The Cellular Level of Organization (BioSci Lec)

Cell biology/Cytology

THE PLASMA MEMBRANE

- The study of cellular structure and

function

Fluid mosaic model

According to this model, the
molecular arrangement of the
plasma membrane resembles a
continually moving sea of fluid
lipids that contains a mosaic of
many different proteins. Some
proteins float freely like icebergs
in the lipid sea, whereas others
are anchored at specific
locations like islands.
The membrane lipids allow
passage of several types of
lipid-soluble molecules but act
as a barrier to the entry or exit
of charged or polar substances.
Some of the proteins in the
plasma membrane allow
movement of polar molecules
and ions into and out of the cell.
Other proteins can act as signal
receptors or as molecules that
link the plasma membrane to
intracellular or extracellular
proteins.
Structure of the Plasma
Membrane
The Lipid Bilayer
The basic structural
framework of the plasma
membrane composed of two
back-to-back layers made up
of three types of lipid
moleculesphospholipids
(75%), cholesterol (20%), and
glycolipids (5%).
The bilayer arrangement
occurs because the lipids are
amphipathic molecules,
which means that they have
both polar and nonpolar parts.
1. Phospholipid

PARTS OF A CELL:
1. Plasma Membrane
forms the cells flexible outer
surface, separating the cells
internal from the external
environment
It is a selective barrier that
regulates the flow of materials
into and out of a cell.
The plasma membrane also
plays a key role in
communication among cells and
between cells and their external
Environment
2. Cytoplasm
consists of all the cellular
contents between the plasma
membrane and the nucleus.
This compartment has two
components:
Cytosol - the fluid portion of
cytoplasm, also called
intracellular fluid, contains
water, dissolved solutes, and
suspended particles.
Organelles located within
the cytosol; each type of
organelle has a characteristic
shape and specific functions.
3. Nucleus
is a large organelle that houses
most of a cells DNA. Within the
nucleus, each chromosome , a
single molecule of DNA
associated with several proteins,
contains thousands of hereditary
units called genes that control
most aspects of cellular
structure and function

the polar part is the

phosphate-containing
head, which is
hydrophilic.

The nonpolar parts are

the two long fatty acid
tails, which are
hydrophobic hydrocarbon
chains
2. Cholesterol molecules
weakly amphipathic and
are interspersed among
the other lipids in both
layers of the membrane
3. Glycolipids
Appear only in the
membrane layer that faces
the extracellular fluid,
which is one reason the
two sides of the bilayer are
asymmetric, or different.
Membrane Proteins
A. INTEGRAL PROTEINS
Extend into or through the
lipid bilayer and are firmly
embedded in it.
TRANSMEMBRANE
PROTEINS: integral proteins
that span the entire lipid
bilayer and protrude into
both the cytosol and
extracellular fluid
B. PERIPHERAL PROTEINS
not as firmly embedded in
the membrane. They are
attached to the polar heads
of membrane lipids or to
integral proteins at the inner
or outer surface of the
membrane.
Glycocalyx: an extensive
sugary coat formed by the
carbohydrate portions of
glycolipids and glycoproteins
the pattern of carbohydrates

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

the glycocalyx acts like a

molecular signature that
enables cells to recognize
one another
the glycocalyx enables cells
to adhere to one another in
some tissues and protects
cells from being digested by
enzymes in the extracellular
fluid
The hydrophilic properties of
the glycocalyx attract a film
of fluid to the surface of
many cells
Functions of Membrane Proteins
Some integral proteins form ion
channels, pores or holes that
Specific ions, such as potassium
ions (K), can flow through to get
into or out of the cell. Most ion
channels are selective; they
allow only a single type of ion to
pass through.
Other integral proteins act as
Carriers/ Transporters,
selectively moving a polar
substance or ion from one side
of the membrane to the other.
Integral proteins called
receptors serve as cellular
recognition sites. Each type of
receptor recognizes and binds a
specific type of molecule. A
specific molecule that binds to a
receptor is called a ligand of
that receptor.
Some integral proteins are
enzymes that catalyze specific
chemical reactions at the inside
or outside surface of the cell.
5. Integral proteins may also
serve as linkers that anchor
proteins in the plasma
membranes of neighboring cells
to one another or to protein
filaments inside and outside the

cell. Peripheral proteins also

serve as enzymes and linkers.
6. Membrane glycoproteins and
glycolipids often serve as cell
identity markers. They may
enable a cell to (A) recognize
other cells of the same kind
during tissue formation or (B)
recognize and respond to
potentially dangerous foreign
cells.
7. Peripheral proteins help support
the plasma membrane, anchor
integral proteins, and participate
in mechanical activities such as
moving materials and organelles
within cells, changing cell shape
in dividing and muscle cells, and
attaching cells to one another.
Membrane Permeability
o Selective permeability
The permeability of the
plasma membrane to
different substances varies.
Plasma membranes permit
some substances to pass
more readily than others.
Gradients Across the Plasma
Membrane
o Concentration gradient
a difference in the
concentration of a chemical
from one place to another,
such as from the inside to the
outside of the plasma
membrane.
Many ions and molecules are
more concentrated in either
the cytosol or the
extracellular fluid
o

Membrane potential
(Electrical gradient)
a difference in the
distribution of positively and

negatively charged ions

between the two sides of the
plasma membrane.

Typically, the inner surface of

the plasma membrane is
more negatively charged and
the outer surface is more
positively charged

Electrochemical gradient

The combined influence of

the concentration gradient
and the electrical gradient on
movement of a particular ion

movement of substances:
a. area of more to less
concentration
b. positively charged
substance to a negatively
charged area and vice versa

Transport Across the Plasma

Membrane
o Diffusion
is a passive process in which
the random mixing of particles
in a solution occurs because of
the particles kinetic energy
Both the solutes and the
solvent undergo diffusion.
If a particular solute is present
in high concentration in one
area of a solution and in low
concentration in another area,
solute molecules will diffuse
toward the area of lower
Concentration until the
particles become evenly
distributed throughout the
solution and the solution is
said to be at equilibrium

Factors Influencing Diffusion

Rate across Plasma
Membranes:
1. Steepness of the
concentration gradient
2. Temperature
3. Mass of the diffusing
substance*
4. Surface area
5. Diffusion distance*
Types of diffusion:
A. Simple diffusion
a passive process in which
substances move freely
through the lipid bilayer of
the plasma membranes of
cells without the help of
membrane transport
proteins
Nonpolar, hydrophobic
molecules and Small,
uncharged polar molecules
pass through the lipid
bilayer by simple diffusion
B. Facilitated diffusion
In this process, an integral
membrane protein assists a
specific substance across
the membrane. The integral
membrane protein can be
either a membrane channel
or a carrier.
Solutes that are too polar or
highly charged
C. Osmosis
a type of diffusion in which
there is net movement of a
solvent through a selectively
permeable membrane.
a passive process where the
solvent is water, which
moves by osmosis across
plasma membranes from an
area of higher water
concentration to an area of
lower water concentration

water moves through a

selectively permeable
membrane from an area of
lower solute concentration
to an area of higher solute
concentration
Aquaporins: integral
membrane proteins that
function as water channels.
o Active transport
is considered an active process
because energy is required for
carrier proteins to move
solutes across the membrane
against a concentration
gradient.
A. Primary Active Transport
energy derived from
hydrolysis of ATP changes
the shape of a carrier
protein, which pumps a
substance across a plasma
membrane against its
concentration gradient
B. Secondary Active
Transport
the energy stored in a Na or
H concentration gradient is
used to drive other
substances across the
membrane against their own
concentration gradients.
Because a Na or H gradient
is established by primary
active transport, secondary
active transport indirectly
uses energy obtained from
the hydrolysis of ATP
Symporters: If transporters
move two substances in the
same direction
Antiporters: move two
substances in opposite
directions across the
membrane

CYTOPLASM

I.

consists of all the cellular contents

between the plasma membrane
and the nucleus, and has two
components:
The Cytosol (intracellular fluid)
is the fluid portion of the cytoplasm
that surrounds organelles and
constitutes about 55% of total cell
volume
is 7590% water plus various
dissolved and suspended
components
The cytosol is the site of many
chemical reactions required for a
cells existence.
Cytoskeleton
o
is a network of protein
filaments that extends
throughout the cytosol
o
Three types of filaments
contribute to the cytoskeletons
structure, as well as the structure
of other organelles:
1. Microfilaments
Are the thinnest elements of
the cytoskeleton. They are
composed of the proteins
actin and myosin and are
most prevalent at the edge of
a cell
Microfilaments have two
general functions:
They help generate
movement (muscle
contraction, cell division,
and cell locomotion)
provide mechanical support
Microvilli
o Non-motile, microscopic
fingerlike projections of the
plasma membrane. Within each
microvillus is a core of parallel
microfilaments
2. Intermediate filament

thicker than microfilaments

but thinner than microtubules
Several different proteins can
compose intermediate
filaments, which are
exceptionally strong
They are found in parts of
cells subject to mechanical
stress
3. Microtubules
the largest of the cytoskeletal
components, are long,
unbranched hollow tubes
composed mainly of the
protein tubulin
help determine cell shape
They also function in the
movement of organelles such
as secretory vesicles, of
chromosomes during cell
division, and of specialized
cell projections, such as cilia
and flagella
II. Organelles
specialized structures within the
cell that have characteristic
shapes, and they perform specific
functions in cellular growth,
maintenance, and reproduction
1. Ribosomes
are the sites of protein synthesis
they have a high content of one
type of ribonucleic acid (ribosomal
RNA, or rRNA), but each one also
includes more than 50 proteins
Some are attached to the outer
surface of the nuclear membrane
and to the endoplasmic reticulum.
These ribosomes synthesize
proteins destined for specific
organelles, for insertion in the
plasma membrane, or for export
from the cell.
Some are free or unattached to
other cytoplasmic structures. Free

ribosomes synthesize proteins

used in the cytosol.
Ribosomes are also located within
mitochondria, where they
synthesize mitochondrial proteins
2. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
is a network of membranes in the
form of flattened sacs or tubules
The ER extends from the nuclear
envelope to which it is connected
and projects throughout the
Cytoplasm
Rough ER
o is continuous with the nuclear
membrane and usually is folded
into a series of flattened sacs.
The outer surface of rough ER is
studded with ribosomes, the
sites of protein synthesis.
o Produces secretory proteins,
membrane proteins, and many
organellar proteins.

Smooth ER
o extends from the rough ER to
form a network of membrane
tubules
o Does not have ribosomes on the
outer surfaces of its membrane.
o does not synthesize proteins, but
it does synthesize fatty acids
and steroids, such as estrogens
and testosterone
o it inactivates or detoxifies drugs
and other potentially harmful
substances; removes the
phosphate group from glucose-6phosphate; and stores and
releases calcium ions that
trigger contraction in muscle
cells.
3. Golgi complex
some proteins synthesized by
ribosomes attached to rough ER
are ultimately transported to other
regions of the cell initially through
the Golgi complex

consists of 3 to 20 cisternae,
small, flattened membranous sacs
with bulging edges
Functions of the Golgi complex:
o Modifies, sorts, packages, and
transports proteins received from
the rough ER
o Forms secretory vesicles that
discharge processed proteins via
exocytosis into extracellular fluid;
forms membrane vesicles that
ferry new molecules to the
plasma membrane; forms
transport vesicles that carry
molecules to other organelles,
such as lysosomes.
4. Lysosomes
membrane-enclosed vesicles that
form from the Golgi complex
They can contain as many as 60
kinds of powerful digestive and
hydrolytic enzymes that can break
down a wide variety of molecules
once lysosomes fuse with vesicles
formed during endocytosis.
Functions of the lysosome:
o Digest substances that enter a cell
via endocytosis and transport
final products of digestion into
cytosol.
o Carry out autophagy, the digestion
of worn-out organelles
o Implement autolysis, the digestion
of an entire cell.
o Accomplish extracellular digestion
5. Mitochondria
referred to as the powerhouses
of the cell Because they generate
most of the ATP through aerobic
respiration
Functions:
o Generate ATP through
reactions of aerobic cellular
respiration.
o Play an important early role in
apoptosis.

6. Cilia and flagella

Motile cell surface projections that
contain 20 microtubules and a
basal body.
Functions:
o Cilia: move fluids over cells
surface;
o Flagella: move entire cell.
7. Proteasome
Tiny barrel-shaped structure that
contains proteases (proteolytic
enzymes).
Degrades unneeded, damaged, or
faulty proteins by cutting them into
small peptides.
8. Peroxisome
Vesicle containing oxidases
(oxidative enzymes) and catalase
(decomposes hydrogen peroxide);
new peroxisomes bud from
preexisting ones.
Oxidizes amino acids and fatty
acids; detoxifies harmful
substances, such as hydrogen
peroxide and associated free
radicals
NUCLEUS
The nucleus is a spherical or ovalshaped structure that usually is the
most prominent feature of a cell
Functions:
o Controls cellular structure.
o Directs cellular activities.
o Produces ribosomes in nucleoli.
Within the nucleus are most of the
cells hereditary units, called

genes, which control cellular

structure and direct cellular
activities.
Genes are arranged along
chromosomes.
Each chromosome is a long
molecule of DNA that is coiled
together with several proteins. This
complex of DNA, proteins, and
some RNA is called chromatin
The total genetic information
carried in a cell or an organism is
its genome
Nucleoli
o spherical bodies inside the nucleus
that function in producing
ribosomes.
o Each nucleolus is simply a cluster
of protein, DNA, and RNA; it is not
enclosed by a membrane
o Nucleoli are the sites of synthesis
of rRNA and assembly of rRNA
and proteins into ribosomal
subunits