon atoms in a 3-D network (therefore its very hard)
Cant conduct electricity: no delocalised electrons
Melting Point: Very high
Typical
state at
STP
Does not
conduct
electricity?
NaCl
High
Solid
NO
CO2
H2O
Low (have
to
overcome
IMF-NOT
COVALENT
BONDS)
May be
solid
like
I2,but
usually
liquid or
gas
Bonding
Examples
Ionic
Simple
Molecular
Covalent
Giant
Molecular
Diamond
Al
Mg
Fe
Metallic
Very High
High
Solid
Solid
Does
liquid
conduct
electricity
?
YES (ions
free to
move)
NO
NO
NO (except
Graphite)
(will
generally
sublime)
YES
(delocalise
d electrons)
YES
Is it
soluble in
water?
YES
Depends
on how
polarised
the
molecule
is
NO
NO
A lattice exists within Ionic bonding, Metallic bonding and Covalent bonding involving
molecules.
Molecular Molecular Molecular
Covalent Covalent Covalent
F2
HF
Ionic
Bonding
NaF
Macromolecular
Si
Metallic Bonding
Mg
CH3F
Atom
no
no
no
no
YES
no
Molecule
YES
YES
YES
no
no
no
Electronegativity
no
YES
YES
no
no
no
Ion
no
no
no
YES
no
YES
YES
no
no
no
no
no
Hydrogen Bonding
no
YES
no
no
no
no
Dipole-Dipole
MOLECULES/IONS
no
no
YES
no
no
MOVEMENT
SOLIDS
Touching
Vibrating/Fixed
LIQUIDS
Touching/Close
Together
Move Randomly
GASES
Separated/Far Apart
Move Randomly
Cetane and other types of fuels have a very low boiling point, yet still they are
supplied as a liquid:
REASON: 1) Liquids have a much lower volume than gases
2) Gases have a very high volume; therefore the gas would take
too much room to store the fuel
Heat Energy change associated with boiling:
Heat energy used to overcome forces holding the particles together.
no
SOLUTION
Moles=Mass/Mr
Moles=(Concentration x volume)/1000
GAS
Moles=Volume/24000
Once you have the moles, to find out the molecules, times the moles by 6.02 x 10 23
as this formula re-arranged would show.
Moles= Particles/6.02 1023
Essential things to remember:
1) m3 is the biggest. Other ways of writing it: (1000,000 cm 3) (1000 dm3)
2) dm3 is the second biggest. Other ways of writing it: (1000 cm 3)
3) cm3 is the smallest
Ideal Gas Equation: pV=nRT
P must be in Pa, not KPa
V must be in m3, (if in cm3 multiple by 10-6 or divide by 1000000) (if in dm3 multiply by
10-3 or divide by 1000)
N will be in Mol
R will be 8.31
T will always be in K (Kelvin), if not, add 273 to the oC.
If the reactant is impure it means not all of it is the actual compound theres some
percentage of it that is impure, therefore we must find the total amount (Impure and
pure) and divide it by the actual pure amount to get the percentage of the pure part
of the reactant in the total mass of the reactant.
Atom Economy: Mr of wanted product/Mr of total product
If atom economy is very low, the company tries to sell the unwanted product to gain
financially.
Percentage Yield: (Mass of actual yield/Mass of theoretical yield)
Theoretical yield is done like this:
Mass/Mr=Mass/Mr
100
Shapes of Molecules
Any question asking why there is such an angle in a molecule will be:
If no lone pair: n number of covalent bonds with equal repulsion
If lone pair: n number of covalent bonds with n lone pairs, therefore x o as a
lone pair is more repulsive
Remember:
2bp, 0lp
Linear
180o
3bp, 0lp
4bp, 0lp
5bp, 0lp
6bp, 0lp
2bp,
3bp, 1lp
1lp
4bp, 1lp
Trigonal Planar
120o
Tetrahedral
109.5o
Trigonal
90o/12
Bipyramidal
0o
Octahedral
90o
o
o
Angular
Trigonal
107118
Pyramidal
Distorted Tetrahedral 88o/118
o
5bp, 1lp
Square Pyramidal
88o
2bp, 2lp
3bp, 2lp
Angular
T-Shape
104.5o
86o/116
o
4bp, 2lp
2bp, 3lp
Square Planar
Linear
86o
84o/114
o
3bp, 3lp
T-Shape
84o
Isomers
Homologous Series:
1) Have a General formula
Alkanes: CnH2n+2
Alkenes: CnH2n
2) Chemically similar
3) Same functional group
4) Trend in physical properties
5) Increase by CH2
Structural Isomerism
1) Chain Isomer: One where 1 or more of the long chains carbon become branched,
changing the name of the long chain.
2) Position Isomer: Position of double bond changes or position of branched chain
changes.
3) Functional Group Isomer: Changes from Alkene to Alkane by making a ring
isomer, which shall have cyclo added before its name.
Also, if its a Pentene, itll make a Pentagon, if its a
hexane, itll make a hexagon.
Haloalkane/Haloalkene: Has a branched chain/s containing a halogen atom/s.
Naming:
CONDITION:
1) Between
a hyphen
2) Between
numbers = a
Chain Isomer
Position Isomer
Functional Group
Isomer
Alkanes
Isomer
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Name change
Butane
Numbers
change
Pentane
Hexane
Heptane
Goes from
Ane to
Octane
Ene
Nonane
Decane
2
3
5
18
35
75
METHOD:
1) Look at the longest Carbon chain and write the first 3/4 letters of the name of that
carbon chain. E.g. Pent, But, Meth
2) See if it has a carbon double bond, if yes, then number the double bond and write
it after what have you got so far from step 1. E.g. Pent-1, But-1, Meth-1
3) Finish the name of if there is only one double bond. E.g. Pent-1-ene, But-1-ene,
Meth-1-ene.
4) If there is more than one double bond, then add an a to what you get from step
1, then add the number of the second double bond, and add di before doing step
3. E.g. Buta-1,2-diene
5) If there are no double bonds then only do step 1 and step 3.
6) If there are branched chains, then if they are the same, then you will mention their
number/s first and mention them together but add a di or tri, etc. according to
how many there are. E.g. 1,2-dimethylpentane
7) If there are two different branched chains, then you will number them first, then
mention them separately, but will alphabetically mention one before the other. E.g.
1,2-diCholoro-1,2-diMethylpentane
(C comes before M in the alphabet)
EXAMPLES:
Oil Refining
Crude oil is mainly long-chain Alkanes, some aromatics compounds and some
sulphur compounds.
It is refined through 3 processes:
1) Separate: Fractional distillation
2) Convert: Cracking
3) Purify: Remove Sulphur Compounds
Separate: Fractional Distillation
The alkanes and alkenes are separated through fractional distillation, e.g. C 5H12 is
separated from C6H14 through fractional distillation, as soon as examiner mentions
the word separated, its fractional distillation. This is due to their BOILING POINTSphysical property. (Not melting point, this is how all alkanes/alkenes are separated)
HOW ARE THEY SEPERATED? WHY DO THEY SEPERATE?
1) Fractions have different boiling points
2) Boiling point depends on chain length
3) Temperature gradient in tower i.e. cooler at the top of column and vice versa
4) Higher boiling point/ larger molecules at the bottom of the column and vice versa.
Name of Fraction
Number of Carbon Atoms
LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas)
1-4
Petrol (Gasoline)
4-12
Naphtha
7-14
Paraffin/Kerosene
11-15
15-19
20-30
Fuel Oil
30-40
In Cracking, you can change Homologous series; you can go from alkanes to
alkenes.
Purify:
Sulphur compounds are removed and sold to companies who make sulphuric acid.
A company usually increases its profits in reactions such as the above by SELLING
the unwanted product.
Combustion
To check if fuel is contaminated, companies should first test it before sale.
When there is a question about combustion of a fuel, and it asks about the toxic or
harmful gas this can cause in car, then always answer with Carbon Monoxide or
Soot (C). This is because insufficient Oxygen ONLY causes CO, C, H 2O and CO2.
Incomplete combustion does not produce the other harmful gases at all. They are
always produced by a car engine.
The gases caused by incomplete combustion and the other harmful gases cause:
GAS
CAUSED BY
WHY IS IT HARMFUL?
CO2
Incomplete/Complete
Combustion
SO2
CO
Insufficient Oxygen only
C (soot- which is a
Insufficient Oxygen only
solid)
Some gases contribute to global warming by absorbing infa-red radiation.
For N2 and O2 to react in car, you NEED spark. NO is removed by reacting it with CO
and using a catalyst Platinum (Pt). 2NO + 2CO N2 + 2CO2
However, large industries use UNREFINED FUEL (such as coal, oil and gas) which
releases Sulphur Dioxide. Calcium Oxide reacts with Sulphuric dioxide as it is a base
and sulphur dioxide is acidic. Therefore neutralisation takes place. (Flue Gas
Capture)
Calcium Oxide is coated on mesh or used as a powder catalyst because: it increases
its surface area.
If a fuel is contaminated or impure then:
1) More fuel needed in a vehicle
2) More fuel wasted in a vehicle
3) Car user will need to buy more fuel
4) Car user will have to fit catalytic converter
In Polar Regions, it is possible for the fuel/diesel fuel to solidify or freeze.
1)
2)
3) If numbers still in decimals, then times them both to the Lowest Common Multiple
and that is your empirical form ratio.
If you are trying to work out the actual Chemical Formula using the empirical
formula, then the exam will definitely give you the M r of the actual Chemical Formula,
so this is what you do:
1) Calculate the empirical formula MASS: e.g. CH2O = 30
2) Then do: True Formula Mass/Empirical Formula Mass = WHOLE NUMBER: 90/30
3) WHOLE NUMBER X Empirical Formula: 90/30 = 3 X CH 2O = C3H6O3
Hence, to deduce the molecular formula of a compound, you need:
1) The empirical formula
2) The Mr (formula mass) of the compound
In Water of Crystallisation questions, if it gives you the percentage composition
mass of the other molecule (not water), and asks you to work out XH 2O then do:
1) Work out the percentage of water
2) Then do Mr/Total Mr = percentage (given in question)
3) This will give you the total Mr, therefore, just take away the Mr of the molecule by
the total Mr, and that will you the Mr for xH 2O
4) From here it should be easy to work out x.
Another type of Water of Crystallisation is that they give you the masses instead of
percentage; here you use the general empirical formula:
X
H2O
1)
Amounts divided by Ar/Mr
Amounts divided by Ar/Mr
2)
Divide by smaller number of the two Divide by smaller number of the two
3) If numbers still in decimals, then times them both to the Lowest Common Multiple
and that is your empirical form ratio.
4) If you get whole numbers, then thats the molecules of the water and the other
chemical.
You may show lone pairs by a line and two crosses, or a bubble, or just two
dots, or just two crosses.
Question:
Suggest why a chloride ion (Cl) has a larger radius than a chlorine atom.
Answer:
1) Ion has more electrons
2) Ion has more e- - e- repulsion.
3) Cl value is covalent radius.
4) Cl- value is determined from lattice measurements.
Winter 2008. Question 1c.
Question:
A sample of chlorine was placed in a mass spectrometer. In this sample of chlorine,
75% of the atoms were 35Cl atoms and 25% were 37Cl atoms. The mass
spectrometer detected only Cl+ ions and Cl2+ ions. The spectrum obtained
contained four peaks. The diagram below is an incomplete spectrum, showing only
the peak produced by the 35Cl+ ions.
(i) Label
axes on
diagram.
(ii)
both
the
Complete this diagram to show the remaining three peaks in the mass spectrum
of the chlorine sample.
Answer:
(i) Horizontal label = mass: charge ratio
Vertical label = relative abundance
(ii) 37 Cl peak shown at m/z = 37 and about of 35 Cl i.e. 2 lines up 1
Cl2+ peaks at m/z = 17.5 and 18.5 [tick below axis]
1
Cl2+ peak heights < Cl+ peak height (max height = 3 lines)
TIP:
Metallic Bonding and Ionic Bonding DO NOT involve atoms, they involve IONS.
Never explain the bonding in Metallic Bonding and Ionic Bonding with the word
atom.