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TM 5-852-6
AIR FORCE AFR 88-19, Volume 6
TECHNICAL MANUAL
TECHNICAL MANUAL
NO. 5-852-6
AIR FORCE REGULATION
AFR 88-19, VOLUME 6
HEADQUARTERS
DEPARTMENTS OF THE ARMY
AND THE AIR FORCE
WASHINGTON, DC, 25 January 1988
Paragraph
Page
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-1
1-1
1-1
2-1
2-1
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.. . .... ..
2-2
2-3
2-2
2-3
.. . .... ..
2-4
2-5
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3-1
3-2
3-3
3-4
3-1
3-1
3-3
3-3
3-5
3-6
3-6
3-6
3-7
3-8
3-8
3-11
3-9
3-18
4-1
4-1
4-2
4-2
4-3
4-7
4-4
4-13
GENERAL
Purpose and scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References and symbols . . . . . . . . .
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER 2.
CHAPTER 3.
CHAPTER 4.
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APPENDIX A.
APPENDIX B.
LIST OF SYMBOLS
THERMAL MODELS FOR COMPUTING
FREEZE AND THAW DEPTHS
APPENDIX C. REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A-1
B-1
C-1
BIBLIO-1
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 . Average thermal conductivity for sands and gravels, frozen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
2-2. Average thermal conductivity for sands and gravels, unfrozen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4
2-3 . Average thermal conductivity for silt and clay soils, frozen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4
2-4. Average thermal conductivity for silt and clay soils, unfrozen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4
2-5. Average thermal conductivity for peat, frozen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5
2-6. Average thermal conductivity for peat, unfrozen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5
2-7. Average volumetric heat capacity for soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8
2-8.7dolumetriclatentheatforsoils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9
2-9. Average monthly temperatures versus time at Fairbanks, Alaska- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
2-10Relationship between wind speed and n-factor during thawing season. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
2-11.Relationship between mean freezing index and maximum freezing index for
10 years of record, 1953-1962 (arctic and subarctic regions). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
2-12Relationship between mean thawing index and maximum thawing index for
10 years of record, 1953-1962 (arctic and subarctic regions). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
3-1 . .1 coefficient in modified Berggren formula. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
3-2. Relationship between (x/2;att-) and erf (x/287_1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
3-3. Sinusoidal temperature pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . 3.9
3-4. Indexes and equivalent sinusoidal temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
3-5. Average monthly temperatures for 1949-1950 and equivalent sine wave,
Fairbanks, Alaska. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11
3-6. Long-term mean monthly temperatures and equivalent sine wave,
Fairbanks, Alaska. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
3-7. Schematic of ducted foundation. . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . 3-14
3-8. Properties of dry air at atmospheric pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16
4-1. Illustration for example in paragraph 4-la. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
4-2. Temperature around a cylinder having received a step change in temperature. . . . . 4-3
4-3. General solution of slurry freeze-back . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
4-4. Specific solution of slurry freeze-back. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
4-5. Freezeup of stationary water in an uninsulated pipe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
4-6. Temperature drop of flowing water in a pipeline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12
LIST OF TABLES
Table
2-1 .
2-2.
2-3.
2-4.
3-1.
3-2.
. ........
. ....... .
. .. .....
. ....... .
...... . . .
. . ....
. . ... .
. . ....
.. ....
..... .
. . ..
. . ..
. . ..
. ....
....
......
. .....
......
. .. ...
..... .
. . ... .
..... .
. . ....
....
.. .
...
. . ..
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
2.2
2.6
2.9
2 .11
3.5
3.13
3.20
3.20
B-2
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL
1-1 . Purpose and scope.
1-3. Background.
CHAPTER 2
DEFINITIONS AND THERMAL PROPERTIES
2-1 . Definitions .
Definitions of certain specialized terms
_ applicab le to arctic and subarctic
regio ns are contained in TM 5-8_5_2/
AFR _S-1G,_Volume 1. Following are
additional terms used specifically in
heat-transfer calculations .
a. Thermal conductivity, K. The
quantity of heat flow in a unit time
through a unit area of a substance
caused by a unit thermal gradient.
b. Specific heat, c. The quantity of
heat absorbed (or given up) by a unit
weight ofa substance when its tempera
ture is increased (or decreased) by 1
degree Fahrenheit (F) divided by the
quantity of heat absorbed (or given up)
by a unit weight of water when its
temperature is increased (or decreased)
by 1F.
c. Volumetric heat capacity, C. The
quantity of heat required to change
the temperature of a unit volume by
1F.
u =yd(c+1.0
(eq 2-1)
100
Forfrozen soils,
C f = yd (c + 0.5
100
(eq 2-2)
Yd (c + 0.75
100 )
(eq 2-3)
where c = specific heat ofthe soil solids
(0.17 for most soils)
Yd = dry unit weight of soil
w = water content of soil in percent of dry weight .
d.
yd
100
(eq 2-4)
(eq 2-5)
c
g. Thermal ratio, aa
(eq 2-6)
(eq 2-7)
where
vo absolutevalue ofthe difference
' between the mean annual temperature below the ground
surface and 32F.
vs one of two possible meanings,
depending on the problem
being studied:
(1) vs = nF/t (or nl/t)
where
n=conversion factor from air
index to surface index
F= air freezing index
I =air thawing index
t = length of freezing (or thawing)
season .
(2) vs absolute value of the difference between the mean
annual groundsurface temperature and 32F.
In the first case, vs is useful for
computing the seasonal depth
of freeze or thaw . In the second
case, it is useful in computing
multiyear freeze or thaw
depths that may develop as a
result of some long-term
change in the heat balance at
the ground surface.
-_
C
L
(eq 2-8)
"s
(eq 2-9)
Material
Aluminum
Asbestos fibers
Concrete (avg. stone)
Concrete (dams)
Copper
Corkboard
Cork, granulated
Fiberglas board
Foamglas
Glass block, expanded
Glass sheets
Glass wool
Ice
Iron (alpha)
Masonry
Mineral wool
Perlite, expanded
Polystyrene, cellular foam
Polyurethane foam
Sawdust
Snow
Steel
Straw
Water
Woods (avg .)
Woods fiberboard
Temperature
(OF)
Specific heat
(Btullb OF)
-27 .4
--44.6
91
-19
-111
-22
-20
112
--32
44.6
__
__
__
__
---__
--68
148
0.20
0.25
0.20
0.22
0.20
0.43
0.29
0.42
0.24
0.19
0.16
0.18
0.20
0.16
0.48
0.11
0.22
0.22
0.22
0.27
0 .25
0.60
0 .50
0.12
0.35
1 .00
0.33
0 .34
Specific heat values shown to nearest 0.01 . Average values listed where temperature is not shown .
2-2
Society of Heating and Air Conditioning Engineers for the specific heat
values of common materials .
c. The thermal conductivity of soils
is dependent upon anumber offactors:
density ; moisture content; particle
shape; temperature ; solid, liquid and
vapor constituents; and the state ofthe
pore water, whether frozen or unfrozen.
Average values, expressed in Btu/ft
hour F, for frozen andunfrozen granular soils, silts and clays should be read
from figures 2-1 through 2-4. The
charts for sands and gravels are applicable when the silt and clay content
together make up less than 20% of the
soil solids. The charts for silt and clay
are applicable when that fraction is at
' least 50%. For intermediate silt-clay
fractions, it is recommended that the
simple average of the values for the
two sets of charts be used. In all cases,
the error in the thermal conductivity
estimates may be 25%, and even
higher when the percentage of quartz
grains in the soil is exceptionally high
or low. Figures 2-5 and 2-6 presentestimates of the average thermal conductivity of frozen and unfrozen peat. An
excellent source of data for dry construction materials is the ASHRAH
Guide and Data Book. Thermal conductivity values for a number of common construction materials are listed
in table 2-2.
d. The latent heat of fusion is the
amount of heat required to cause a
phase change in soil moisture. This
amount of heat does not change the
temperature of the system when
freezing or thawing takes place. The
gravimetric latent heat of fusion of
water is assumed to be 144 Btu/lb . The
amount ofheat energy required to convert 1 ft of water to -ice is (144 X 62.4 =)
9000 Btu/ft3 and to change 1 ft3 of ice to
water is (144 X 0.917 X 62.4 =) 8240
Btu/ft3. (Note: The density ofwater 62.4
lb/ft3 and that of pure ice Is 57.2 lb .ft3).
e. Figures 2-7 and 2-8 may be used
to determine the average volumetric
heat capacity and volumetric latent
heat of fusion, respectively, of moist
soils.
f. The following example illustrates
the significance of latentheatof fusion
relative to the volumetric heat capacity
for a moist soil. Assume a soil having a
Fundamental considerations.
0I I
13
~I2.0
\\
0
90 1
e0
0
1 .8
100%/ Saturation
o.
0.2
s o.s \
6
50
0
70
30
40
50
60
Moisture Content (%)
Thermal conductivity K is expressed in Btu per hour per square foot per
unit thermal gradient in F per foot .
Dashed line represents extrapolation .
(U .S .
10
20
Figure 2-1.
2-3
INNOM
140
v
a
100
90
La
3 80
70
130
;'
0 60
50
WIV
H
2
3-
.yrnHl
nK"li
/1I usit
POW
~.eGil~y
rrrr
BEEN,
E~
40
i
100
1-
'
90
so
300
10
20
30
20
30
40
50
Moisture Content (/,)
40
90
120
Figure 2-3.
iav
C7
3
z
20111 I"
NE
110 I"
I 00
1111,101k0m
--
90
so
111W
70
01,,
_
aa
"
"
10
0
'
t0
30
~~-
40
2-4
100% saturated
70
50
N/A
N/A
1 .20
40
1.00
N/A
1 .23
30
0 .98
1 .26
20
0 .61
1 .26
pure ice
1 .26
Thermal
conductivitY K is expressed'iq :$tu perhour per square foot per
unit thermal gradient in F per foot.
60
LIM
0
10
200
400
_0
600
800 1000 1200 1400
Water Content (%dry weight)
1600
1800
2000
(U.S.
600
800
1000 1200 1400
Water Content (%dry weight)
Figure 2-6.
sional heat flow may be assumed, thereby simplifying the problem and its
solution.
2-4. Freezing and thawing indexes.
Type of
material
Asphalt
paving .
mixture
Concrete
Wood
Building
boards
Blanket
and batt
insulation
Board
and
slab
insulation
2-6
Description
Mix with 6% by
weight cutback asphalt
With sand and
gravel or stone
aggregate (ovendried)
With sand and
gravel or stone
aggregate (not
dried)
With lightweight
aggregates, including expanded
shale, clay or
slate ; expanded
stags ; cinders ;
pumice; perlite ;
vermiculite ; also
cellular concretes .
Maple, oak and
similar hardwoods
Fir, pine and
similar softwoods
Asbestoscement board
Plywood
Wood fiberboard,
laminated or
homogeneous
Wood fiberhardboard type
Mineral wool,
fibrous form,
processed from
rock, slag, or
glass
Wood fiber
Cellular glass
Corkboard (without added binder)
Glass fiber
Wood or cane fiberinterior finish
(plank, tile, lath)
Expanded polystyrene
Expanded ureaformaldehyde
Expanded perlite
Polyurethane foam
Mineral wool with
resin binder
Mineral wool with
asphalt binder
Unit weight
(Iblit3)
k
conductivity
(Btulft2 -hr" F
per in .)
K
conductivity
(Btulft "
hr-OF)
138
10.3
0 .86
140
9 .0
0.75
140
12.0
1 .00
120
5 .2
0.43
100
80
60
40
30
20
3 .6
2 .5
1 .7
1 .15
0 .90
0 .70
0 .30
0 .21
0 .14
0 .096
0 .075
0 .058
45
1 .10
0 .092
32
0 .80
0 .067
120
34
4 .0
0 .80
0 .33
0 .067
26,33
0.42,0 .55
0 .035,0.046
65
1 .40
0 .12
1 .5-4.0
0 .27
0 .022
3.2-3.6
9.0
1' 0.39
0 .25
0 .021
0 .032
6.5-8.0
9.5-11 .0
10.27
0 .25
0 .022
0 .021
15.0
0 .35
0 .029
1 .6
0.29
0 .024
1 .0
9 .5 " 11 .5
1 .5-3.0
0.25
0 .34
0.17
----
15.0
0 .28
0 .023
15.0
0 .31
0.026
Miscellaneous
of construction
materials, Continued
Description
Unit weight
(Iblft3)
k
conductivity'
(Btulft2-hr"F
conductivity
(Btulft---
per in.)
hr-F)
Cork, granulated
Expanded perlite
Mineral wool
(glass, slag, or rock)
Sawdust or shavings
Straw
Vermiculite (expanded)
Wood fiber: redwood,
hemlock, or fir
5-12
3-4
0.25-0.36
0.28
2-5
8-15
7-8
0.30
0.45
0.32
0.025
0.037
7.0-8.2
0.48
0.040
Aluminum
Copper
Ductile Iron
Glass
Ice
Snow, new, loose
Snow on ground
Snow, drifted and
compacted
Steel
Water, average
168
549
468
164
57
5.3
18.7
1416
2640
360
5.5
~15.4
0.6
1.56
118
220
30
0 .46
1 .28
0 .05
0.13
31 .2
487
62.4
4.8
310
4.2
0.40
25 .8
0.35
2.0-3.5
0.30
0.025
Values fork are fordrybuilding materials at a mean temperature of 75F except as noted; wet conditions will adversely affect values of
many of these materials.
t Mean temperature of 60 F.
Mean temperature of 320 F.
or at the ground surface is above (positive) or below (negative) 32F, the assumed freezing point of water. The
duration is expressed in days.
2-7
W
90
-40
130
Btu/cu ft F
120-"
SO
30
40
100 -
-20
30 RC .C .
28 A.C .
90 -!- 10
20
16
7'o -L-
Avre.'
(U .S .
-5
Specific hoot of
Army
Corps
save
of
sary to determine or estimate the temperature condition at the ground surface . Since air temperatures are generally available and surface temperatures are not, a correlation between
these temperatures helps establish the
thermal boundary condition at the
ground surface . The combined effects
of radiative, convective and conductive
heat exchange at the air-groundinterface often must be considered in determining surface temperature .
d. Correlation of air and surface
indexes. No simple correlation exists
between air and surface indexes. The
difference between air and surface
temperatures at any specific time is
influenced by latitude, cloud cover,
time of year, time of day, atmospheric
humidity and stability, wind speed,
snow cover and ground surface char2-8
Ib/cu ft
140 -I
Btu/cu ft -t- 40
130-
KEY
120-
tootoo-
90-
Go-
-PO -"A.-
(U .S .
Day
Temperature ( F)
Maximum
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
29
9
10
15
30
38
30
Minimum
1
-11
- 8
- 1
16
30
18
Average
15
- 1
1
7
23
34
24
Degree-days
per day
Cumulative
degree-days
-17
-33
-31
-25
- 9
2
-8
-473 *
-506
-537
-562
-571
-569
-577
2-9
50
w
W 40
S
IQ 32
30
W
0M
W
E-
JS
IZ
O
20
10
W
Q
S
W
-20
(U.S . Army Corps of Engineers)
Figure 2-9.
2-10
in
Table 2-4. n-factors for freeze and thaw (ratio of surface index to air index)
(U.S. Army Corps of Engineers).
Type of surface
For freezing
conditions
For thawing
conditions
1 .0
0.75
0.7
0.7
0.9
0.5
0.3**
_1 .5
1 .6 to 2t
1 .4 to 2t
1 .0
0.8
0.4
Snow surface
Portland-cement concrete
Bituminous pavement
Bare soil
Shaded surface
Turf
Tree-covered
Surface exposed directly to sun or air without any overlying dust, soil, snow or ice, except as noted otherwise, and with no building
heat involved .
Use lowest value except in extremely high latitudes or at high elevations where a major portion of summer heating is from solar
radiation.
Data from Fairbanks, Alaska, for single season with snow cover permitted to accumulate naturally .
3.0
X
2.6
a~rc
~~ ,
2.0
S CANCRETE
(U .S .
2
4
6
6
10
12
14
AVERAGE WIND SPEED, mph, DURING THAWING SEASON
16
Figure 2-10.
2-1 1
I Cg000
I (BARROW!o
W
h
(rHIXE) o
9000
/6(Fr YUKON/
. e0001-
(NORrNWAY) o
W
O
Z
(BETTLES)
Z 7000F-
W
W
W
Q
/ o(KOrZESUE)
6000
(FAIRBANKS!
(6ULKANA) o
(B/6 DELTA! o,
(AmAloo
X
Q
5000
o(BEMEL )
NOTE .'
400,0
3000
4 000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
Relationship between mean freezing index and maximum freezing index for 10
years of record, 1953-1962 (arctic and subarctic regions) .
(FT. YUIfQY)
(ANIAK)
0
Ir (MOPrHWAY1
(BETNEL) a' VG7/LKANA)
0 wrnESI
3000
X
z 2500
Z
0(KOTIEBUE)
1500
X
Q
( THUL E) 0
1000 -IBARROWI 0/
NOTE .'
500
Imo_-
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
I
3000
3500
Relationship between mean thawing index and maximum thawing index for 10 years of
record, 1953-1962 (arctic and subarctic regions) .
CHAPTER 3
ONE-DIMENSIONAL LINEAR AND PERIODIC HEAT FLOW
or
(eq 3-1)
48 K nl
where
X= depth of freeze or thaw (ft)
K= thermal conductivity of soil
(Btu/ft hr F)
L = volumetric latent heat of fusion
(Btu/ft3)
n=conversion factor from air
index to surface index (dimensionless)
F= air freezing index (F-days)
I = air thawing index (F-days)
IIIMIdMI M%I/
ImpAPEFAMUFAF
I19,aPAPIMAPOAF
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~~I
'A ll
4ua!o1j;aOO
Figure 3-1. A coefficient in the modified Berggren formula.
3-2
4-1
0
a
0
U
Homogeneous soils.
(eq. 3-2).
(eq 3-3)
(eq 3-4)
(eq 3-6)
(eq 3-6)
(eq 3-7)
(eq3-8)
-Fusion parameter,
-Lambda coefficient,
48 K nF
L
= 0.89
48(0.76)(2600)
2160
5.8 ft
(eq 3-8
Lid,
2 (
24a 1
Ry
2
(eq 3-10)
3-3
where
dl = thickness of first layer (ft)
R1 = dl/K1 = thermal resistance of
first layer.
The partial freezing (or thawing) index
required to penetrate the second layer
is
F2 (or I2) = .
L2d2
24x2
R2
(111+ -) .
2
(eq 3-11)
Lnd n
24.12
Rn
(MR + - )
2
(eq 3-12)
(eq 3-13)
(eq 3-14)
Layer
Depth
(ft)
Material'
Water content
(%)
1
2
3
4
5
6
0.0-0.4
0 .4-2.0
2.0-5.0
5.0-6.0
6.0-8.0
8.0-9.0
Asphaltic concrete
G W-G P
GW-G P
SM
SM-SC
SM
138
156
151
130
122
116
_2.1
2.8
6.5
4.6
5.2
3-4
(2)
Yd
138
156
151
130
122
122
(1)
Layer
1
2
3
4
5a
5b
-2,1
2,8
6,5
4,6
4,6
(3)
0,4
1,6
3,0
1,0
1,0
0,6
(4)
0,4
2,0
5,0
6,0
7,0
6,6
Ed
(5)
Table 3-1,
0,86
1,85
2,00
1 .65
0,64
0,64
= 1,35
C
28
29
29
28
25
25
(7)
(6)
0
751
1830
1220
808
485
0
470
610
1220
808
808
(4 " 20 ) = 465
(3 " 89) = 26
_ (808)(0,6)
1 5b
24) (0,303)
-0,455
0,508
0,537
0,552
0,550
-1,15
0,83
0,68
0,63
0,64
-29
29
29
28
28
0,207
0,258
0,288
0,305
0,303
--
~2
(17)
0,46
0,86
1,50
0,60
1,56
0,94
Rn
(18)
ni = 1560 degree-days
.~
(16)
It
(15)
(14)
1 5a
(808)(1,0)
(24) (0,305)
(3'12) = 551
_ (1220)(1,0
(24) (0,288)
14
(2,07) = 612
12
58
145
173
198
188
Md
(13)
(610)(3,0)
(24) (0 .258)
12
46
87
28
25
15
Cd
(12)
__
-376
517
633
658
650
(11)
vs = 14,8F
0
751
2581
3801
4609
4286
ELd
(10)
(470) (1,6)
(24) (0,207)
12
Ld
(9)
(8)
0
0,46
1,32
2,82
3 .42
3,42
BR
(19)
-134
612
551
465
260
nl
+2
0,23
0,89
2,07
3,12
4,20
3 " 89
D2
(21)
(20)
-134
746
1297
1762
1557
PnI
(22)
3
0
a
"
O
C
70
Ld
24,2
For layer 3,
n13 =
(7-R +
(610)(3.0)
(2.07)
24(0 .608)2
= 612 degree-days
(eq 3-19)
(eq 3-20)
(eq 3-21)
2 -fat
(eq 3-22)
Unit
weight
K
(Btulft)
Interior Alaska
16
0.11
2300
Canadian Archipelago,
N . Alaskan coast,
and temperate regions
20
0.18
10
2880
Northern Greenland
22
0.20
11
3170
Region
3-6
(Iblft 3 )
hr F)
(Btulft 3
F)
(Btulft 3 )
where
T (X,t) = temperature at depth x, at
time (F)
TS
= suddenly applied constant
surface temperature (F)
To
=initial uniform temperature of the mass (F)
erf =mathematical expression,
termed the error function,
which is frequently used
in heat flow computations
(dimensionless)
x
= depth below surface (ft)
0
N
h64'
1
t0
O
..
N
O
v
M
b0
G
W
W
O
A.
H
O
U
Figure 3-2.
at).
3- 7
aP
(eq 3-23)
where
A= amplitude oftemperature wave
at depth x (F).
Ao amplitude of the surface temperature wave above or below
the average annual temperature (F)
x = depth below surface (ft)
a = thermal diffusivity of the mass
(ft2/day)
P= period of sine wave (365 days) .
The sinusoidal temperature pattern is
assumed to exist at all levels to a depth
where there is no temperature change.
The temperature waves lag behind the
surface wave, and the amplitude of the
sinusoidal waves decreases with depth
below the surface. The phase lag is
determined by t x = (x/2) ( -1r 6U
3 a) .
Typical temperature-time curves for a
surface and at a depth x are shown in
figure 3-3.
In the following example of a sinusoidal temperature change, the surface
temperature ofan 8-foot-thick concrete
slab varies from 60 to -40F during the
year. Determine the maximum temperature at the base of the slab assuming a diffusivity of 1.0 ft2/day for
3-8
the concrete . The average annual temperature is [60 + (-40)1/2 = 10F and the
surface amplitude is (60 - 10) = 50F.
The amplitude at an 8-foot depth equals
50 exp [-8
.V
(1.0)(365)
= 50 e'0.742
24F .
(eq 3-24)
8
2
365
n(1.0)
=43 days
(about 6 weeks) .
(eq 3-25)
TIME
(U.S . Army Corps
of Engineers)
Figure 3-3.
Dry Unit
weight,
Material
Concrete
Sand
Gravel
yd
(Ib/ft)
-120
135
Water
content,
w (%)
-2
4
Thermal
conductivity,
K
(Btulft hr F)
1 .0
0.8*
1 .5*
Volumetric
heat
capacity,
C
(Btulft3 F)
33.0
23 t
28 tx
Thermal
diffusivity,
a = K/C
(ft2/hr)
0.033
0.035
0.054
Material
Concrete
Sand
Gravel
Thickness
(ft)
1 .75
0.50
2.50
Total thickness
4.75
Thermal
diffusivity
(ft2lhr)
0.033
0.035
0.054
1 .3
1 .2
1 .00
Equivalent gravel
thickness (ft)
2.3 (1 .3 X 1 .75)
0.6
2.50
5.4
The subscript g refers to the gravel layer and the subscript m refers to the other material layer .
3-9
T
N
VAF,FA
INIMA
EWA
:~
iurua~
~~~NIMIN&e
llWIW1
11R
10
10
Of
N
O
W~ M
r
N
ON
f?
3- 10
x
W
0
Z
0
Z
~NaI
WHEN
MANFAM iiINTERIM""~~~~
P
O
"t~~n
2ManiMriiM
(eq 3-26)
where
f = frequency, 1/365 cycles per day
t = time from origin in days. (Origin
of curve is located at a. point
where T intersects the average
annual temperature on its way
downward toward the yearly
minimum .)
If the-thawing index of 3240 degreedays had been used,the sinusoidal temperature amplitude would be 35.50 F.
The actual temperature curve for Fairbanks, Alaska, and the equivalent sine
wave computed from the freezing index
are plotted in figure 3-5. This illustration makes use ofair indexes buta sine
wave could be determined for surface
indexes by multiplying the air indexes
with appropriate n-factors. Note that
the mean annual ground surface temperature may be substantially different
(frequently higher) from the mean annual air temperature because the
freezingn-factor is generally not equal
to the thawing n-factor . If the longterm mean monthly temperature had
been used instead of the average
monthly temperatures for the 1949-1950
period, the correlation between the
actual temperature curve and the equivalentsine curvewould practically coincide, as shown in figure 3-6.
60
Sine Wave
of Equivalent Indexes
50
.d
40
THAWING
INDEX
30
27
- -/~
FREEZING
INDEX
/
r 20
a
fd
a0
"
10
TAvg Annual
Temp
Avg.
Temperature
QD~lM
- . 1949
(U .S .
L_ IL
138~ o
1950
(12)(0.03:3)
(12)(1.0)
(eq 3-27)
-10
-2 0
8+4+g
= 23.7 Btu/ft 3,F
(eq 3-28)
_i
(AMPL/TUOE 37 F)
60
50
IJL
0
W
Q
THAWING INDEX
MEAN TEMPERATURE
32
30
26 .2
a
H
J
H
Z
O
3400 DEGREE-DAYS
MEAN ANNUAL
20
FREEZING
TEMPERATURE
INDEX
5300 DEGREE-DAYS
IO
Z
W
0
-10
SEPT
(U .S .
i*
OCT
NOV
-I
DEC
JAN
I FEB I MAR I
MAY
JUNE__
OCT
Figure 3-6 .
Long-term mean monthly temperatures and equivalent sine wave, Fairbanks, Alaska.
APR
1,5
5,0
1,5
1,3
--
-133
72
72
Floor
Sand
Silt a
Silt b
5 .0
45 .0
45,0
d
24
28
37
37
C
-1,54
0 .90
0,90
K
0
960
4650
4650
L
0
4800
6970
6050
Ld
0
738
1470
1390
L
36
140
55
48
Cd
176
231
224
--
Xd
27
29
29
6050
24(0 .586)
Total
6970
nI(Silt a) =
24(0 .593)
4800
ni(Sand) 24(0,463)
ni(Silt b) -
-0 .68
0,77
0,765
0 .463
0,593
0 .586
--
~2
n
11,20
3,25
1,67
1,44
0
11,20
14,45
14,45
)R
+2
0
12,82
15 .29
15,17
~R
a = 12/33 = 0 .36
1 .21
0,65
0,69
vs = 65-32 - 33F
0
4800
11770
10850
ELd
v0 = 32 - 20 = 12F
1,5
6 .5
8,0
7,8
Ed
Layer
Table 3-2 .
Fn I
--5540 5540
7480 13020
6520 12060
nl
3m
oN
ma
0
dn.
a
0
3
""
w
J
w
N
70
N
a
X = KRf [
3-14
1+
48*21 f
KL(R f)2
. 11
(eq 3-29)
where
K = average thermal conductivity of
gravel
=1/2(0 .7 + 1.0) = 0 .85 Btu/ft hr F
RT = thermal resistance of floor
system
18
4
12
12(1 .0)
12(0.033)
12(1.0)
12.5 ft2 hr F/Btu
(eq 3-30
(In the computations the dead airspace
is assumed equivalent to the thermal
resistance of concrete of the same
thickness.)
=factor in modified Berggren
equation = 0.97 (conservative
assumption)
I f = thawing index at floor surface
= (60 - 32)(150) = 4200 degreedays
L=latent heat of gravel =
144(125)(0 .025 = 450 Btu/ ft3
then
(48)(0 .97) 2'(4200) *
X - (0.85(12 .5) [ _ 1 +
.11
(0.85)(450)(12 .5)2
- 1.1.0 ft.
(eq 3-31)
(b) Thus the total amount of heat
to be removed from the gravel pad by
cold-air ventilation during the freezing
season with ducts open is equal to the
latent and sensible heat contained in
the thawed pad. The heat content per
square foot of pad is determined as
follows:
- Latent heat, (X)(L) = (11.0)(450)
= 4950 Btu/ft2
- Sensible heat (10 percent of
latent heat, based upon experience) = 495
- Total heat content:
5445 Btu/ft2.
The ducts will be open during the
freezing season (215 days),and the average rate of heat flow from the gravel
during this season is equal to 5445/215
X 24 = 1.0 Btu/ft2 hr. The average thawing index at the surface of the pad is
L X2
(450)(11 .0)
= 1420 degree-days.
4812 K = 48(0.97) 2(0.85)
(eq 3-32)
This thawing index must be compensated for by an equal freezing index
at the duct outlet on the surface of the
pad to assure freeze-back. The average
215
= 6.6F below 32F or 25 .4F.
The inletair during the freezing season
has an average temperature of
Air freezing index
4000
4.
+1
(12)(0 .033) 1.0 = 12.3 hr ft2 OF/Btu (eq 3-33)
where
XC = thickness of concrete (ft)
Xi = thickness of insulation (ft)
hre =surface transfer coefficient
between duct wall and duct
air
(For practical design, hrC = 1.0 Btu/ft2
hr F and represents the combined
effect of convection and radiation . At
much higher air velocities, this value
will be slightly larger; however, using
a value of 1.0 will lead to conservative
designs). The average heat flow between the floor and inlet duct air is
[(60 - 13 .4)/12 .3] = 3.8 Btu/ft2 hr, and be- twe.en the floor and outlet duct air is
[(60 - 25.4)/12 .3] = 2.8 Btu/ft2 hr. Thus
. the average rate of heat flow from the
gravel pad to the duct air is 1.0 Btu/ft2
hr. The total heat flow 0 to the duct air
from the floor and gravel pad is
(3 .3 + 1.0) = 4.3 Btu/ft2 hr. The heat flow
to the duct air must equal the heat
removed by the duct airHeat added - heat removed
(eq 3-34)
O fm . 60V Ad p e pTR.
3-15
where
.Q
m
Ad
cp
TR
60 A d p C pTR
ft/minute
Figure 3-8 .
3-16
(eq3-36)
(4.3)(220)(2.68)
(eq 3-36)
perimeter of duct in ft
2 ( 18+20 + 12)
12
2
= 1.22 ft.
(eq 3-38)
The equivalent length of the duct is
equal to the actual length 1 s plus an
allowance l b for bends and entry and
exit. Each right-angle bend has the
effect of adding approximately 65
diameters to the length of the duct, and
entry and exit effects add about 10
diameters for each entry or exit. In this
example the total allowance 1b for these
effects is [2(65 + 10) =] 150 diameters,
which is added to the length of the
straight duct . The estimated length of
straight duct I s is
5 ft (assumed inlet open length)
220 ft (length of duct beneath
floor)
15 ft (assumed stack height)
240 ft
(eq 3-39)
fe = ks + fb
/ e m 240 + (150 X 1.22) - 423 ft.
The friction factor f' s a function of
Reynolds number NR and the ratio
e/De. Areasonable absolute roughness
factor e of the concrete duct surface is
0.001 feet, based on field observations .
Suggested values of e for other types
of surfaces are given in the ASHRAB
Data and Guide Book . The effect of
minor variations in e on the friction
NR -
-17,700
0 .49
V - average duct velocity (ft/hr)
a - shortest dimension (ft)
V - kinematic viscosity
(ft2/hr at 19.4F [fig. 3.81).
The friction factor f' is obtained by
solving the equation
f= 0.0066[1 + (20,000 X -+ -
De
NR
106
0.0 01
-0.005511+(20,000x -+-)1/31
1.22
17.700
-0.0285.
(eq 3-41)
Therefore, the friction head is
hf -
f X
De X by
(eq 3-42)
423
X
1.22 by - 9.8hv.
The draft head required to provide the
desired velocity head and to overcome
the friction head is furnished by the
chimney or stack effect. The draft head
hd is obtained as follows:
h d - by + hf - by + 9.8 by
(eq 3-43)
- 10.8 by
v
a 10.8 (-)2
- 0.0285 X
4000
111
pE(Tc - To)
(5.2)(8.31x10-3)(25.4 + 460)
(0.083)(0.80)(25.4 - 13.4)
- 26 ft
(eq 3-44)
where
P = 0.08315/ft3
To - 25.4F
To =13.4F
e - 8095 (found to be a reasonable
designvalue based on observations over an entire season)
hd = 8.31X103 inches of water.
347
Cp
14 inches of concrete
2 Inches of Insulation
6 inches of concrete
leveling course
22 inches total
2
6
=-=
+
+
K
12x1.0 12x0.024 12x1.0
8.60 hr ft2, F/Btu
(eq 3.48)
(14X30) + (2X0.28) + (6X30)
d
14
22
27.3 Btu/ft3 - F
(eq 3-49)
RP =
Cp =
d
14
1.5
6
-=-+
+
K
12X1 .0
12x0 .024
12 x 1.0
6.86 hr ft2 F/Btu
(eq 3-50)
(14X30) + (1 .5X0 .28) + (6X30)
21 .5
= 27.9 Btu/ft3 F
(eq 3-51)
Table 3-3.
3-20
Table 3-4.
CHAPTER 4
TWO-DIMENSIONAL RADIAL HEAT FLOW
4-1 . General
.
=
r3
K3-4
r3
5.5
1
5.83 1
9.83
=0 .367 ( - log - + - log _+_109 -+)
1.0
5.0 0.033
5.5 1.5
5.83
-0.367 (0.041 + 0.767 + 0.151) -0.352 ft.2 hr F/Btu.
1
(eq 4-2)
Figure 4-1 .
4-2 .
Figure 4-2. Temperature around a cylinder having received a step change in temperature.
therefore,
0.667
r1
~ (0.06)(48)
V
r
3 .00
- _ - = 4 .60 .
rl
0.667
= 0.39
(eq 4 .3)
(eq 4-4)
T - To
TS' TO
= -..-
(eq 4-6)
(eq 4-6)
4-3
heat transfer problem assumes a slurried pile to be a finite heat source inside
Figure 4-3.
4-4
(eq 4-7)
(eq 4-8)
(eq 4-9)
(eq 4.10)
1 .55
(eq 4.11)
then,
(27.7)(0.752)(5)
at
- .12.4.
r22
(eq 4-12)
(eq 4-13)
Figure 4-4.
4-5
(eq 4-14)
s = (nr2) + C AT
where
S = grid pile spacing (ft)
r2 = radius of augered hole (ft)
Q = latent heat of slurry per lineal foot
(Btu/ft)
C = volumetric heat capacity ofpermafrost (Btu/ft3 F)
AT= temperature rise of permafrost
(F).
Substitution of appropriate values from
the above exampleand a maximum allowable permafrost temperature rise AT
of 4F give a minimum pile spacing S of
(3.14)(0.75) 2 +
4280
(27.7)(4)
= 6.4 ft.
(eq 4-15)
This spacing may not keep local temperature from rising to more than 31F;
however, itwill keep the entire mass of
permafrost from reaching that temperature.
(1) Numerical analysis ofa number
of pile installations indicates that pile
spacing should be at least five diam
eters of the drill hole size. A plot, similar
to that shown in figure 4-4, may be
prepared to relate pile spacing and
4-6
(eq 4-16)
(eq 4-19)
(eq 4-20)
(eq 4-21)
(eq 4-23)
Artificial freeze-back may be accomplished also by use of two types ofselfrefrigerated heat exchangers : a singlephase liquid-convection heat transfer
device and a two-phase boiling-liquid
and vapor convection heat transfer
device . TM 5-852-4/AFM 88-19, Chapter
4 presents heat transfer rates for the
two-phase system . There are few heat
transfer field data available for the
single-phase system.
4-3. Utility distribution systems in frozen
ground.
t-
31.2 _
0.75
42-28
- (0.502 In - ) in - - 120 hours (5 days)
0.033
0 .50
32-28
eq 4-25
4-7
T [(
t=
rp )In P-].
-1n-+1/2)(1-r2 )-(
i
p
p
2K0
(eq 4-26)
where
t = time (hr)
L = latent heat of water (9000
Btu/ft3)
rp = radius of pipe (ft)
K = thermal conductivity of ice
(1.33 Btu/ft hr F)
AT = temperature difference between water and surroundingsoil (F, assume water temperature is 32F)
K i = . thermal conductivity of insulation (Btu/ft hr F)
r i =radius to outer edgeof insulation (ft)
r =inner radius of ice annulus
(ft).
If the pipe is not protected by insulation, the equation is
t
L r2
= 2 KIT
[1/2(1-
r2
r
r
) -(
)21n P
2
r
rp
p
1.
(eq 4-27)
where
Y = [1-
r2
x2
p
(eq 4-28)
jyj
(1-1n
r2
p
A-
(eq 4-29)
inches and the time required to completely freeze the water. Assume the
rate of flow does not influence freezing.
The time required to reduce the bore
to 6 inches will be
9000 (0.5)2
1.33
0.75
r
t=
.50 + 0..~)
2(1.33)(32-38) [( 0.033 1n 0
0.252
0.25 2
0.50
1_
6.502)- ( 0.50 ) in0.25
- 2640 hours.
(eq 4-30)
0 .50
ol
(eq 4-31)
~Y~
Figure 4-5.
L r2
2 KU pT
[I -
r2
KU
Ki
r2 )+'n
In
1
ri
rP
.0 .5)
(e9 4-33)
where
t = time (hr)
L = latent heat of soil (Btu/ft3)
r = radius to outer edge of thawing soil (ft)
QT
Ki
ri
rP
r
L r2
2
[-0 .5 (1 r2
2I{u 4T
) + In .
rp
1.
(eq 4-34)
Dimension-square
ON
Equivalent radius
(ft)
9.5+24/12=11 .5
8 .5 + 12/12 = 9.5
7.0 + 18/12 = 8.5
7.33
6 .04
5.42
(1290)(7.33) 2
2(1.2)(50-32)
6 .042
=
) + In
7.332
2060 hours .
1.2
U 0 .033
In
6 .04
5.42
.0.5)
7 .33
64
(eq 4-35)
d. Practical considerations.
(1) The above-mentioned formulas
T2 - S
where
V = velocity of flow (ft/s)
s = length of pipeline (ft)
= thermal conductivity of insulation (Btu/ft hr F)
rn = radius of pipe (ft)
r i = radius to outer edge ofinsulation (ft)
Ti = inlet water temperature (F)
T2 =outletwater temperature (F)
Ts = temperature of surrounding
frozen soil (F).
For example, an 11,000-ft long, 6-Inchdiameter pipe is buried in 10Fr soil.
The pipe is covered with a2-inch layer
of insulation (Ki = 0.03 Btu/ft hr F) and
the inlet water temperature is 39F.
Calculate the velocity of flow required
to keep the water from freezing.
v=
(11,000)(0 .03)
0.417
0,25
)(In
39-10
32-10 )
(eq 4-37)
TS
where
Tl = inlet water temperature (F)
Ts = frozen soil temperature (F)
T2 =outletwater temperature (F)
s = length of pipeline (ft)
2rp diameter of pipe (ft)
h =heat transfer coefficient
(Btu/ft 2 hr F)
V = velocity of flow (ft/s).
A nomogram of this equation is shown
in figure 4-6.
(b) Limited field experiments in
clay and sandy clay soils suggest
values of h for metal pipelines subject
to normal use (conditions or intermittent flow) of 6.0 for the initial period of
operation an 2 .0 thereafter. These
values are not applicable for pipes
smaller than 4-inches in diameter . The
h value is dependent upon the thermal
properties of the surrounding soil, the
diameter of the pipe, the type of pipe
material and the temperature gradient
in the ground around the pipe's radius.
The value for h given above provides a
reasonable basis for design ofpipelines
in which the total quantity of water
consumed per day is at least eight times
the volume ofpipes in the entire system.
The time of operation required for the
temperature distribution in the water
to stabilize is approximately .
t o = 0.005
(eq 4-39)
where
to = time (hr)
s = length of pipeline (ft)
V = velocity of flow (ft/s).
(c)For example, water atan inlet
temperature of 40F flows at 2 ft/s in a
12-inch iron pipeline, 2.2 miles long.
The ground temperature surrounding
the pipe is 25F . Estimate the outlet
water temperature during the initial
period of flow (h = 6.0) and after surrounding temperatures have stabilized
(h = 2 .0) .
4-1 1
s
2 .2 X 5280
:- =
1
= 1 .16X .104
(eq
4-40)
2 P
V = 2 ft/s.
thus
h = 6 .0 Btu/ft2 hr F
T 1 - TS,
T2 -TS _11"
T 2 - 33 .5F .
40-25
T 2 25
4- 12
s
= 1.16X104
2r
A
V ='.3 ft/s
h- 2 .0 Btu/ft2 hr F
thus
(eq 4-41)
Figure 4-6.
-Stabilized period:
T l - TS
1.22 =
T 2' T S =
T 2 - 37 .3F .
.40-25
T2- 25
(eq 4-42)
0 .005
= 0 .005
2
= approximately 29 hours.
(eq 4-43)
4- 1 3
APPENDIX A
Sumbot
a
a'
A
Ad
c
C
Cf
Cu
d
De
e
erf
exp(x)
f
F
f.
h
hre
hd
hf
hV
H
I
if
k
K
Kf
Ku
L
m
In
f.
Description
Thermal diffusivity
Shortest dimension
Sinusoidal temperature amplitude
Duct cross-sectional area
Specific heat
Specific heat of air at constant pressure
Volumetric heat capacity
Volumetric heat capacity in frozen
condition
Volumetric heat capacity in
unfrozen condition
Thickness of soil layer
Equivalent duct diameter
Roughness factor
Error function;
erf z = (2/Y77_r)a(ze-Y2dp,
where ert = 1 and. erf (-z)
= -erf z
ex
Frequency of sine wave
Air freezing index
Friction factor
Heat transfer coefficient
Surface conductance for combined
radiation and convection
Draft head
Friction head
Velocity head
Stack height
Air thawing index
Floor thawing Index,,
Coefficient of thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity in frozen
condition
Thermal conductivity in unfrozen
condition
Volumetric latent heat of fusion
Duct spacing
Natural logarithm
Duct length
Units
ft2/day or ft2/hr
ft
F
ft2
Btu/lb F
Btu/lb F
Btu/ft3 F
Btu/ft3 F
Btu/ft3 F
ft
ft
ft
dimensionless
dimensionless
cycles/day
degree-days
dimensionless
Btu/ft2 hr F
Btu/ft2hr F
inches of water
inches of water
inches of water
ft
degree-days
degree-days
Btu/ft2 hr F per in.
Btu/ft hr F
Btu/ft hr F
Btu/ft hr F
Btu/ft3
ft
dimensionless
ft
le
Is
MAT
n
nF
nI
NR
P
Q
r
R
S
s
t
T
To
TR
TS
Ts
Tw
V
Vo
vs
w
X
a
Yd
u
v
Description
Units
ft
ft
ft
F
dimensionless
degree-days
degree-days
dimensionless
366 days
Btu/ft
ft
ft2 hr F/Btu
ft
ft
hours or days
F
F
F
F
F
F
ft/s
F
F
percent dry weight
ft
dimensionless
lb/ft3
percent
dimensionless
dimensionless
ft2/hr
3.14
lb/ft3
Btu/ft2 per hr
Analytical Solutions.
where
X i = ice thickness (ft)
K i = thermal conductivity of ice
(Btu/ft hr F)
F =freezing index (degree-days)
Li =volumetric latent heat of
fusion of ice (Btu/ft3).
The Stefan equation has been modified
by many individuals and agencies, and
many similar equations have been
developed . Some of the equations use
functions or initial conditions slightly
different from those used in the
original Stefan model. The most widely
used equation to estimate seasonal
freeze and thaw depths is the modified
Berggren equation. Application of this
equation, given below, has been very
widespread in North America .
USACRREL Special Report 122 5
developed a computer program for calculating freeze and thaw depths in
layered systems using this equation:
X = 48K n /L or X = 11 48K n I/L
(eq B-2)
where
X = depth of freeze or thaw (ft)
K = thermal conductivity of soil
(Btu/ft hr F)
L = volumetric latent heatof fusion
(Btu/ft3)
n = conversion factor from air index to surface index (dimensionless)
F - air freezing index (degreedays)
I = air thawing index (degreedays)
= coefficient that considers the
effect of temperature changes
within the soil mass. It is a
function of the freezing (or
thawing) index, the mean
annual temperature and the
thermal properties of the soils.
5 Aitken and Berg, 1968.
B-3.
Brown, 1663.
Table B-1 .
Numerical techniques.
Item
A - Variables
Fluid
Thermal
(1)
(2)
(3)
Heat
Heat flux
Temperature
Volume
Flow
Head
Electric
S
Q
H
B - Principles :
B-2
Continuity
(1)
Conductivity
Capacitance
(2)
(3)
au
at
+V-a=o
q = -kVT
du=CdT
as
at
d=
+V . d=o
-kVH
dS = AdH
Charge density
Current density
Voltage
ap
at
j=
+V .i=o
-UVe
pdV = Cde
_p
-'j
Government Publications
Nongovernment Publications
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Wisconsin Press.
Jakob, M. and G.A. Hawkins (1957) Ble-
ments of Heat Transfer and Insulation, 3rd Ed. New York: John Wiley
Biblio-2
York: ASCE.
Kersten, M.S. (1949) Laboratory research for the determination of the
thermal properties of soils. ACFEL
Technical Report 23. Hanover, N.H.:
U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and
Engineering Laboratory.
Lachenbruch, A.H. (1957) Three-dimensional heat conduction in Permafrost
beneath heated buildings . U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1062-B.
Lachenbruch, A.H. (1959) Periodic heat
flowin stratified medium with application topermafrost problems. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1083-A.
Luikov, A.V . (1966)Heat and Mass
Transferin Capillary-PorousBodies.
pp. 98-115.
Sanger, F.J . (1968) Ground freezing in
construction . CRREL Miscellaneous
Paper 404 . Hanover, N.H.: U.S. Army
Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory .
Sanger, F.J. and F.H. Sayles (1978)
Thermal and rheological computa-
U.S. GJVEXA4Nf
Biblio- 3
R.L. DILWORTH
Brigadier General, United States Army
The Adjutant General
Official:
WILLIAM O. NATIONS, Colonel, USAF
Director of Information Management
and Administration
CARL E. VUONO'
General, United States Army
Chiefof Staff
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