Synaptic Transmission

Neurons receive information from sensory organs, send information to motor organs, or
share information with other neurons. The process of communicating information is very
similar, whether it is to another neuron or to a muscle or gland cell. However, by far the
largest number of neuronal connections is with other neurons. There is a space (the
synaptic cleft) between the axon terminus and the adjacent neuron. As the action
potential reaches the end of the axon, a chemical is released that travels across the
synaptic cleft to the next neuron to alter its electric potential.
Synapse Structure

The part of the synapse that belongs to the

neuron

is

called

initiating

the presynaptic

membrane.

The part of the synapse that belongs to the

receiving neuron is called the postsynaptic

membrane.

The space between the two is called the synaptic cleft. It is approximately 20 nm
wide (20 x 10-9 m).

Presynaptic terminals contain numerous synaptic vesicles

Synaptic

vesicles

contain Neurotransmitters,

chemical

substances

which

ultimately cause postsynaptic changes in the receiving neuron, is contained

within the synaptic vesicles. Common neurotransmitters include:
o Acetylcholine
o Dopamine
o Norepinepherine (a.k.a., noradrenaline)
o Serotonin
Transmission

1. The action potential signal arrives

at

the axon terminal (the bouton).

2. The

local

causes

depolarization

Ca2+ channels

Ca2+ enters

the

to

open.

presynaptic

cell

because

its

concentration is greater outside the cell than inside.

3. The Ca2+, by binding with calmodulin, causes vesicles filled with neurotransmitter
to migrate towards the presynaptic membrane.
4. The vesicle merges with the presynaptic membrane.
5. The presynaptic membrane and vesicle now forms a continuous membrane, so
that the neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft. This process is
called exocytosis.
6. The neurotransmitter diffuses through the synaptic cleft and binds with receptor
channel membranes that are located in both presynaptic and postsynaptic
membranes.
7. The time period from neurotransmitter release to receptor channel binding is less
than a millionth of a second.
Synaptic Integration
Through synaptic integration a neuron sums all excitatory and inhibitory signals arriving
at a postsynaptic cell at the same time.

Depending on the kind of neurotransmitter released, the effect can be either

excitatory or inhibitory

The local excitatory depolarizations or inhibitory hyperpolarizations are graded

(passive) potentials and therefore can summate or cause additive changes to the
post-synaptic membrane potential.
o Spatial summation occurs when multiple synapses in nearby locations are
stimulated simultaneously

o Temporal summation occurs when the same channel is repeatedly opened

(for example, because the presynaptic cell receives many impulses in a
row), thereby altering the membrane potential further before it has the time
to return to normal

Although receptor ion channels are all chemically gated, enough depolarization
past threshold can cause nearby voltage gated channels to open. An action
potential would then be generated.

If neurotransmitters were continually in the synaptic cleft, the postsynaptic channels

would be continually stimulated and the membrane potential would not be able to
become stable. There are three ways in which neurotransmitter is deactivated:
1. Degradation: Enzymes located in the synaptic cleft break down the
neurotransmitter into a substance which has no effect on the receptor channel
2. Reuptake: The neurotransmitter can reenter the presynaptic cell through
channels in the membrane.
3. Autoreceptors: Receptors for a particular neurotransmitter are located on the
presynaptic membrane that act like a thermostat. When there is too much
neurotransmitter released in the synapse, it decreases the release of further
neurotransmitter when the action potential arrives at the presynaptic membrane.
It may accomplish this by decreasing the number of Ca 2+channels that open
when the next action potential arrives at the presynaptic terminal

Neurotransmitters

This section describes a few of the best known neurotransmitters that are involved in
many functions in both the central and the peripheral nervous systems. Apart from
acetylcholine, they all belong to the family of amines or amino acids.
Neurotransmitter

Example

of

Disorder

Involving It

Acetylcholine is
widely

Structure

very

Alzheimers disease is

distributed

associated with a lack

excitatory

of

neurotransmitter

that

triggers
contraction

acetylcholine

in

certain regions of the

muscle

brain.

and

stimulates the excretion

of certain hormones. In
the

central

nervous

system, it is involved in
wakefulness,
attentiveness,

anger,

aggression, sexuality, and

thirst,

among

other

things.

Dopamine is
neurotransmitter
controlling
posture.

The

in

dopamine in certain

and

parts of the brain

modulates

causes the muscle

involved

movement
It

also

loss

mood and plays a central role

rigidity

inpositive

Parkinsons

reinforcement anddependency

disease.

Molecular

typical

of

of

GABA

(gamma-

Some

drugs

that

aminobutyric acid) is an

increase the level of

inhibitory neurotransmitter

GABA in the brain are

that

used to treat epilepsy

is

very

widely

distributed in the neurons

and

of

GABA

trembling

motor

suffering

the

cortex.

contributes

to

control, vision, and many

to

calm
of

the
people
from

Huntingtons disease.

other cortical functions. It

also regulates anxiety.

Glutamate is

major

It is also thought to be

excitatory

associated

neurotransmitter that is

Alzheimers

associated

whose first symptoms

with learning

and memory.

with
disease,

include

memory

malfunctions.

Norepinephrine is

Norepinephrine

plays

neurotransmitter that is

mood

important

disorders

for

attentiveness, emotions,
sleeping, dreaming, and
learning. Norepinephrine
is also released as a
hormone into the blood,
where it causes blood
vessels to contract and
heart rate to increase.

role

in
such

manic depression.

as

Serotonin contributes

to

Depression,

suicide,

various functions, such

impulsive

as

and agressiveness all

regulating

temperature,

body
sleep,

mood, appetite, and pain.

appear

behaviour,
to

involve

certain imbalances in
serotonin.

Disrupted signaling
Many disorders of the nervous system involve disruption of signaling at synapses:
Alzheimers disease (dementia) involves damage to neurons and lowered levels of
ACh in the brain Alzheimers disease is a brain disease that slowly destroys memory
and thinking skills and, eventually, the ability to carry out the simplest tasks. It begins
slowly and gets worse over time. Currently, it has no cure. Alzheimer's is not a normal
part of aging. Alzheimer's is the most common form of dementia. Alzheimer's has no
current cure, but treatments for symptoms are available and research continues.
Stages of Alzheimers:
Stage 1: Normal Outward Behavior
Stage 2: Very Mild Changes
Stage 3: Mild Decline
Stage 4: Moderate Decline
Stage 5: Moderately Severe Decline
Stage 6: Severe Decline
Stage 7: Very Severe Decline

Parkinsons disease (PD) Paralysis agitans, Shaking palsy is a type of movement

disorder. It happens when nerve cells in the brain don't produce enough of a brain
chemical called dopamine. Sometimes it is genetic, but most cases do not seem to run
in families. Exposure to chemicals in the environment might play a role.

Symptoms:

Trembling of hands, arms, legs, jaw and face

Stiffness of the arms, legs and trunk

Slowness of movement

Poor balance and coordination

There is no lab test for PD, so it can be difficult to diagnose. Doctors use a
medical history and a neurological examination to diagnose it.
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorders (ADHD) also involves low levels of
dopamine. ADHD stands for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, a condition with
symptoms such as inattentiveness, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. The symptoms differ
from person to person. ADHD was formerly called ADD, or attention deficit disorder.
Both children and adults can have ADHD, but the symptoms always begin in childhood.
Adults with ADHD may have trouble managing time, being organized, setting goals, and
holding down a job.
Depression
Sadness or downswings in mood are normal reactions to lifes struggles, setbacks, and
disappointments. Many people use the word depression to explain these kinds of
feelings, but depression is much more than just sadness. Some people describe
depression as living in a black hole or having a feeling of impending doom. However,
some depressed people don't feel sad at allthey may feel lifeless, empty, and
apathetic, or men in particular may even feel angry, aggressive, and restless.
Whatever the symptoms, depression is different from normal sadness in that it engulfs
your day-to-day life, interfering with your ability to work, study, eat, sleep, and have fun.
The feelings of helplessness, hopelessness, and worthlessness are intense and
unrelenting, with little, if any, relief.
Signs and symptoms of depression include:
Feelings of helplessness and hopelessness

Loss of interest in daily activities

Appetite or weight changes

Sleep changes

Anger or irritability

Loss of energy

Self-loathing

Reckless behavior

Concentration problems

Unexplained aches and pains.

Anxiety is the bodys natural response to danger, an automatic alarm that goes off
when you feel threatened, under pressure, or are facing a stressful situation.
In moderation, anxiety isnt always a bad thing. In fact, anxiety can help you stay alert
and focused, spur you to action, and motivate you to solve problems. But when anxiety
is constant or overwhelming, when it interferes with your relationships and activities, it
stops being functionalthats when youve crossed the line from normal, productive
anxiety into the territory of anxiety disorders.
Symptoms vary depending on the type of anxiety disorder, but general symptoms
include:
Feelings of panic, fear, and uneasiness

Problems sleeping

Cold or sweaty hands and/or feet

Shortness of breath

Heart palpitations

An inability to be still and calm

Dry mouth

Numbness or tingling in the hands or

feet
Nausea
Dizziness

Psychoactive Drugs

Muscle tension

Stimulants increase alertness, attention, and energy, as well as elevate blood

pressure, heart rate, and respiration.
A depressant, or central depressant, is a drug or endogenous compound that lowers
neurotransmission levels, which is to depress or reduce arousal or stimulation, in
various areas of the brain. Depressants are also occasionally referred to as "downers"
as they lower the level of arousal when taken.
Analgesics are medicines that relieve pain. Narcotics, such as morphine, and synthetic
narcotic drugs, such as methadone, may be used for pain relief.
LSD, peyote, psilocybin, and PCP are drugs that cause hallucinations, which are
profound distortions in a person's perception of reality. Under the influence of
hallucinogens, people see images, hear sounds, and feel sensations that seem real
but are not.
Source:
http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/i/i_01/i_01_m/i_01_m_ana/i_01_m_ana.html
http://www.columbia.edu/cu/psychology/courses/1010/mangels/neuro/transmission/tran
smission.html
http://www.alz.org/alzheimers_disease_what_is_alzheimers.asp
http://www.webmd.com/alzheimers/guide/alzheimers-disease-stages
https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/parkinsonsdisease.html
http://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/
http://www.helpguide.org/articles/depression/depression-signs-and-symptoms.htm
http://www.webmd.com/anxiety-panic/guide/mental-health-anxiety-disorders
http://www.drugfreeworld.org/drugfacts

Peripheral Nervous System

There are two types of cells in the peripheral nervous system. These cells carry
information to (sensory nervous cells) and from (motor nervous cells) the central
nervous system (CNS). Cells of the sensory nervous system send information to the
CNS from internal organs or from external stimuli. Motor nervous system cells carry
information from the CNS to organs, muscles, and glands. The motor nervous system is
divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
The somatic nervous system controls skeletal muscle as well as external
sensory organs such as the skin. This system is said to be voluntary because the
responses can be controlled consciously. Reflex reactions of skeletal muscle however
are an exception. These are involuntary reactions to external stimuli.
The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary muscles, such as smooth
and cardiac muscle. This system is also called the involuntary nervous system.
The autonomic nervous system can further be divided into the parasympathetic and
sympathetic divisions.
The parasympathetic division controls various functions which include
inhibiting heart

rate,

constricting

pupils,

and

contracting

the

bladder.

The nerves of the sympathetic division often have an opposite effect when they
are located within the same organs as parasympathetic nerves. Nerves of the
sympathetic division speed up heart rate, dilate pupils, and relax the bladder. The
sympathetic system is also involved in the flight or fight response. This is a
response to potential danger that results in accelerated heart rate and an
increase in metabolic rate.
Peripheral Nervous System Division
The peripheral nervous system is divided into the following sections:

Sensory Nervous System - sends information to the CNS from internal organs or

from external stimuli.

Motor Nervous System - carries information from the CNS to organs, muscles,
and glands.

Somatic Nervous System - controls skeletal muscle as well as external sensory

organs.
Autonomic Nervous System - controls involuntary muscles, such as smooth and

cardiac muscle.
Sympathetic - controls activities that increase energy expenditures.
Parasympathetic - controls activities that conserve energy expenditures.

Source:
http://biology.about.com/od/organsystems/a/aa061804a.htm