Mass transfer operations have the object of a contact between two fluid phases,

especially gas-liquid operations. Such mass transfer operations may include,

(a) Distillation
Gas-absorption

(b)

(c) Stripping
Humidification

(d)

(e) De-humidification
(f) Extraction, etc.
MASS TRANSFER EQUIPMENT:
For all above processes a mass transfer device is necessary which
is to provide an intimate contact of one phase to the other.
CLASSIFICATION:
Many mass transfer equipment are used for above purposes which
may be grouped into two classes,
i) Gas - dispersed equipment
ii) Liquid - dispersed equipment

(p.126,

ref.2)
i) GAS-DISPERSED EQUIPMENTS:
Those equipment in which a gas is dispersed into bubbles or drops
are included in this class. These may be,
a) Spargers
b) Agitated vessels
c) Tray towers ( i.e. plate columns )
ii) LIQUID DISPERSED EQUIPMENTS:

Those equipments in which liquid is dispersed into thin films or

drops are included in this group. They are,
d) Venturi scrubbers
e) Wetted wall towers
f) Spray towers and spray chambers
g) Baffle towers, and
h) Packed columns
Out of all plate columns and packed

towers are the most

important, a) SPARGERS:
Surely the simplest method of dispersing the gas into a batch of
liquid is to discharge the gas beneath the liquid surface in the form of bubbles.
For this simple bubblers i.e. spargers are used.

Sparger is nothing but a

perforated pipe or plate, etc., having 3 to 12 mm diameter. Gas at pressure is

passed through these spargers and is allowed to have a contact with the
required liquid.
They may find their use for mass transfer in chlorinators and
biological sewage treatment.
b) AGITATED VESSELS:
Usually the gas bubbles from sparger are relatively large, and
thus the interfacial surface is correspondingly small. Thus degree of dispersion
is not large. In order to increase the degree of dispersion, we may force the gas
through smaller openings such as in porous ceramics etc. The drawback is that
the small openings require higher gas pressures and hence higher energy is
utilized, more the smaller openings may be clogged.

For this purpose, we usually use a motor driven mechanical

agitator, with a suitable four or six bladed disk type turbine (with hooded ring
may or may not) is used. The gas is introduced through a sub-merged pipe near
the turbine, which breaks up the large bubbles into smaller ones to make higher
degree of dispersion. Agitated designs are used in hydrogenation of liquids, in
fermentation for O2 absorption etc.
c) TRAY TOWERS:
Coming soon.
d) VENTURI SCRUBBERS:
In these the gas is drawn into the throat of a venturi by the stream
of absorbing liquid, which is sprayed into the convergent duct section. Cocurrent effect is obtained using single venturi and counter-current effects may be
obtained using several venturis.
e) WETTED WALL TOWERS:
They are also known as falling film columns. In these there is a
film of liquid running down along the inside of a vertical pipe, the gas flows
either co-currently or counter-currently.
They are used specifically for laboratory works in experimentation
as mass transfer coefficients are easy to study. They have a little use in
industrial work however used when high heat transfer rate along with the
absorption process is the requirement e.g., they are used as absorbers for
hydrochloric acid, where absorption is accompanied by a very large evolution of
heat. The tower in this case is covered with rapidly flowing water to recover /
remove heat.

f) SPRAY TOWERS AND SPRAY CHAMBERS:

Another way of liquid dispersion is to spray it into a gas stream by
means of an atomizer, which disperses the liquid into fine drops. A vertical tower
may be used with counter-current flow of the gas in which liquid is sprayed from
the top. In spite of downward spray parallel spray may be done as in horizontal
spray chambers.
g) BAFFLE TOWERS:
In baffle towers as shown, the liquid is thrown from the top and it
takes the shape of falling curtains (like water falls) due to the arrangements of
baffles in the towers. The gas counter-currently passes through the falls and is
thus absorbed.
h) PACKED COLUMNS:
Coming soon.

PACKED COLUMNS

DEFINATION:
A vertical column or tower, usually cylinder placed inside which
some solid packing material (used to distribute liquid over it) for continuous
intimate contact between two fluids.
Usually in a

packed

columns two fluids are

immiscible

or

partially
miscible and are a gas and a liquid. For the close contact usually liquid is
dropped from the top under the influence of gravity and it is distributed over the
solid mass in the form of thin films and does not go straight down but follows a
tortuous route. A large surface area is thus exposed which is the heart in contact
with the gas, i.e. the solid mass is effectively irrigated in order to have an
intimate contact with the gas. The gas is blown from the bottom under pressure.
It passes (counter-currently) through the free space between the wetted particles
of the packing.
PARTS OF PACKED COLUMN:
The basic unit of packed column consist essentially of following
parts,
1) Shell
2) Packing
3) Packing support
4) Liquid Distributors

There are many other parts, e.g. hold down grids, mist eliminators
etc.
1) SHELL:
Shell is the main body of the unit, all the packing, distributors etc.
are placed inside it. In its construction, there is no mechanical system, it is
simply a cylindrical ( may be rectangular) shell having the diameter smaller as
compared to the height of the tower and placed as erect as possible to have a
uniform liquid distribution.

SIZE OF TOWERS:
There are several towers of different heights and diameters
depending upon the operation . However the height and the width ( diameter ) of
a tower may exceed as 80 ft and 30 ft respectively
2) PACKING:
We have already described that in a packed column in order to
have an intimate contact between a gas and liquid. A solid mass is necessary,
this inert (to both gas and liquid) solid mass is called the packing or fill.
Packing are the heart of the performance of a packed column
because on these liquid is distributed uniformly in the form of films in order to
have a large surface area for gas contact, which otherwise not possible
CLASSIFICATION OF PACKING:
Although many packing designs of many different materials are
available and are used in packed column operation, yet we are able to classify
these packings as below.
One way of classification may be done as :
i) Broken mass
ii) Well shaped packing
iii) Grids (also well shaped but different)
Along with these types there are different methods use to install
packing, however these way may also be used to classify the packing.
i) Dumped or Random packing
ii) Stacked or Regular packing
Combining above two we may classify packing as ,

i) Dumped or Random packings

ii) Stacked or Regular packings
iii) Grids
i) DUMPED OR RANDOM PACKINGS:
Random packing are also called irregular packing. These usually
small pieces of specific geometrical shape (may or may not ) and are so called
because they are packed randomly in the tower that is they are thrown at
random in the hollow shell, however care is there in throwing. Usually in order
to avoid packing breakage, the shell is first filled with liquid (water), and packing
are droped in this liquid. For detail see p.245, ref. 3.
They can be further classified as,
a) Broken mass
b) Well shaped

a) BROKEN MASS:
These are the earliest one and were ceramic spheres, broken
stones (rocks), gravel, or lumps of coke screened to - 4 inches size to
eliminate small particles which might plug gas phase.
They have the advantages of very low cost and good corrosion
resisting characteristics, yet they are discarded due to the fact of small surface
area and small free space between the particles which restrict the gas flow, thus
higher pressure drop may result. More high density of packing imparts heavy
weight

to the tower and thus on its foundation.

More although they are

screened, but during operation or installment, the weak edges may be broken
and thus may clog the voidage.
b) WELL SHAPED:
Due to the above difficulties in using broken mass packing,
lighter, well shaped packing were introduced.

Although expansive but give

uniform liquid distribution in the form of thin films, thus greater surface areas,
enough voidage for gas to flow with lesser pressure drops etc.
There is a long list of well shaped random packing which may be
used now a days.
RASCHIG RINGS:
Raschig rings are the oldest and cheapest one. These were so
called because these were patented by Dr. Raschig in Germany in 1907.
Usually they are nothing but small pieces of a hallow cylinder cut from a pipe or
rolled from metal sheet having their height equal to their diameter. Usually their
diameters ranging from - 4 inches or more upto 6 inches. They are usually
randomly packed, however bigger sizes that is 4 - 6 inches sizes may be hand
stacked.
They have the advantages of low cost, sound structure, availability
in widest variety of material, very much efficient work than the broken mass but
they are not as good as the modern packing as give more internal liquid
channeling and direct more liquid towards the walls of the tower.
LESSING RINGS:
Similar to Rashig rings, with a slight modification as a partition in
the Rashig rings as shown. No much data is available about their features, but

generally more stronger than the Raschig rings and have an improvement in
efficiency due to larger area, however, this improvement is minor.
CROSS - PARTITION RINGS:
These are again a modification to the Raschig rings, but this time a
cross-partition is there. This gives more strength and higher efficiency. Usually,
they are stacked and thus have low pressure drop and no side wall thrust.
SPLINED RINGS:
These are Raschig rings but are modified in a way that they are
splined on the inside of the rings (may also outside) in order to increase the
surface area.
SPIRAL RINGS:
Usually stacked, Raschig rings, with the specialization of helical
passage inside. These take the advantage of internal whirl of gas liquid and
offer extra contact surface over Raschig Rings, Lessing rings and cross-partition
rings, but give higher pressure drop.
BERL SADDLES:
Like Raschig rings, one of the two which are base of many modern
packing are the original saddles and so called because they resemble in shape
with saddle (of horse). They have the disadvantages of more cost and easy
breakage (than Raschig rings) but they are more efficient than Raschig rings in
most of the applications.
They create tight spots in the bed and produce channeling,
however, not as produced as Raschig rings. Although they have smaller free gas
space than Raschig rings and Lessing rings but their aero-dynamic shape is

10

better, thus give a lower pressure drop and little side thrust. They are usually
made in size of - 3, and are ordinarily made of chemical stoneware.
INTALOX SADDLES:
They may start the second generation with Pall rings. They are
nothing but the modified form of the Berl saddles. They are modified, so that,
the adjacent elements do not blank off any significant portion of wetting liquid, to
avoid stagnant pools of liquids, trapping of gas bubbles and violent changes in
the direction of the gas. Thus they are more efficient and have lower pressure
drop along with more capacity than the original saddles, however more costly
and have tendency to break in bed. Equivalent packing to intalox are also
called Flexi saddles and Novalox saddles. They are usually made of ceramics,
can be made of other materials.
SUPER INTALOX:
Again a modification to the intalox saddles. In these the smooth
edges of the saddles are scalloped, more holes are inserted.
These modifications are helpful to promote drainage of liquid, thus
eliminate any possibility of stagnant pockets, also provide more operating space
to gas (vapour) to rise. Thus they have higher capacity and higher efficiency
than the equivalent Intalox saddles. They are available in ceramic and plastic
materials.
PALL RINGS:
These are derived from the second basic form Raschig rings, and
are nothing but the Raschig rings with windows in them, more the bending of
window tongues inwardly. They are more difficult to manufacture than Raschig

11

rings and costly, but give lower (half) pressure drop than Raschig rings. They
have higher capacity and higher efficiency and lower pressure drop than all the
packing described, having considerable side thrust on column wall.
They are usually made in metal, plastic and ceramic material,
however, the ceramic Pall rings are not popular having inferior performance to
that of ceramic Intalox saddles.
HY-PAK TOWER PACKING:
These are similar to the Pall rings but have more internal tongues
to improve the surface area. They may give equivalent efficiency in larger size.
They are available in metals only.
INTALOX METAL TOWER PACKING (IMTP):
They may start the third generation of the packings. They are made
to have high void fraction and well distributed surface area of Pall rings with low
aero-dynamic drag of the saddle shape. They give more open shape than Pall
rings and give more improvements to liquid spread, more give adequate
mechanical strength.

12

CASCADE MINI RINGS (CMR):

These are similer to the Pall rings, but have ratio 1:3 to ( height to
diameter) as compared to 1:1 Pall ring. The lower ratio orients the particles with
their open side facing the vapour flow, thus reducing fraction and exposing more
surface to mass transfer. They may available in plastic, metal and ceramics.
CMR-TORBO:
This is a variation in the CMR. The difference is that the walls and
the tongues are perforated as compared to the normal CMR, thus are more
efficient.
CHEMPAK:
These are very similar to the Pall rings. Thus may made by cutting
the Pall rings vertical from the centre, to make two out of one. This promotes
vapour-liquid contacts, mixing and may liquid spread. They are also called as
Levapak (LVK).
HcKp:
Pall ring with a more open structure and an enhanced arrangement
of internal drip tabs. They are stated as ideal for use in high liquid rate system.
They are usually made metallic.
JAEGER TRI-PACK:
The cylindrical shape of Pall rings are replaced by spherical one,
thus provides more void space and better distribution. They are usually made of
plastic (called Hackette) and metal.
NOR-PAC RING:

13

In these types of packing we replace the solid walls of the Pall

rings by wide openings. Although less surface area is available, but reduces the
friction and good drainage of the liquid is possible. The material of construction
is plastic.
FLEXIMAX:
Just like saddles but with well spread (wider) surface area. They
are usually metallic FLEXIMAX.
LANPAC:
The polyhedron shape, composed of many small porous (ribs,
filaments, rods, struts and pointed fingers) in a complex (cross-linked and
uniformly spaced thoroughly ) way (an open structural framework).
This complex structure gives an open structure with a high surface
area, nesting and interlocking. They are made of plastic material.
IMPAC:
Another complex packing like LANPAC, but gives higher and better
distributed surface area. They are made of plastic and metal material.
TELLER ROSETTE:
Also known as Tellerettes and usually stacked. They have high
interstitial hold up and give high efficiency, as low side thrust and low pressure
drop.

More they are

low

unit

weight

packings. They are made of

plastics ( polyethylene) and are not used where solubility and reactivity is a
problem.
PROTRUDED PACKING:

14

These are partially rounded sheets with perforations. They are

made in small sizes.

They have high efficiency and are used widely in

laboratory columns.
DIXON PACKING:
Dixon packing are special packing and expensive.

These are

lessing rings made from wire mesh. These give great interfacial area and very
low pressure drop.
More KNIT MESH and McMahon packing are available in wire
mesh, McMahon packing are steel wire mesh. McMohan packing are steel wire
mesh formed into a Berl saddle shape.
OTHERS:
Many other random packing are available which are not described
here, however they are shown

(Nutter ring, Hiflow ring, Intalox Snowflake

packing, etc.).
ii) STACKED PACKING:
These came later in existence, however they are since near
1940s. Unlike random packing stacked packings are those which are not thrown
randomly in the hollow shell, but they are arranged systematically i.e. they are
stacked in the tower.
CLASSIFICATION:
Such packings may be classified as,
a) Random packings that can be stacked
b) Wire mesh structured packings
c) Corrugated - sheet packing

15

a) RANDOM PACKING THAT CAN BE STACKED:

During the study of random packing we have studied such types of
packing. These are the random packing which can be stacked e.g. Raschig
rings, Tellerets ,etc., however when hand stacked the usual size is not as
randomly packed sized may have but some what larger e.g. Raschig rings which
are stacked, usually have the diameter 4 - 6 in.
More in a randomly packed towers, sometimes we have to stack
two or more layers of packings above the packing supports, we will study this
later.
TYPES OF STACKING:
There are usual two ways of stacking the random packings, which
may be
i) S (square) - shaped
ii) D (diamond) - shaped
However this classification is not
general,only
applicable to those packings which based on the Rasching ring structure.
b) WIRE MESH STRUCTURED PACKINGS:
SULZER WIRE GAUZE :
This packing is made from the fine diameter wire. The packing
elements consist of parallel, perforated sheets of wire mesh. These packing
elements ( 7 in. tall) are stacked in the shell to the required height. These are
usually available in 316 stainless steel wire- mesh ,also in other corrosion
resistant metals.

16

GOODLOE:
This packing is made of

multifilaments of fine diameter wires.

These wires are knitted together to form a tube. They have high efficiency and
low pressure drop, however not much data is available. They are available most
commonly in 316 stainless steel, but also

carbon steel, aluminum, alloys,

plastic, kynar and teflon are the manufacturing materials.

SPRAY PAK PACKINGS:
Spraypak is made from layers of expanded metal screen fastened
together and pressed into a corrugated form, with the corrugation angle being
90o or less. The corrugated material is then bolted together through the apexes
of the corrugations into sections of 10 to 20 layers. These are then trimmed to fit
the circular-column section and place into the column, with each section
alternately at right angles (with respect to the corrugations) to the other. This
packing has a good contact area, low pressure drop, and provides a uniform flow
pattern and is copared more with the tray type performance than other packings.
It is usually used in large diameter towers, and available as about 24 in. in
diameter, but smaller 10 in. are also available. The material of construction is
metal only.
OTHERS:
In spite of these many others are also available some of them
may be Panapak, Stedman, Drippoint
c) CORRUGATED PACKINGS:

17

There are a no. of corrugated packings, such as Mellapak,

Flexipac, Gempak, Monz B1, Montz BSH, Flexeramic, etc. We are not going in
detail of these, however for constructional features figures of such are shown.
COMPARISON OF STACKED AND RANDOM PACKINGS:
- Stacked packings offer a far greater specific surface area (thus
greater efficiency) than random packings.
-

Stacked packings have lower packing factor, thus have

greater capacity. However the capacity and efficiency advantages are decreased
rapidly at high liquid rates or pressures. A no. of such cases are experienced in
industry. The cause of this cause is not well understood.
- The spread of surface area (also affect efficiency) tries us to
select a random packing.
- Structured packings have a much lower pressure drop than random
packings, because in case of random packings resistance to vapour flow is
mostly due to expansion and cotraction, thus higher pressure drop may exist, but
in the case of structured packings there are regular flow channels which keep
expansion and cotraction to a minimum value, the friction loss however is due to
loss through bends, which is far low resistance to vapour flow. However the
capacity and this lower resistance permit in comparison more surface area in a
bed of stacked packings.
-

Channeling is more severe in stacked packing, this is why

random packings are preferred. However stacking reduces the wall thrust than
the in comparison to random packings.

18

- The cost is more in stacked packings as compared to the random

packings.
- Structured packings have the advantage of self wetting.
- The liquid inventory ( the product of liquid hold up and the packing
volume) for structured packing is in term lower than the random packings.
iii) GRIDS:
They are also well shaped and are packed in a systematic manner
as stacked packings. They are usually used in square column section. They
have relatively large spaces between them, and thus give very low pressure
drop. More they are easy to assemble as bigger, also have the advantage of
accepting fluids with suspended solids. The problem however is not obtaining of
good liquid distribution even at high rates, etc. In comparison their efficiency is
lower than those of both random and stacked packings. They are principally
used in direct contact heat transfer scrubbing and de- aerating survices.
Constructional features of some grid packings are shown in figures.
3) PACKING SUPPORT:
In order to place the packing inside the shell a solid carrier called
packing support or support plate is the necessary thing.
It must be enough strong to carry the weight of the
wetted packing and re- distributors (if are placed on packing not attached to the
tower), etc.
It should have enough free area in order to allow the liquid and gas
with a minimum of restriction i.e. the packing support should be designed in such
a way that the pressure drop is not excessive and flooding velocity is not lower

19

than that of packing. Every effort is made to obtain a large a support free surface
area as possible with the surity of the strength of the support. If one will say that
good tower performance is definitely linked with packing support then it will not
wrong.
There are two basic types of support plates.
a)

Counter-current

b) Separate flow passages for liquid and gas

a) COUNTER-CURRENT:
These are so called because the gas and liquid have the same
opening to flow counter-currently. These are shown in fig. They are usually the
simple perforated plates (largely spaced bars), but these are not adequate,
because many of the holes become blocked by the rings and the gas and liquid
must pass counter-current through the same openings which thus contributes
towards liquid holdup and flooding of the plate. This is principally a problem in
random packing.
Conditions can be improved by stacking
(arranging) two are three layers of rings on the support plate in order to escape
opening blockages. In this way we may use larger diameter hole plates which
are less liable to flooding.
With such type support plates the free area for gas flow can be
ranged up to 90% of the column cross sectional area, but this type as mentioned
is easily clogged by the packing pieces.
b) SEPARATE FLOW PASSAGES FOR LIQUID AND GAS:

20

Separate flow passages plates are preferred to the above because

they can be used the free area upto 90% with a very minimum blockage of
holes due to constructional features. In these the gas and the liquid passages
are not the same holes, but different holes are bored for two different phases.
These are shown in figure. The figure(

) is used to get 85 to 90 % free

area, used with various modifications and is made of many different materials
such as metals, ceramics and plastics.
Grid packing is usually supported on
bars laid across the towers or on the vertical pillars resting on the tower floor.
Wood grids are supported in sections with gaps between each section to allow
for the swelling of the wetted wood. Usually gaps are in. per length.
In large towers the weight of the
packing is very much. Thus it may be supported on the floor of the tower, which
can be supported on a brick or concrete foundation.
4) LIQUID DISTRIBUTORS:
Dry packing is of-course completely in effective for mass transfer.
It is principally due to the uneven or non adequate distribution of the liquid from
the top.
Actually requirement of good contact
between liquid and gas is the harder thing to meet, especially in the case of
large towers. In ideal conditions, liquid dropped from the top should distributed
over the top of the packing and should flow in thin films overall the packing
surface all the way down the tower, but this ideality is not approached . In real
the films tend to grow thicker in some places and thinner in others, so that the

21

liquid collects into small rivulets and flows along localized paths through the
packing, then much of the packing surface may be dry (mostly in low liquid
rates), or at best , covered by a stagnant film of liquid. This effect is known as
channeling. This channeling is the main cause of the poor performance of the
packed towers.

More along with channeling, side- slip of liquid may be a

problem. Side slip is nothing but the liquid tendency to flow out of the packing
and travel down along the walls of the column. This is principally when the ratio
of the tower diameter to packing diameter is less than 8 : 1. In order to increase
the efficiency of the tower, something is to be done inside the tower.
Channeling is more pronounced in stacked packing, thus it is
customary not to use stacked packing, thus random packing is to be used, that is
why most of the installments are randomly packed unless stacking is necessary.
However in the random packing i.e. dumped packing, the packing density (the
no. of the packing pieces per cubic units) is less near the walls, thus liquid gets
the tendency to segregate towards the walls.
This effect can be reduced in stacked packing.
In order to remove the difficulty of dry packing
i.e. channeling, initial distribution of the liquid is very much necessary. The
importance of this initial distribution is shown in figure.
In large towers the initial distribution of the liquid is not enough, but
the liquid re-distribution is to be done at regular intervals.

Roughly a re-

distributor should be installed at an interval 3 - 10 times the tower diameter, but

at least after every 20 ft. These liquid re- distributors have made possible to
built a column of diameter of about 30 ft. working satisfactorily.

22

In most of the cases where stacked packing is present there is no /

little need for liquid re- distributors.
The system of distribution varies according to the type of the
packing used, e.g. the random packing is self distributing, thus a simple
distributor having 6 - 12 in. apart liquid feed points is adequate. In spite to
random, grid packings have poor self- distributing characteristics and thus it is
necessary to supply the liquid to a no. of points on each slat.
TYPES OF LIQUID DISTRIBUTORS:
Several type of liquid distributors may be used.
1. SIMPLE ONES:
Simple one may be the spray nozzles, preferably the solid-cone
type, may be in the form of horizontal pan make excellent distribution especially
in the self distributor random packings, but they may clogged by the solid
particles suspended in the solvent. More the splashing due to jet produces fine
drops which are carried away by the gas and thus a mist (spray) eliminator is
necessary at the exit. Also there target is the important thing, because if they
will throw the liquid towards wall, this liquid will never come in to the bulk. A
perforated pipe (ring type ) distributor is an alternate to this may be used. As
from its name this consists of perforated rings as in garden fountains, and is
used where high liquid rates or relatively smaller rates are present and is
suitable for low pressure loss. However with clean liquids it offers minimum
restriction to gas flow and can be used for high liquid flows.
Another simple method for stacked packing is to pack the top 2 - 3
ft. with random rings, using a simple distributor at the top at a point 1 ft. apart.

23

2. ORIFICE DISTRIBUTORS:
Consists of flat tray equipped with a number of riser gas flow and
perforations in tray floor for discharge of liquid i.e. the inlet for liquid and outlet
for the gas are different. Some times, perforations are eliminated and a V-notch
in each riser for passage of liquid is set. They are not used where there is any
risk of the plugging of holes.
3. NOTCHED CHIMNEY TYPE:
They are superior to orifice one as they do not have the tendency
of plugging.
4. TROUGH TYPE DISTRIBUTORS:
These are often used in column of 4 to more diameter. These non
splash distributor are a series of parallel troughs laid on packing in a direction
right angles to the top row of slats with notches in the sides of the troughs
directly above each slat. The distributor is not subject to plugging and do not
restrict gas flow, and have wide operating range. In order to have an efficient
work, troughs must be leveled carefully.
Such distributions are effective both for
stack packing and grid packing, although in the case stacked packing it is very
difficult (impossible) to space the notches directly in the rings top layer.
PREVENTION OF WALL THRUST:
In order to prevent side slip ( wall thrust) the diameter of tower
should be at least 8 times the packing diameter, however it is recommended that
if possible the ratio of packing diameter to the column should not exceed 1 : 15.
In other cases adequate distributors along with the side wipers ( wall wipers )

24

are used. Side wipers are down slope rings which throws the liquid towards the
bulk of the packing. An example of these is a tagging ring shown in figure.
GAS DISTRIBUTION:
If the gas enters through simple horizontal nozzle, it will form a jet
impinging on the opposite wall and produce regions of high pressure under
some parts of the packing. If the pressure drop in the packing is of the same
order of magnitude as these pressure fluctuations, the distribution of the gas
velocities in the packing is likely to vary considerably, whereas a high pressure
drop in the packing has the effect of neutralizing the pressure fluctuations and
creating a uniform gas distribution. It is therefore necessary to pay particular
attention to the gas distribution in the stacked packing which has comparatively
low pressure drop. For gas distribution the gas should enter the tower at a low
velocity, preferably not more than twice its velocity in the packing.
However there are no special precautions required
for random packing owing to the high pressure drop in the packing.

HOLD DOWN GRIDS:

They are also known as packing restrainers. Some times in
the process, a tower may be surged due to high gas velocity, thus there is a
danger to the breakage of the packing especially ceramic packings. For this a
hold down plate is used which is enough heavy to hold down about the packing.
It always rest on the packing, restains the upward movement of the packing and
saves it from crushing.

25

PRESSURE DROP :
Due to the resistance of packing in a packed column, there is a
considerable pressure drop exists for the gas flowing upwardly. This pressure
drop is a function of both fluid flows, because one occupies the same channel as
the other and exists actually due to skin friction and form drag, with form drag
predominant at the higher velocities. It has been estimated that not over 10 %
of the pressure drop is the result of skin friction.
In the case of random packing it is greater, because expansion
and contraction losses and considerable turbulence are created by the flow of
two fluids around the individual solid packing elements. However in the case of
structured packing the drop in pressure is very low as there are regular flow
channels which keep expansion and contraction to a minimum value, the friction
loss lies only due to the loss through bends, which is far low resistance to
vapour flow. Grids have least pressure drop.
PRESSURE DROP AS A FUNCTION OF GAS FLOW:
It is important to see the pressure drop variations with the
variations in the gas flow. For this we may draw three general curves i.e.,
1. for dry conditions ( packing )
2. for wet-drained conditions
3. for irrigated conditions
1. FOR DRY CONDITIONS:
It is observed that for dry packing there is a direct relation between
the flow rate of the gas and the pressure drop through the packing. When the
packing is dry, the line so obtained is straight and has a slope of about 1.8 i.e.

26

it makes an angle of

60.95

with x-axis, as shown.

Thus pressure drop

increases with the 1.8 th power of the velocity of the gas.

2. FOR WET DRAINED CONDITIONS:
The case with the wet drained packing is quite similar to the dry
packing.

Again straight line is the result, but this time not with the same

pressure drop but with result of larger pressure drop.

3. FOR IRRIGATED CONDITIONS:
In case when there is a constant flow rate of liquid coming from the
top the graph line characteristics are not as before. In this case the relationship
between pressure drop and gas flow rate initially follows a line parallel to that of
dry packing, however the pressure drop is greater as compared to the dry or wet
packing because the liquid in the tower has reduced the space available for gas
to flow. After this, with further increase in mass velocity i.e. at moderate velocity,
the line gradually becomes steeper and steeper because gas is forcing the liquid
upwardly and then liquid hold up is increased with gas rate. The point at which
the liquid hold up starts to increase i.e. where the slope of the line is deviating
the value 1.8 is called as loading point. At the loading point the curve present
shows more quick rise in pressure drop which is proportional to 2.5 th of the
gas flow.
More increase in gas velocity further causes rise in pressure drop
more rapidly and at a point line is about vertical ( when the pressure drop is
about 2 - 3 in. of water/ft. of packing ). At this point the flooding is reached
thus this point is called as flooding point.
EXPLANATION VIA FIGURE:

27

In the figure we see up to point 1 on the curve, the pressure drop

characteristics are similar to curve A & B. The slope is same but with increased
pressure drop. Observations have indicated that the orderly trickling of liquid
downward through the packing with no liquid build up is the result. At point

change in slope occurs and indicates the pressure drop decrease which is more
rapidly with an increase in gas velocity.

This point may not be distinguished

enough to allow observations of any change in the flow pattern characteristics.

Perhaps it might be possible to observe an increase in the quantity of the liquid
retained in the packed section. This retained liquid is referred as hold up, thus
point 1 is called as loading point and the velocity of the gas is named as
loading velocity.
After this point a greater amount of liquid
hold up exists.

Observations show a layer at the top of the packing and a

gradual filling of the packing voids with liquid. The liquid now has filled a large
portion of the packing, and the gas must bubble through it. This condition is
sometimes called as visual flooding. More increased gas rate corresponding to
visual flooding gives birth to a second change in slope of the pressure drop line
i.e. point 2. This point is known as flooding point.
Gas velocity in an operating packed column must be lower than
the flooding velocity. However as flooding is approached, most or all of the
packing surface is wetted, maximizing the constant area between gas and liquid,
but the pressure drop is too much. Thus the designer uses a velocity far enough
from the flowing velocity to ensure safe operation, also not as low as to require
a much larger column.

28

Operation of packed column is not

practically good above the loading point.

For simplicity and safety packed

towers are designed using gas velocities of about 50 - 70 % of the flooding at

the expected liquid rate.
DROP AT CONSTANT GAS FLOW:
It is a general rule that each type of packing material has a fixed
void volume for liquid passage so that the liquid rate increases, the voids filled
with liquid, so the cross-sectional area available for gas flow is reduced, thus for
constant gas velocity, it is observed that the pressure drop increases with an
increasing liquid rate, this is shown as a line D in the curves.
PRESSURE DROP EXPRESSION:
Perhaps there is no real accurate expression to calculate drop in
pressure through packed columns, however there are several correlaitons that
are useful for design purposes.
Pressure drop may be calculated using orifice equation with
suitable correction for the presence of liquid.
On these basis Leva developed the following correlation for
pressure drop in irrigated bed,
P = C2 10

3 Ut

g Ut 2

where,
P = drop in pressure, ( in H2O/ft )
g = gas density, ( Ib/ft3 )
Ut and ut = superficial velocities of gas and liquid respectively,
( ft/s )
29

C2 and C3 are constants e.g. for Rasching rings with nominal size
in.,
and 3/32 in. wall thickness with C2 = 3.50 and C3 = 0.0577.
This correlation was developed from the test data for the air - water system
operating below flooding point.
Morris and Jackson have arranged experimental data for a wide
range of a solid rings and grids.

The graphs are shown by which the no. of

velocity heads N lost per unit height of packing is found for appropriate value
of the velocity rate and N is used in
- P = N g Ug 2 L
where,
- P = pressure drop
g = gas density
Ug = gas velocity ( based on empty column crosssectional area )
and

L = height of the packing.

An empirical correlation of experimental data for pressure drop

has been presented by Leva and Eckert et al. for Pall rings.
When the data is available, the most accurate method of
obtaining the pressure drop for flow through a bed of packing is from the
manufacturers own literature. This is usually available in logarithmic plot of a
gas rate against pressure drop, with a parameter of liquid flow-rate on the graph.
Typical curves for four packings are shown.

30

The methods described apply only to conditions at or below the

loading point. If we wish to apply to conditions above the loading point, the
calculated pressure drop would be too low.

Thus it is to be cheked before

applying that whether the column is operating at or below the loading point.
LOADINGS AND FLOODING POINTS CORRELATIONS:
There is a no completely generalized expression for calculating
the onset of the loading, semi- empirical correlations may be used.
A useful graphical correlation for flooding rates
was first presented by Sherwood et al. and later by Lobe et al. For random
dumped packings where ( Ut2 AP g / g 3 PL ) ( L / W ) is plotted against ( L / G ) .
( g / L)1/2.
where,
Ut = superficial gas velocity, m/s
AP = total area of packing, m2 (per m3 bed )
= fractional voids in dry packing
g = gravitational constant, 9.8067 m/s2
L and g = liquid and gas densities, kg/m3
L = liquid mass rate, kg/m2-s
G = gas mass rate, kg/m2-s
L = liquid viscosity, m . pascal . s ( cp )
W = viscosity of water at 293 K, (1 cp)
Later work with air and liquids other than water l;ed to
modifications of Sherwood correlation, first by Leva and then by Eckert. The

31

recent modifications by Eckert is shown in figure. The ordinate group including

, the ratio of the density of the water to the density of the liquid, and also that of
ratio Ap/3, characteristics for a particular packing material has been replaced by
packing factor Fp also a characteristic of given packing( m -1), it is determined
experimentally, not taken for the packing geometry.
EXPREESION FOR LIQUID HOLD UP:
Sometimes it is desirable to know the volumetric hold up of liquid
phase in the column, e.g. if the liquid is involved in a chemical reaction or if a
constant system for column is to be designed.
For gas liquid systems the hold up of liquid ( H ) for conditions
below the loading phase has been

to vary approximately as the 0.6 power

of the liquid rate and for the ring and saddles is given as
H = 0.143 ( L / / d ) 0.6
where,
L/ = liquid flow rate, kg / m2- s
d = equivalent diameter of the packing, mm
H = hold up in m3 liquid per m3 of the column
So when the 25 mm Rasching rigs are
used with L/ = 1.0 kg /m2-s and d = 20 mm, then
H = 0.021 m3/ m3 of column.
________________________________________________

PRACTICAL WORK ON PACKED

32

COLUMN
Some type of practical work was performed with a laboratory scale
packed column filled with Rasching rings here at University of the Punjab,
Lahore.
Following is the detail of this practical work along with suggestions
to that packed column apparatus.
OBJECT:
a) Study pressure drop across packed column as a function of
gas mass
velocity ( UG ) for the following conditions,
1. Dry ( packing )
2. Wet drained
3. Irrigated
b) Report the flooding and loading points.
APPARATUS:
Packed column apparatus as shown, a bucket, stop watch, some
type of balance (to calculate mass flow rate of the liquid).
1. FOR DRY CONDITIONS:
PERFORMANCE STEPS:
1. Compress the gas in the compressor in order to have high gas
flow rates.
2. Be sure packing is completely dry, if not throw the gas for a
reasonable

33

time or allow the apparatus to stand in non working conditions

for days

to dry the packing.

3. Fit the CCl4 manometer across the orifice plate, and a similar
manometer across the packed column.
4. Open the valve 1 to the gas beneath the packing, the gas will
pass via bottom to the top through the packing and a pressure
drop will exist.
5. Note the pressure differential pressures at both the manometers.
6. Disturb the valve 1 ( i.e. change the flow rate to the previous ),
read another reading.
7. Do 4. from very low to maximum gas flow rate.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
Room temperature = 25 C
Density of CCl4 used = d1 = 1.5975 g / cm3
Density of H2O used = d2 = 0.997045 g / cm3
Density of Hg used = d3 = 13.53361 g / cm3
Density of the air = d4 = 0.001193 g / cm3
Diametr of the orifice = 1.27 cm
Area of the orifice = Ao = ( /4).(1.27)2 = 1.2668 cm2
Discharge co-efficient of orifice meter = CD = 0.61
Inner diametre of the column = 7.6 cm

34

Cross-sectional area of the column = Ap = (/4).( 7.6 )2

= 45.365 cm2
Length of the packing (bed) = 74.9 cm
TABLE OF CALCULATIONS:
no of
obs.

ho

h air

( cm ) ( cm )

G
( g s)

hP

hair

PP

(kg/m -

( cm

( cm )

(dynes/cm

s)

PP
2

PPm

(mm Hg) packing

where,
ho = difference in heights across orifice meter, cm
h air = ho. (d1 -d4 )/ d4, cm
G = mass flow rate of air, g/s, and
G = CD. d4. Ao. (2g.h air)
G/ = gas mass velocity = G/ AP, (kg/m2-s)
hP = difference in heights across column, cm
h/ air = hP. (d1 - d4 )/ d4
PP = pressure drop = (d4.g.h/ air) gc, mm Hg

35

log ( G/ )

log
(PP/m )

Graph line is shown in the plot.

2. FOR WET DRAINED CONDITIONS:
PERFORMANCE STEPS:
1. Allow the liquid to flow from the top while closing the outlet i.e.
fill the column with water.
2. Fill whole of the column upto the packing with waater and close
the inlet of in coming water.
3. Allow the water to pool up for 10 - 15 minutes.
4. open the draining valve and then close it after drainage of
water.
5. Repaet rest of the procedure as that for dry packing.

TABLE OF CALCULATIONS:
no of
obs.

ho

h air

( cm ) ( cm )

G
( g s)

hP

hair

PP

(kg/m -

( cm

( cm )

(dynes/cm

PP
2

PPm

(mm Hg) packing

36

s)

log ( G/ )

log
(PP/m )

Graph line is shown in the plot.

3. FOR IRRIGATED CONDITIONS:

PERFORMANCE STEPS:
1. Fix a constant flow rate of the liquidfronm the top with the outlet
of the liquid opened and try to make a sel of liquind at thwe
bottom to avoid gas escape.
2. Measure the flow rate of the down coming water at the outlet
with bucket and stop watch help.
3. Perform rest of the practical as like dry packing conditions.
4. select another flow rate and do same.

37

TABLE OF CALCULATIONS:
Liquid mass flow rate = 6.6 g /s
no of
obs.

ho

h air

( cm ) ( cm )

G
( g s)

hP

hair

PP

(kg/m -

( cm

( cm )

(dynes/cm

s)

log (G )

PP
2

PPm

(mm Hg) packing

log
(PP/m )

Graph line is shown in the plot.

Liquid mass flow rate = 14.0 g /s
no of
obs.

ho

h air

( cm ) ( cm )

G
( g s)

hP

hair

PP

(kg/m -

( cm

( cm )

(dynes/cm

s)

PP
2

PPm

(mm Hg) packing

38

39

log ( G/ )

log(PP/m
)

Graph line is shown in plot.

RESULTS:
Results obtained from the graph when compared with the
actual graphs as shown previously., show

the poor practical performance

especially in the case of wet and irrigated conditions.

REASONS AND SUGGESTIONS:
1. The practical is very difficult to perform with dry packing,
because this requires, many days to apparatus to stand without
working (with liquid),which is quite rare. A system of rapid
packing dryness should be there e.g. hot air or steam through
the coil.
2. There might be a pool of liquid due to tight packing etc. and
whole of the liquid is not drained.
3. The valve for the liquid drainage is not smooth in operation, it is
very difficult to make a seal of the liquid to have a constant gas
pressure. There may be any clogging due to very long use, the

40

valve should be washed with suitable chemicals to remove such

clogged materials.
4. Another reason may be of not a constant flow rate of liquid from
the inlet, for this some type of flow regulation installment is
necessary.
5. The compressor does not develop a high pressure of gas, thus it
is very difficult to get the graph upto flooding point.
6. The orifice meter is installed from years, thus it is quite possible
that its discharge coefficient is not the standard one which we
use. For this a standard orifice should be installed or its
coefficient should be measured.
7. For more interesting work water should be coloured. This will be
helpful in seeing the visual flooding and flooding points clearly.
________________________________________________________
__

41

REFERENCES:
1. TREYBAL, R.E. : Mass Transfer Operations, 2 nd ed., McGraw-Hill, 1968.
2. KISTER, Z.H. : Distillation Design, McGraw-Hill, 1992.
3. PERRY, R.H. and GREEN, D.W. : Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 6
th ed., McGraw-Hill, 1984.
4. McCABE, W.L. and SMITH, J.C. : Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering,
5 th ed., McGraw-Hill, 1993.
5. COULSON, J.M. and RICHARDSON, J.F. : Chemical Engineering, Vol. 2, 2
nd ed., Pergamon Press, 1968. (also 3 rd ed. )
6. NORMAN, W.S. :

Absorption, Distillation and Cooling Towers, Longman,

1962.
7. LUDWIG, E.E. : Applied Process Design For Chemical and Petrochemical
Plants, Gulf Publishing Company Houston, Texas, 1964.
8. SHERWOOD, T.K. and

PIG FORD, R.L. :

Absorption and Extraction,

McGraw-Hill, 1952.
9. BROWN, G.G., : Unit Operations, John Wiley & Sons, 1964.
10. FOUST, A.S., : Principles of Unit Operations, John Wiley & Sons, 1979.
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