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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition of surveying
Surveying is the science or art which deals with determination of the relative
positions of points on, above, near or below the surface of earth by means of
direct or indirect measurements of distances (horizontal and vertical) and
direction (angle).
The vertical distance is known as elevation or height. Since all the points on the
surface of earth have three dimensions, therefore their relative positions can be
denoted by horizontal distances between them, the direction of lines or the angles
between the lines and elevation difference between them.
Surveying also deals with establishing points by predetermined angular and
linear measurements. Surveyors require basic knowledge of mathematics,
physics and to some extent astronomy.
geodetic survey is essential. Also, the length of arc 12 km long lying on the
surface of earth is 1 cm greater than the subtended chord, therefore geodetic
survey is done for larger distances.
Plane surveying is that type of surveying which does not take into account the
curvature of the earth and the earth surface is treated as a plane surface. All
triangles formed by survey lines are considered as plane triangles. The level line
is considered as straight and all plumb lines are considered parallel. For the
survey of smaller areas, plane surveying gives reasonable accuracy.
All engineers must know the limits of accuracy possible in construction, plant
design and layout and manufacturing processes. This knowledge is best obtained
by making measurements with the kinds of equipments used in practice to get
the true concept of the theory of errors, and the small but recognizable
differences that occur in observed quantities.
In addition to stressing the need for reasonable limits of accuracy, surveying
emphasizes the value of significant figures. Surveyor should know when to work
to hundredths of a meter instead of to tenths or thousandth, or perhaps the
nearest centimeter, and what precision in field data is necessary to justify
carrying out computations to the desired number of decimal places.
2.0
Introduction
For the execution of engineering projects, e.g. highways, railways, tunnels, dams,
canal etc. the elevations of different points along the alignment of the project are
required.
The relative position of a point in terms of the vertical distance, above or below
another (reference) point or surface is known as its elevation. Therefore elevation
may be considered as vertical coordinate, which is positive/negative if the point is
above/below the reference surface (datum).
Usually mean sea level (msl) is considered to be the standard datum, but
sometimes an arbitrary assumed surface can be taken as a reference. Grade and
altitude are other terms frequently used as an alternate to elevation. Grade is an
expression of elevation in construction activities, whereas altitude is the vertical
distance of a point in space.
Many different types of surveys can be used depending on the desired results.
Differential and profile levelling are two surveying methods that are very useful
for agricultural and horticultural projects. They are both useful for planning and
layout of projects. For planning purposes they are used to provide the
information needed to develop the maps, charts, and drawings necessary to lay
out buildings, roads, drains, etc.
2.1
Definitions
Differences in the elevation can be obtained by the following ways(a) Measuring vertical distances by taping or electronic methods:
Using a tape in a vertical line between two points is possible in a
few cases. This method is used to measure depths of mine
shafts, to determine the floor elevation in condominium surveys,
and in the layout and construction of multi-storey buildings,
pipelines etc. During the laying of water and sewer pipelines, a
graduated rod may replace the tape. In some construction sites
reflector less EDM instruments are also used for measuring
vertical distances.
3.0
There are two steps in leveling: to find out by how much amount the line of sight
is above the bench mark, and to ascertain by how much amount the next point is
below or above the line of sight. This operation is generally known as direct
leveling or differential leveling. The knowledge of handling the level equipment,
running and adjusting simple leveling loops, and performing some project
surveys to obtain data for field and office use, is also important. Some special
variations of differential leveling, useful or necessary in certain situations, e.g.
profile leveling, cross-section leveling are also frequently used.
The procedure of differential leveling can be understood by simple example. The
distance between two points A and B has been divided into three parts by
choosing two additional points on which staff readings (both plus sight and
minus sight) have been taken. Points 1 and 2 are turning points. If the R.L. of
point A is 240.000 m, the height of first setting of instrument is = 240.000 +
2.024 = 242.024 m. The next F.S. is 1.420, te R.L. of T.P. 1 = 242.024 1.420 =
240.604 m. By similar procedure, R.L. of T.P. 2 = 240.490 m and R.L. of B =
241.202 m.
Differential leveling
3.0
Horizontal angles are the basic measurements needed for determining bearings
and azimuths.
Vertical (or zenith) angles are used in trigonometric leveling, stadia, and for
reducing measured slope distances to horizontal. Angles are most often directly
measured in the field with the transits, theodolites, compasses and total station
instruments.
Three basic requirements determine an angle. (a) Reference or starting line, (b)
direction of turning, and (c) angular distance (value of the angle).
3.1
A purely arbitrary unit defines the value of an angle. The sexagesimal system
used in most countries, is based on degrees, minutes, and seconds, with the last
unit further divided decimally. Radians may be more suitable in computations,
and in fact are employed in digital computers.
Direction of a line
A magnetic meridian is defined by a freely suspended magnetic needle that is only
influenced by the earth's magnetic field. Surveys based on a state or other plane
coordinate system employ a grid meridian for reference.
3.2
Bearings
The bearing of a line is defined as the acute horizontal angle between a reference
meridian and the line. The angle is measured from either the north or south
toward the east or west, to give a reading smaller than 90. The proper quadrant
is shown by the letter N or S preceding the angle, and E or W following it. Thus, a
properly expressed bearing includes quadrant letters and an angular value. An
example is N80E. In fig. 1.2(a), all bearings in quadrant NOE are measured
clockwise from the meridian. Thus the bearing of line OA is N70E. All bearings
in quadrant SOE are counterclockwise from the meridian, so OB is S35E.
Similarly, the bearing of OC is S55W and that of OD, N30W.
Thus if bearing AB is N44E, bearing BA is S44W.
4.0
SCALES
The area that is vast and, therefore, plans are made to some scale. Scale is
the fixed ratio that very distance on the plan bears with corresponding
distance on the ground. Scale can be represented by the following methods:
(1) One can on the plan represents some whole number of meters on
the ground, such as 1 cm = 10 m etc. This type of scale is called
engineers scale.
(2) One unit of length on the plan represents some number of same
units of length on the ground, as
1
etc. This ratio of map
1000
1
1
.
50 100 5000
The above two types of scales of scales are also known as numerical
scales.
(3) An alternative way of representing the scale is to draw on the plan a
graphical scale. A graphical scale is a line sub-divided into plan
distance corresponding to convenient units of length on the ground.
If the plan or map is to be used after a few years, the numerical
scales may not give accurate results if the sheet or paper shrinks.
However, if a graphical scale is also drawn, it will shrink
10
Scales
Topographical maps
1:25,000;
1:250,000
State maps
1:1Million
1:2.5M to 1:40M
1:15M
1:50,000
Guide maps
1:20,000
1:1M
Trekking maps
1:250,000
1:5M
1:250,000
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1:50,000;
12
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15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
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