Form 2 Chapter 2: NUTRITION

2.1 Classes of Food

Food is the source of energy for all living things
Repairs and replaces
damaged tissues

Builds healthy
bodies

Builds new cells

Warms the body

Importance
of food

Growth
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Provides energy
for carrying out
work

Nutrition is the process of obtaining and using nutrients from food.

Nutrients help growth, repair body tissues and provide energy to the body
Classes of food and their functions

Carbohydrates
- Supply energy to the body

Proteins
- For growth, especially to
build new cells, repair or
damaged cells for tissues

Water
- Dissolves chemicals, regulates body
temperature, acts as a medium for chemical
reactions, transports nutrients and oxygen
to cells, and excretes waste products.

Classes
of food
Fats
- As an insulator
(energy storage),
protect organs, help
transport vitamin A,
D, E and K

Vitamins
- Needed in small
amounts for maintaining
health and growth

Fibre (roughage)
- Prevents constipation
and aids peristalsis

Minerals
- Needed in small
amounts for
healthy growth
and development

Carbohydrates
Is an energy provider
Organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Include starched, cellulose and sugars
Starch is found in rice, bread and potatoes
Simple sugars are glucose (in grapes), fructose (in honey) and galactose (in milk)
Complex sugars are lactase (in milk), maltose (in malt) and sucrose (in sugar cane)
Excess carbohydrates are stored as fat in our body.

Form 2 Chapter 2: NUTRITION

Proteins
Organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen (sometimes
sulphur and phosphorous are also present)
The basic unit of protein is called amino acid
Proteins are founded in fish, meat, bean curd, milk, egg white (albumen), chicken
and nuts
Proteins are required in building new cells or tissues
For growth
To replace damaged tissues
Proteins are also needed for the formation of enzymes, hormones, haemoglobin and
antibodies in our body
Growing children need a lot of protein. Insufficient protein intake can cause
kwashiorkor (stunted growth)
Proteins also supply energy when carbohydrate is lacking
Fats
Organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Consist of smaller units of fatty acids combined with glycerol
Fats are solids but oils are liquid at room temperature
Fats are found in margarine, butter, peanuts, cooking oil, ghee, cheese and meat
Functions of fats include:
Supplying energy and warmth
As an insulator of heat to reduce heat loss from the body
Protecting the internal organs such as the kidney and the heart
Dissolving vitamins such as vitamins A, D, E and K in the body
Vitamins
Vitamins are required in small amounts only for our health and growth
Vitamins are classified into two groups
Water-soluble vitamins: vitamins B and C
Fat-soluble vitamins: vitamins A, D, E and K
Vitamins protect the body from various types of diseases and maintains the
health of the body
Vitamin
Food source
Function
Deficiency disease
A
Carrots, liver,
- For night vision
- Night blindness
milk, eggs, fish
- For healthy skin
- Dry, scaly skin
liver oil
B
Eggs, milk, meat, - For a healthy nervous system - Beri-beri (paralysis)
yeast, cereals
- Formation of red blood cells
- Anaemia (deficiency
- Releases energy from
in red blood cells)
carbohydrates
- Pellagra (mental
- For healthy skin
disorder&skin diseases)
C
Fresh fruits and
- Healing of wounds
- Scurvy (bleeding
vegetables
- Resistance against disease
gums)
- For healthy skin and gum
D
Eggs, fish, milk;
- For strong bones and teeth
- Rickets (weak bones
formed in skin by - Promotes absorption of
and dental decay)
exposing sunlight calcium and phosphorous
E
Vegetable oils,
- Maintains fertility
- Sterility (failure to
whole grains,nuts - For fighting against diseases reproduce)
K
Egg yolk, green
- Promotes blood clotting
- Prolonged bleeding
vegetables

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Form 2 Chapter 2: NUTRITION

Minerals
Minerals are inorganic chemical elements that are needed in small amounts
Minerals are required to maintain health and regulate body processes.
Lack of minerals causes deficiency diseases.
Vitamin
Food
Function
Deficiency disease
source
Calcium
Milk, cheese, - For strong bones and teeth
- Rickets
eggs, green
- Aids in blood clotting
- Delayed clotting
vegetables
- For muscle and nerve activities
- Muscular cramps
Sodium
Table salt,
- Maintains body fluid balance
- Muscular cramps
meat,
- For proper functioning of nerves - Tiredness
cheese
- lack of appetite
Iron
Liver, egg,
- For the formation of
- Anaemia
meat, green
haemoglobin in red blood cells
vegetables
Iodine
Seafood,
- For making hormones of the
- Goitre (swelling of
seaweed,
thyroid gland
the thyroid gland in
iodized salt
the neck)
Phosphorus
Cheese,
- For strong bones and teeth
- Rickets
eggs, green
- Promotes muscle contractions
- Tooth decay
vegetables,
- Helps in the release of energy
- Weak muscles
milk
Potassium
Bananas,
- Normal functioning of nerves
- Weak muscles
meat, nuts,
- Maintains body fluid balance
- Paralysis
fish
- Regulation of heartbeat
Fibre
Made up of cellulose from plant cell walls
Sources: brown rice, cereals, oats, wholemeal bread, fruits and leafy vegetables
The functions of fibre:
Fibre lowers blood cholesterol levels and controls blood sugar
Fibre absorbs water in the intestine and helps the waste material move from the
body more quickly
Fibre prevents digestive problem such as constipation.
Water
Water is the main component of our blood and body fluid
About 70% of our body weight is water
Our body loses water through urine, sweat and exhaled air
The water lost from our body can be replaced by drinking water, soups and fruit juice,
or eating fresh fruits and vegetables.
The functions of water:
Controlling body temperature
Acts as a solvent in which chemicals dissolve
Takes part in biochemical reactions
Controlling the concentration of blood
Removing excretory products like carbon dioxide and urea from our body
Acts as a transporting agent for digested food, hormones and antibodies
We can live for several days without food but we cannot survive for more than 3 days
without water

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Form 2 Chapter 2: NUTRITION

2.2 The Importance of a Balanced Diet

A balanced diet is a meal which contains the seven classes of food in the right amounts
to meet the daily requirements of the body
Without a balanced diet, a person can suffer from malnutrition and deficiency
diseases.
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Factors determine a balanced diet
Physical activity/
occupation
A person who does
heavy work such as
hard labour and
athletes needs more
energy than office
worker which is light
work

Body Size
Larger-sized individuals
need more energy to supply
to more body cells

FACTORS

Climate
A person living in a cold
climate needs more energy
to keep his body warm
compared to a person living
is in a warm climate

Age
Adolescents and
children need more
energy because they
are more active and still
growing

Gender/sex
Men need more energy
than women due to
more active and lower
body fat content

State of Health
People with health problems should
be careful with their diet. Food intake
must be appropriate to their health
problems

Calorific value is the amount of energy released from 1g of food.

Calorific value is measured in joules (J) or calories (cal)
1 calorie (cal) = 4.2 joules (J)
Calorific values depend on the content of carbohydrates, fats and proteins in the food
Class of food
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Fats

Calorific Value (kJ g-1)

17.2
22.2
38.5

Calorific values of canned or package foodstuffs are stated on their labels.

Table below shows the energy value of some local food
Food
Quantity
Calorific
Food
Quantity
Calorific
value (kJ)
value (kJ)
Boiled egg

1 egg

328

Fried noodles

1 plate

1176

White bread

1 piece

311

Nasi Briyani

1 plate

1890

Doughnut

1 piece

806

Chicken rice

1 plate

1399

Apom balik

1 piece

480

Banana

1 piece

441

Curry puff

1 piece

180

Full cream milk

1 glass

680

Fried rice

1 plate

1050

Low-fat milk

1 glass

550

The calorific value of eating 1 plate of fried rice, 1 piece of banana, 2 pieces of doughnut
and 1 glass of full cream milk = 1050 + 441 + 2(806) + 680 = 3783 kJ

Form 2 Chapter 2: NUTRITION

2.3 Human Digestive System

Digestion is the process of breaking down large (complex) food into smaller (simple)
molecules that can be readily absorbed by the body.
Digestion involves physical digestion and chemical digestion
Physical digestion involves the breaking down of food by the teeth into smaller
pieces and churning (mixing) of food in the stomach
Chemical digestion involves the action of enzymes on food
Enzyme are proteins that speed up the chemical reactions in our body
There are 3 main types of enzymes in our guts:
Amylase breaks down carbohydrate (such as starch molecules)
Proteases breaks down protein molecules
Lipases break down fat molecules
Characteristics of enzymes:
Enzymes are required in small quantities
Enzymes are not destroyed at the end of digestion
Specific enzymes act only in specific acidic or alkaline condition
Specific enzymes act only on specific foods
Enzymes function best at normal body temperature (37 oC). Enzymes are destroyed
at high temperature.

Digestive system
Digestion occurs in the gut or alimentary canal, a long tube which begins at the mouth
and ends at the anus
Food substances do not pass through liver, pancreas and gall bladder. These organs
only secrete chemicals to help break down the food.
The passage of food in the alimentary canal is as follows :
Mouth
For chewing and the action of salivary amylase
Oesophagus
Food moving down by peristalsis
Stomach
Kills bacteria in food
Churning of food
Digestion of protein
Duodenum
Receives bile from the gall bladder
Digestion of starch, proteins and fats
Small intestine
Digestion of maltose, polypeptides and fats
Absorption of digested products
Large intestine
Reabsorption of water, vitamins and minerals
Stores faeces temporarily in the rectum
Anus
Removes faeces by peristalsis

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Form 2 Chapter 2: NUTRITION

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Organs in the digestive system and their function

Organ
Function
Mouth
Chews and grins food using teeth
Salivary glands
Secrete saliva containing salivary amylase enzyme which breaks
down starch
Oesophagus
Carries food from mouth to stomach
Liver
Produces bile
Gall bladder
Stores the bile
Pancreas
Produces pancreatic juice
Duodenum
Receives partially digestion food from the stomach, bile from the gall
bladder, and pancreatic juice from pancreas
Small intestine
Secretes intestinal juice and absorbs nutrients and minerals
Large intestine
Absorbs the remaining water and minerals
Rectum
Stores faeces
Anus
Removes faeces through defecation

Form 2 Chapter 2: NUTRITION

Process of food is broken down in our body

In the mouth
Physical digestion is carried out by the teeth
The teeth bite, chew and grind the food into smaller pieces.
The salivary glands secrete saliva. The saliva contains salivary amylase and mucus.
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The salivary amylase digests starch into maltose.
Mucus softens and moistens the food, and then the tongue shapes it into a ballshaped lump called bolus which is easy to swallow.
In the oesophagus
The bolus is pushed by the tongue and cheek muscles into the oesophagus.
The bolus moves along the oesophagus towards the stomach by peristalsis.
Peristalsis is a wave-like motion produced by the contractions and relaxations of the
wall of the oesophagus.

In the stomach
Food is mixed with gastric juices secreted by the cells of the stomach wall. Gastric
juices contain proteases, hydrochloric acid and mucus.
Proteases break down proteins into polypeptides or peptones.
The hydrochloric acid:
Kills bacteria in the food
Activates the proteases by providing an acidic medium suitable for the proteases
Stops the action of salivary amylase
The mucus protects the stomach walls from the corrosive acid.
The food is mixed in the stomach to form chime (semi-solid food). Then it moves into
the duodenum.
In the duodenum
The duodenum is the upper part of the small intestine. It receives bile and pancreatic
juice.
Liver produces bile (greenish fluid) and gall bladder stores bile temporarily.
Bile is alkaline. It also neutralises the acidic chime.
Bile emulsifies fats into oils droplets for lipase to act upon.
Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains pancreatic amylase, protease
and lipase
Pancreatic amylase digests starch into maltose
Protease digests proteins into polypeptides
Lipase digests fats into fatty acids and glycerol
In the small intestine
Food then enters the jejunum and then the ileum, the final part of the small intestine.
The lower part of small intestine secretes intestinal juice which contains maltase,
protease and lipase.
Maltase digests maltose into glucose
Protease digests polypeptides into amino acids.
Lipase digests fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

Form 2 Chapter 2: NUTRITION

End products of digestion

Digestion of food is completed in the small intestine.
Starch, proteins and fats are complex food substances. They are broken down into
simpler forms.
Glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol are the end products of digestion.
They are smaller and soluble molecules which can be absorbed by the body.
Minerals, vitamins and water do not need to be digested because they can be
absorbed easily by the body
Fibre cannot be digested in our body because we do not produce the enzyme
needed for its digestion. Therefore, fibre is not absorbed by the body.
Class of food
End product
Carbohydrates
Glucose
Proteins
Amino acids
Fats
Fatty acids and glycerol

2.4 Absorption of Digested Food

Absorption is the process when the end products of digestion enter the bloodstream
through the small intestine walls.
Only small, soluble substances can pass across the wall of the small intestine.
The small intestine has
Highly folded inner surface area to increase the surface area for the efficient
absorption of nutrients
Millions of villi (singular: villus) to absorb nutrients more efficiently. A villus is a
finger-like projection. It has very thin walls which is only one-cell thick to help
absorb nutrients more efficiently.
Many blood capillaries to increase absorption
The nutrients are absorbed through the villi into the bloodstream by diffusion. The blood
carries the nutrients to the liver, then to the heart and finally to all body cells.

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Form 2 Chapter 2: NUTRITION

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2.5 Reabsorption of Water and Defecation

The main function of the large intestine is to reabsorb water.
Reabsorption occurs in the large intestine (colon) where a lot of water, dissolved
minerals and vitamins are reabsorbed into the blood.
As the water is reabsorbed, the undigested food substances changes into semi-solid
waste which consists of fibre, dead cells and bacteria.
The semi-solid waste is stored in the rectum, and expelled through the anus as faeces.
This process is called defecation.
If the undigested matter passes through the large intestine too slowly, too much water
will be absorbed. The faeces would be very hard and dry, and this results in
constipation.
Constipation is caused by lack of water and roughage (fibre) in the diet.

2.6 Healthy Eating Habits

The key to healthy eating is to eat a wide variety of food in the right amounts:
Eat a nutritious and balanced diet
Eat in the right amounts according to the requirements of the body
Avoid eating junk food
Unhealthy eating habits can lead to various health problem
Excessive nutrients
Health problems
Sugar
Tooth decay, obesity, diabetes
Salt
High blood pressure, heart disease, kidney damage
Fat/oil
Heart disease, high blood pressure

Form 2 Chapter 2: NUTRITION

We can use food pyramid to plan a healthy and balanced diet.

Foods that form the base of the food pyramid should be eaten more every day.
Foods at the top of the pyramid are required in lesser amounts in our daily diet. This
group of food provides the highest risk of getting heart diseases if taken excessively.
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We should respect and accept the differences in dining cultures of others based on their
religious beliefs. For example:
Serving only halal food to the Muslims
Avoid serving pork to the Muslims
Avoid serving beef to the Hindus
Avoid serving any kind of meats to vegetarians
Being considerate when consuming food amongst Muslims who fast during Ramadan
We must not waste food. Donate food generously to the underprivileged or the needy.

Form 2 Chapter 2: NUTRITION

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM SUMMARY TABLE I

CARBOHYDRATES

PROTEINS

FATS

1. Mouth

1. Stomach

1. Duodenum

2. Duodenum

2. Duodenum

2. Small intestine

3. Small intestine

3. Small intestine

DIGESTIVE

1. Salivary Amylase

1. Pepsin;

Lipase

ENZYME(S)

2. Pancreatic Amylase

*HCl

*Bile

3. Maltase

2. Pancreatic Protease

SITE OF
DIGESTION

3. Protease

ENDPRODUCT(S)

1 & 2. Starch to
Maltose
3. Maltose to Glucose

HCl denatures
proteins;
1 & 2. Proteins to
polypeptides;
3. Polypeptides to
amino acids

Bile emulsifies fats;

Lipases break fats
into fatty acids &
glycerol

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Form 2 Chapter 2: NUTRITION

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM SUMMARY TABLE II

Organ

Function

Secretion

Enzyme

End Product

Mouth

Chews and grins food using teeth

Saliva

Salivary amylase

Starch Maltose

Oesophagus

Carries food from mouth to stomach by

peristalsis

Mucus

Stomach

Secretes gastric juice

Gastric juice

Hydrochloric acid

Acidic medium, kill bacteria

Protease (pepsin)

Protein polypeptides

Bile

Emulsifies fats

Pancreatic
juice

Pancreatic amylase

Starch Maltose

Protease

Protein Polypeptides

Lipase

Fats Glycerol + Fatty acids

Maltase

Maltose Glucose

Protease

Polypeptides Amino acids

Lipase

Fats Glycerol + Fatty acids

Duodenum

Small intestine
(ileum)

Receives partially digestion food from the

stomach, bile from the gall bladder, and
pancreatic juice from pancreas

Secretes intestinal juice and absorbs nutrients

and minerals

Intestinal juice

Large intestine

Absorbs the remaining water and minerals

Rectum

Stores faeces

Anus

Removes faeces through defecation

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