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Bibliografa y fuentes
GENERALES BIBLIOGRFICAS GUAS
Hay una serie de guas bibliogrficas generales al estudio de los negros americanos. Uno de los primeros fue Monroe N. trabajo, Una
bibliografa de los negros en frica y Amrica (Nueva York, 1928), pero desde entonces hemos tenido Dorothy B. Porter, una lista
seleccionada de libros de y sobre el negro (Washington, 1936 y reimpreso 1970); Erwin K. Welsch, El negro en los Estados Unidos, Una
Gua de Investigacin (Bloomington, 1965); Erwin A. Salk, una gua de divulgacin de la Historia Negra (Chicago, 1966 y reimpreso
1967). Sin embargo, dos obras recientes son de especial importancia: James M. McPherson, Laurence B. Holanda, James M. Banner,
Jr., Nancy J. Weiss, Michael D. Bell, los negros en Estados Unidos: Ensayos bibliogrficas (Nueva York, 1971) , disponible en las
ediciones de tela y de papel, y Dwight L. Smith, editor, Afro-American History: Una bibliografa, introduccin por Benjamin Quarles (Santa
Barbara, California, 1974), disponible slo en pao. El trabajo de Smith incluye 2.900 resmenes de los artculos que han aparecido en
las ltimas dos dcadas, mientras que el trabajo por McPherson et al. incluye tanto libros como artculos, aunque no los resmenes. Sin
embargo, s incluye obras en el Caribe y Amrica Latina, que no estn cubiertos en la gua de Smith. Ni gua incluye las tesis inditas y
disertaciones.
Sobre el tema de los descubrimientos africanos en las matemticas, vase Claudia Zaslavksy, "Negro africanos matemticas
tradicionales," El Profesor de Matemticas, abril de 1970, y "Matemticas del pueblo Yoruba y de sus vecinos en el sur de Nigeria," Los
dos aos de universidad Matemticas Diario, Fall 1970, desarroll plenamente en su trabajo importante, Condes de frica (Nueva York,
1974).
Egipto en la Historia de frica
Para el papel de frica en Egipto, la controversia sobre si los egipcios eran negros y negros contribuciones a la historia de Egipto, las
discusiones son sugerentes que se encuentran en Robert O. Collins, ed., Problemas en frica Historia (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1968) , y
Paul Bohannon, frica y los africanos (Garden City, Nueva York, 1964). Ver tambin los estudios ms antiguos: Eduard Henri Naville, "El
Origen de la Civilizacin Egipcia," Informe Anual de la Institucin Smithsonian en 1907, y Alexander Francis Chamberlin, "La
contribucin de los negros a la civilizacin humana," Diario de Desarrollo de Carrera, 2, abril 1911 Por comentarios de Diodoro, vase
Diodoro de Sicilia, Trans. CH Oldfather (Cambridge, Mass., 1935), vol 2. Tambin digno de estudio es Frank M. Snowden, los negros en
la Antigedad (Cambridge, Mass., 1970).
El imperio de Kush
Para Kush, los estudiantes deben consultar AJ Arkell, Una historia de Sudn desde los primeros tiempos hasta 1821 (Londres, 1961);
Basilio Davidson, The Lost Cities of Africa (Boston, 1959), y el pasado de frica (Boston, 1964); y Wyatt MacGaffey, "La Historia de las
migraciones de negros en el norte de Sudn" Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 17, Verano 1961 Para Mero el mejor estudio es
Peter Shinnie, Meroe (Nueva York, 1967).
Axum: Una civilizacin etope
Aunque no existe an en Ingls estudio no completa de Axum, los siguientes son tiles: las dos obras de Basilio Davidson antes citada,
y Basilio Davidson, africana Reinos (Nueva York, 1966), con magnficas ilustraciones fotogrficas, y R. Keating, Nubia Crepsculo
(Nueva York, 1936), tambin magnficamente ilustrado. Para Axum, Nubia y Etiopa lo siguiente debe ser consultado: Sylvia Pankhurst,
Etiopa: Una historia cultural (. Essex, Eng, 1955); Edward Ullendorff, los etopes (Londres, 1960); Elizabeth Munroe, Una historia de
Etiopa (Oxford, Ing, 1962.); y Roland Oliver, ed., La Edad Media de la Historia Africana (Londres, 1967), los captulos 1 y 2 Edward
Wilmot Blyden fue el autor del cristianismo, el islam y la Raza Negra (Londres, 1887). La cita es de su artculo, "Mohammedianism y la
Raza Negra," El registrador cristiano (Filadelfia), 14 de septiembre 1876.
History of the Kingdom of Mwene Mutapa (8501589), in Historians in Tropical Africa (Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia, 1962); Rogers
Summers, Zimbabwe, Africa South , 2, Jan.Mar., 1958; and MA Jaspan, Negro Culture in Southern Africa before European Conquest,
Science & Society, Summer 1955. The kingdom of the Kongo is discussed in James Duffy, Portuguese Africa (Cambridge, Mass., 1959).
Westermann, The Slave Systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity (Philadelphia, 1955); and Moses I. Finley, ed., Slavery in Classical
Antiquity: Views and Controversies (Cambridge, Eng., 1960). These should be supplemented by Moses I. Finley, Between Slavery and
Freedom, Comparative Studies in Society and History , 6, Apr. 1946, and Victoria Cuffel, The Classical Greek Concept of Slavery,
Journal of the History of Ideas , 37, JulySept. 1966.
An excellent discussion of slavery in medieval Europe is Melvin Knight, Medieval Slavery, Encyclopedia of Social Sciences , 13: 7780.
A work that thoroughly documents the continuity and persistence of slavery from ancient to modern times is Charles Verlinden,
L'Esclavage dans L'Europe medival. Tome Premier. Pninsule Ibrique; France (Brugge, 1955). For a recent emphasis on the
continuity of slavery, see David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (New York, 1966), Chapter 2. The absence of
racial prejudice in ancient slavery is discussed in William L. Westermann, The Slave Systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity , Moses I.
Finley's essay, Between Slavery and Freedom; and Victoria Cuffel's article, The Classical Greek Concept of Slavery.
Slavery and Racism
For a general discussion of racism, see Pierre L. Van den Berghe, Race and Racism: A Comparative Perspective (New York, 1967). An
important discussion of racism and Indian slavery in the Americas is Lewis Hanke, Aristotle and the American Indians: A Study of Race
Prejudice in the Modern World (Chicago, 1959). The most comprehensive study of racism and Negro slavery in the New World, although
confined to the English and ignoring manifestations of racism among other Europeans, is Winthrop Jordan, White Over Black: American
Attitudes Toward the Negro, 15501812 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1968). (A later work directed to a popular rather than a scholarly readership, is
Winthrop D. Jordan, The White Man's Burden: Historical Origins of Racism in the United States [New York, 1974].) Jordan, however, fails
to probe the economic forces behind the development of white racism and the relationship of class and economic interests to prejudice
and slavery. Also worth consulting are Marvin Harris, Patterns of Race in the Americas (New York, 1964), and Louis Ruchames, The
Source of Racial Thought in Colonial America, Journal of Negro History, 52, Oct. 1967. For Portuguese racial attitudes one should
consult Charles R. Boxer, Race Relations in the Portuguese Colonial Empire, 14151825 (Oxford, 1963), and James Durry, A Question
of Slavery (Cambridge, Mass., 1967). For the Curse of Ham, see Rev. J. Allen Viney, The Curse of Ham, Colored American Magazine ,
Jan. 1904, and for the Mormon view that Negroes are cursed as descendants of Cain, see The New York Times , Jan. 25, 1970
Dr. King's comment on semantics and racism appears in his speech, Where Do We Go From Here? reprinted in Philip S. Foner, The
Voice of Black America: Major Speeches of Negroes in the United States, 17971971 , New York, 1972, p. 1068.
Slavery and the Slave Trade in Pre-European Africa
Para la esclavitud en pre-europeo de frica, ver RS Rattray, Ashanti (Londres, 1923), y su Ley de Ashanti y Constitucin (Londres,
1929); Melville J. Herskovits, Dahomey: Un africano antiguo reino West (Nueva York, 1938); y el ensayo de A. Norman Klein, "frica
Occidental no libre Trabajo Antes y Despus de la rebelin de la trata de esclavos del Atlntico", en Laura Foner y Eugene D. Genovese,
eds, la esclavitud en el Nuevo Mundo:. Un Lector en Historia Comparada ( Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1969). Dos artculos interesantes pena
de consultora son Walter Rodney, "La esclavitud africana y otras formas de opresin social en la Costa Alta Guinea en el contexto de la
trata de esclavos del Atlntico," Diario de la Historia de frica, 7, 1966, y JD Fage, "La esclavitud y la trata de esclavos en el contexto de
la historia de frica Occidental ", Revista de Historia de frica, 10, 1969 Para el comercio de esclavos de frica Oriental en el siglo XIX,
vase JM Gray," Zanzbar y la Cinta Costera, 1840-1884, "en R . Oliver y G. Mathew, eds, Historia de frica del Este (Oxford, 1963).; y el
trabajo anterior, E. Hutchinson, el comercio de esclavos de frica Oriental (Londres, 1874).
Para la accin del Consejo Privado britnico sobre los africanos en Inglaterra en 1596, vase Paul L. Hughes y James F. Larkin, eds,
Tudor Royal proclamaciones, 3. (New Haven, Connecticut, 1969.): 219-221.
Negros y el Nuevo Mundo
La teora de que los africanos descubrieron el Nuevo Mundo antes de Coln se discute ampliamente en Leo Wiener, frica y el
descubrimiento de Amrica, 3 vols. (Filadelfia, 1922). Los artculos que tratan el tema incluyen MDW Jeffreys, "negros precolombinos,"
Scientia, 44, 1953; MDW Jeffreys, "Maz Precolombino en frica," la Naturaleza, 21 de noviembre 1953; y Harold G. Lawrence,
"Exploradores africanos del Nuevo Mundo, La Crisis, 159, junio-julio de 1962, la participacin de los negros en la exploracin del Nuevo
Mundo despus de Coln es discutido por Richard R. Wright," Compaeros negros de la Exploradores espaoles ", con notas de
Raimundo Logan, Phylon, 2, del Cuarto Trimestre de 1941; JF Rippy, "El Negro y pioneros espaoles en el Nuevo Mundo," Diario de la
Historia de los Negros, 6, abril de 1921; James B. Browning, "Compaeros negros de los pioneros espaoles en el Nuevo Mundo,"
Estudios Universitarios de la historia Howard (Washington, 1936); y Raimundo W. Logan, "Estevanico, Negro Descubridor del
Southwest," Phylon, 1, Cuarto Trimestre. 1940 Cabeza de Vaca, La Relacin, es la odisea de los supervivientes de la malograda
expedicin con la que se asoci Estevanico. Una de las traducciones es por Fanny y AF Bandalier (Nueva York, 1905).
La direccin de Thomas L. Jennings, Nueva York lder negro, se public en el Diario Libertad 's, 04 de abril 1828.
La esclavitud indgena en el Nuevo Mundo
Para la esclavitud indgena en la Amrica espaola, vase Silvio Arturo Zavala, nuevos puntos de vista en la colonizacin espaola de
Amrica (Londres, 1943); Harry M. Rosen, ed, Los Conquistadores de Oro (Indianapolis, 1960).; Philip S. Foner, Historia de Cuba y sus
relaciones con los Estados Unidos (Nueva York, 1962), vol. 1; y Lewis Hanke, Bartolom de Las Casas (Filadelfia, 1952). La
contratacin de funcionarios blancos en Inglaterra para las colonias se discute ampliamente en Abbot Emerson Smith, colonos en
Bondage: Blanco Servidumbre y condenar Trabajo en Amrica, 1607-1776 (Chapel Hill, Carolina del Norte, 1947). Por sus excelentes
breves discusiones de la agricultura india aborigen, vea los artculos sobre el este de Amrica del Norte en Jesse D. Jennings, ed.,
Hombre prehistrico en el Nuevo Mundo (Chicago, 1964).
El Comercio de Amrica del Esclavo
La coleccin ms completa de material de origen en relacin con el comercio de esclavos africanos es la monumental obra editada por
Elizabeth Donnan, documentos ilustrativos de la historia de la trata de esclavos a Amrica, 4 vols. (Washington, 1900-1935). Las
introducciones y notas a cada volumen son importantes para la comprensin del desarrollo, la organizacin, y los horrores de la trata de
esclavos. Tres estudios populares de la trata de esclavos africanos se han publicado recientemente: Basil Davidson, Negro Madre: Los
aos de la trata de esclavos africanos (Boston, 1961); Daniel P. Mannix y Malcolm Cowley, Negro Cargas: Una Historia del Comercio de
Esclavos del Atlntico, 1518-1865 (Nueva York, 1962); y James Pope-Hennesey, pecados de los padres: un estudio de los comerciantes
de esclavos del Atlntico, 1441-1807 (Nueva York, 1968). Los dos primeros son de especial importancia para la organizacin de la trata
de esclavos y sus efectos. Obras generales ms antiguos incluyen George F. Dow, ed, los barcos de esclavos y trabajar como esclavos.
(Salem, Massachusetts, 1927.); Edmund B. D'Auvergne, Ganadera Humano (Londres, 1933); y Hugh Archibald Wyndham. El Atlntico y
la esclavitud (Londres, 1935). Un artculo general, sigue siendo til, es Jerome Dowd, "La trata de esclavos africanos," Diario de la
Historia de los Negros, 3, enero 1917 Un estudio til en forma mimeografiada es C. Fyfe, ed., "La trata transatlntica de esclavos de
Occidente frica ", Universidad de Edimburgo, Centro de Estudios Africanos, 1965.
Las declaraciones de testigos por los europeos que participaron en el comercio incluyen J. Barbot, una descripcin de las costas del
norte y sur de Guinea, traducido del francs (Londres, 1746); William Snelgrave, una nueva cuenta de algunas partes de Guinea y la
trata de esclavos (Londres, 1754); y Alexander Falconbridge, Cuenta de algunos trata de esclavos en la costa de frica (Londres, 1788).
Una cuenta por un europeo quien tambin mand varios barcos de esclavos estadounidenses es Theodore Canot, Memorias de un
comerciante de esclavos, ed. Brantz Mayer (Nueva York, 1854); una versin condensada de la obra es Theodore Canot, Aventuras de
un Slaver africano, ed. Malcolm Cowley (Nueva York, 1935). Revistas y correspondencia de los traficantes de esclavos como George
Arthur Plimpton, ed, El Diario de un Slaver africano, 1789-1792. (Worcester, Massachusetts, 1930.); Nicholas Owen, Diario de un tratante
de esclavos, ed. Eveline Christiana Martin (Londres, 1930); TS Ashton, ed, Cartas de un comerciante de frica Occidental, Edward Grace
1767-1770 (Londres, 1950).; John Newton, El Diario de un esclavo del mercado, 1750-1754, ed. Bernard Martin y Mark Spurrell
(Londres, 1962); y Donald D. Cera, ed., "un cirujano de Filadelfia en un slaving Voyage to Africa, 1749-1751," Pennsylvania Revista de
Historia y Biografa, 92, 1968 Los horrores de la "Middle Passage" octubre son grficamente retratado en I. Aguet, historia ilustrada de la
Trata de Esclavos (Londres, 1968). El mito de una cuidadosa selectividad de los esclavos se explot en Donald D. Wax "Preferencias de
esclavos en la Amrica colonial," Diario de la Historia de los Negros, 58, octubre de 1973.
El efecto de la produccin de azcar en el Caribe en el crecimiento del comercio de esclavos se analiza brillantemente en Eric Williams,
Capitalismo y esclavitud (Chapel Hill, Carolina del Norte, 1944). Vase tambin Arthur P. Newton, las naciones europeas en las Indias
Occidentales, 1493-1688 (Londres, 1933). El comercio de esclavos en los daneses y holandeses se discute en Mathew Nolan, "La
Costa de Oro en el final del siglo XVII bajo los daneses y holandeses," Diario de la Sociedad Africana, 4, 1904 Algunas observaciones
interesantes son tambin a encontrarse en Peter C. Emmer, "La historia de la trata de esclavos holands, de una investigacin
bibliogrfica," Revista de Historia Econmica, 33, septiembre 1972 El comercio de esclavos portugus est bien resumido en Herbert
Klein, "La trata de esclavos portugueses de Angola en el siglo XVIII, "Revista de Historia Econmica, 32, septiembre 1971 Obras que se
ocupan de la trata de esclavos britnico incluye GK Davies, La Real Compaa Africana (Londres, 1957), una historia de estudiante de
uno de los de comercio de esclavos ms importante de Europa empresas; y Frederic Zook, La Compaa del Real Aventureros de
Comercio con frica (Lancaster, PA., 1919). Un trabajo anterior es Anonymous, Liverpool y Esclavitud (Liverpool, 1884). Artculos
especializados incluyen Luther P. Jackson, "isabelina Marinos y el Comercio de Esclavos africanos," Diario de la Historia de los Negros,
9, 01 1924; Eric Williams, "La edad de oro del sistema esclavista en Gran Bretaa," Diario de la Historia de los Negros, 25, enero de
1940; Alice M. Kleist, "The African Comercio Ingls bajo los Tudor," Transacciones de la Sociedad Histrica de Ghana, 3, 1957; y Simon
Rottenberg, "El negocio de la trata de esclavos," Atlntico Sur Quarterly, 66, Verano 1967 El impacto de la trata de esclavos en la
economa britnica y su relacin con el ascenso del capitalismo industrial se analiza en profundidad en Eric Williams, Capitalismo y La
esclavitud, y Wilson E. Williams, frica y el auge del capitalismo (Washington, 1938). Para una crtica del trabajo de Eric Williams, vase
La trata transatlntica de esclavos desde frica Occidental, publicado por el Centro de Estudios Africanos de la Universidad de
Edimburgo (Edimburgo, 1965).
El comercio de esclavos en las colonias americanas se discute en dos primeras obras: George C. Mason, "La trata de esclavos africanos
en la poca colonial," American Historical Record, vol. 1, 1872, y WE Burghardt DuBois, la represin de la trata de esclavos de frica a
los Estados Unidos de Amrica, 1638-1870 (Cambridge, Mass., 1896).
Resistencia Esclavo
Resistencia Negro a la trata de esclavos es un tema an en necesidad de exploracin. Se presta cierta atencin a que en Daniel P.
Mannix y Malcolm Cowley, cargas Negro:. Una historia de la trata de esclavos del Atlntico, 1518-1865, pp 104-130, estudios ms
detallados son Lorenzo J. Greene, "Mutiny on the Slave Buques, "Phylon, 5, Cuarto Trimestre, 1944, pp 346-354, que, sin embargo, est
limitada por el hecho de que se trata de levantamientos de esclavos en slo los buques de Nueva Inglaterra.; y Darold D. Cera,
"Resistencia Negro a la trata de esclavos Early American," Diario de la Historia Negra, 51, enero 1966 Las reimpresiones de informes de
motines de esclavos en peridicos de la poca se pueden encontrar en los volmenes 2 y 3 de Documentos de Elizabeth Donnan
ilustrativos de la historia de la trata de esclavos a Amrica.
Consecuencias de la trata de esclavos para frica
Muchos de los argumentos de ambas partes antes expuestos son convenientemente disponible en Laura Foner y Eugene D. Genovese,
eds, la esclavitud en el Nuevo Mundo:. Un Lector en Historia Comparada (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1969). El libro incluye extractos de los
escritos de Tannenbaum, Elkins, Mintz, Genovese, Harris, Davis, Klein, Sio, Jordania, as como otros. Eugene D. Genovese tambin ha
hablado de las sociedades esclavistas en el Caribe y Amrica Latina en la parte 1 de su El mundo de los esclavistas Made (Nueva York,
1969). Tambin consulte con Magnus Morner, "La historia de relaciones raciales en Amrica Latina: algunas consideraciones sobre el
estado de la investigacin," Latin American Research Review, 1, 1966 Un ejemplo reciente de un estudio comparativo de la esclavitud
es Richard R. Beeman, "Trabajo Las fuerzas y relaciones raciales: una visin comparada de la colonizacin de Brasil y Virginia,
"Ciencias Polticas Quarterly, 86, diciembre 1971.
Las Indias Occidentales Britnicas
Los estudios ms completos de la esclavitud y la situacin de los negros en las Antillas francesas son las obras en francs. Un trabajo
reciente en Ingls, aunque muy poco precisa sobre el perodo anterior a 1791, es Shelby McCloy, El Negro, en las Antillas francesas
(Lexington, Ky., 1966). Estudios especiales sobre Saint Domingue incluyen Lothrop Stoddard D., La Revolucin Francesa en San
Domingo (Boston, 1914), y la brillante obra de CLR James, Los jacobinos Negro: Toussaint L'Ouverture y la Revolucin de Santo
Domingo (Londres, 1938). Para el Padre Labat, ver Pre Jean Baptiste Labat, Voyages aux Isles de l'Amrique (Antillas), 1693-1705
(Pars, 1931). Las cartas de Martinica del marqus de Fnelon y Girod-Charitians estn en los Archives Departamentales de la Martinica,
donde llev a cabo la investigacin durante diciembre de 1969 y enero de 1970 Una imagen de la sociedad de esclavos en Santo
Domingo, as como un anlisis comparativo con la esclavitud en Cuba se presenta en Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Control Social en Slave
Plantation Socieites: Comparacin de St. Domingue y Cuba (Baltimore, 1971).
Danesa y holandesa de las Indias Occidentales
Para la esclavitud en las Islas Vrgenes, el mejor trabajo es Waldemar Westergaard, The Danish West Indies Company Bajo Regla,
1671-1754 (Nueva York, 1917). Para los holandeses y la esclavitud en Surinam, ver Charles R. Boxer, El Imperio holands Seaborn,
1600-1800 (Nueva York, 1965); Arthur Percival Newton, las naciones europeas en las Indias Occidentales, 1493-1608 (Londres, 1933);
Harry Hoetinck, "relaciones raciales en Curazao y Surinam," en Foner y Genovese, la esclavitud en el Nuevo Mundo, y Cornelis C.
Goslinga, los holandeses en el Caribe y en la costa salvaje, 1580-1680 (Assen, Pases Bajos, 1971 ). Indispensable para un anlisis
contemporneo es el capitn JG Stedman, Narrativa, despus de cinco aos de expedicin contra los negros se rebelaron de Surinam,
en Guayana, en la costa salvaje de Amrica del Sur, a partir del ao 1772, a 1777, 2 vols. (Londres, 1813). Para los cimarrones de
Surinam, Thomas Wentworth Higginson ver, viajeros y proscritos. El extracto de la obra de WR Van Hervell se puede encontrar en El
Libertador de 17 de septiembre 1858.
7. esclavitud y las relaciones raciales en el Caribe y Amrica Latina: Cuba, Continental Espaola Latina, y
Brasil
Cuba
Importantes obras en espaol sobre la esclavitud y las relaciones raciales negros en Amrica continental espaola incluyen Gonzalo
Aguirre Beltrn, La Poblacin Negra de Mxico, 1519-1810 (Mxico, 1946); Roberto Rojas Gmez, "La exclavitud en Colombia," Boletin
de Historia e Antiquedades, 14, 1922; y Jaime Jaramillo Uribe, "Esclavos y seores en la sociedad Colombiana de Siglo XVIII," Anuario
Colombiano de Historia y social, de cultura, 1, 1963. estudios especiales en Ingls que tratan el tema son James F. King, "Negro La
esclavitud en el Virreinato de la Nueva Granada "(tesis doctoral, Universidad de California, Berkeley, 1939); el mismo escritor es el autor
de "Historia de los Negros en Amrica Continental Espaola," Diario de la Historia de los Negros, 29, enero de 1944; Ildefonso Pereda
Valds, "los negros en Uruguay" Phylon, 4, tercer trimestre de 1943; Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrn, "Carreras en Decimosptimo Siglo
Mxico," Phylon, 6, Tercer Trimestre de 1945; el mismo escritor es el autor de "La Tradicin de esclavos en Mxico", Hispanic American
Historical Review, 29, agosto de 1944; David Pavy, "El Origen de Colombia negros," Diario de la Historia de los Negros, 52, enero de
1967; Joaqun Roncal, "La Raza Negra en Mxico", Hispanic American Historical Review, 24, agosto de 1944; Edgar F. Amor, "Negro
resistencia al dominio espaol en el Mxico colonial," Diario de la Historia de los Negros, 52, abril de 1967; T. Lynn Smith, "La
composicin racial de la poblacin de Colombia," Revista de Estudios Interamericanos, 8, 1966; David M. Davidson, "Negro Control de
Esclavos y de la Resistencia en el Mxico colonial, 1419-1650," Hispanic American Historical Review, 46, 1966; John Lombardi, la
decadencia y la abolicin de la esclavitud de los negros en Venezuela (Westport, Conn., 1971). La historia de la alianza de Sir Francis
Drake con los cimarrones se encuentra en IW Wright, ed, los documentos relativos a la Voyages Ingls Espaol Principal 1569-1580
(Londres, 1932).; y el plan de Richard Hakluyt para una colonia de cimarrones y Ingls es en EUR Taylor, ed., los escritos originales y
correspondencia de los Dos Richard Hakluvts (Londres, 1935), vol. 1.
Brasil
Aunque algunas regiones importantes de esclavos an no se han estudiado, la literatura en Brasil, gran parte de ella en portugus, es
enorme. Las obras de Gilberto Freyre, afortunadamente, han sido traducidos al Ingls y son bsicos para la comprensin del desarrollo
de la esclavitud y las relaciones raciales, a pesar de la reciente literatura crtica y revisionista. Tres libros y un artculo de Freyre estn
disponibles en Ingls: The Masters y los esclavos: Un estudio en el desarrollo de la civilizacin brasilea (Nueva York, 1956); las
mansiones y las chabolas: The Making of Modern Brasil (Nueva York, 1963) ; Nuevo Mundo en los Trpicos: Cultura del Brasil moderno
(Nueva York, 1963); y "La vida social en Brasil, en la Mitad del Siglo XIX", Hispanic American Historical Review, 5, 1922. dos mayores
obras en portugus que difieren en el enfoque de Freyre son Caio Prado Jr., Formaco economica do Brasil contemporania (Ro de
Janeiro, 1931), una slida historia econmica y social marxista de Brasil; y Joao Dornas Filho, A Excravido no Brasil (Ro de Janeiro,
1939). Los escritos revisionistas de la escuela de So Paulo estn representados por Fernando Henrique Cardoso, Capitalismo e
Escrabidao no Brasil Meridonal (So Paulo, 1962); Octavio Ianni, Como Metamorfoses hacer Escravo (So Paulo, 1962); y Fernando
Henrique Cardoso y Octavio Ianni, Cor ae Mobilidade em Florianpolis (So Paulo, 1964). Obras en Ingls crticos de Freyre y presentar
un panorama totalmente diferente de la esclavitud brasilea incluyen Stanley J. Stein, Vassouras: Un caf brasileo Pas, 1850-1900
(Cambridge, Mass., 1957); Celso Furtado, el crecimiento econmico de Brasil; Una encuesta de Colonial a Modern Times (Berkeley, Cal,
1963.); Vianna Moog, Bandeirantes and Pioneers (New York, 1964); and three books by CR Boxer: The Golden Age of Brazil, 1697
1750: Growing Pains of a Colonial Society (Berkeley, Cal., 1962); Race Relations in the Portuguese Colonial Empire, 14151825
(Oxford, 1963); and Portuguese Society in the Tropics: The Municipal Councils of Goa, Macao, Bahia and Luanda, 15101800 (Oxford,
1965). Also useful for a critical evaluation of the stereotype of the Big House in the writings of Brazilian sociologists and historians is
Arthur Ramos, The Negro in Brazil , trans. Richard Pattee, (Washington, DC, 1951). A standard history of Brazil in English is Jao Pandia
Calogeras, A History of Brazil (Chapel Hill, NC, 1939). A useful study of the Negro in a particular area is Donald Pierson, Negroes in
Brazil: A Study of Race Contact in Bahia (Chicago, 1942). The earliest comparative study is Manoel de Oliveira Lima, The Evolution of
Brazil Compared with that of Spanish and Anglo-Saxon America (Stanford, Cal., 1914). For the view that slavery in Brazil was even more
severe than in the United States, see Carl N. Degler, Slavery in Brazil and the United States: An Essay in Comparative History,
American Historical Review , 75, Apr 1970, and his Neither Black Nor White (New York, 1971). Also useful for a comparison of slavery in
Brazil and the United States are HB Alexander, Brazilian and United States Slavery Compared, Journal of Negro History , 15, 1930;
Mary W. Williams, The Treatment of Negro Slaves in the Brazilian Empire: A Comparison with the USA, ibid. , 15, July 1930. A useful
article is Margaret V. Nelson, The Negro in Brazil as Seen Through the Chronicles of Travelers, ibid. , 30, Apr. 1945. The economics of
sugar production in Brazil is discussed in Kit Sims Taylor, The Economics of Sugar and Slavery in Northeastern Brazil, Agricultural
History , 44, July 1970.
The best account in English on the Republic of Palmares is RK Kent, Palmares: An African State in Brazil, Journal of African History, 6 ,
1965. See also Charles E. Chapman, Palmares, The Negro Numantia, Journal of Negro History , 3, Jan. 1918, and Stanley Warren, Jr.,
Palmares: A Negro State in Colonial Brazil, Negro History Bulletin , 28, Jan. 1965. For Bahia, see Norman Holub, The Brazilian
Sabinada (183738), Journal of Negro History , 54, July 1969.
African influence on Brazilian life is discussed in Jos H. Rodrigues, The Influence of Africa on Brazil and of Brazil on Africa, Journal of
African History , 3, 1962, and in Alan K. Manchester, Racial Democracy in Brazil, South Atlantic Quarterly , 64, Winter 1965. For race
relations in present-day Brazil, see Carl N. Degler, Neither Black Nor White , and Jean-Claude Garcia-Zamor, Social Mobility of Negroes
in Brazil, Journal of Inter-American Studies , Apr. 1970.
Figures on the decline in the slave population in Jamaica, Saint Domingue, and Cuba are presented in Franklin W. Knight, Slavery in
Three Colonies of Three Empires: Jamaica, St. Domingue and Cuba, unpublished paper presented at the Fifty-fourth Anniversary of the
Association for the Study of Negro Life and History, Birmingham, October 1969.
tensiones modernos y los orgenes de la esclavitud americana," Journal of Southern History, 18,
febrero de 1962 La posicin de Oscar y
Mara Handlin, que el lote del siervo Negro apenas difera de la del fiador de blanco antes de la esclavitud, se presenta en "Orgenes del
Sistema Laboral Sur," William and Mary Quarterly, 3d Series, 8, de 1950, que est disponible sin fuentes de referencia en Oscar Handlin,
raza y nacionalidad en American Life (Boston, 1948). Este punto de vista es efectiva y convincente desafiado por Carl N. Degler, "La
esclavitud y el Gnesis de Carrera Americana Prejuicio," Estudios Comparados en Historia y Sociedad, 2, octubre 1959, que se
reimprimi en totalidad en Melvin Drimmer, ed., Negro Historia: Un replanteamiento (Nueva York, 1968), y que se resumen en Out Carl
Degler de nuestro pasado: Las fuerzas que formaron Modern America (Nueva York, 1959). Una ms reciente, bien documentado,
desafo a la tesis de Handlin es Paul C. Palmer, "Siervo en Slave: La evolucin de la condicin jurdica de la Negro Obrero en Virginia
colonial," South Atlantic Quarterly, 65, verano de 1966; vase tambin Adele Hast, "La situacin jurdica de los negros en Virginia, 17051765", Revista de Historia de los Negros, 54, julio de 1969 Por la aparicin de la ley afirmando que el bautismo no alter el estado del
esclavo, ver Warren S. Billings, "Los casos de Fernando e Isabel Clave: Una nota sobre el Estatuto de los negros en el Siglo diecisiete
Virginia," William and Mary Quarterly, 30, julio de 1973 Los cdigos de esclavos de Virginia colonial se discuten en detalle en Thad W .
Tate, The Negro in Eighteenth-Century Williamsburg (Williamsburg, Va., 1965). Terratenientes negros en Virginia se discuten en James
H. Brewer, "Negro Dueos en Decimosptimo Siglo Virginia," William and Mary Quarterly, 12, 3d Series, octubre de 1955 Legislacin
contra la manumisin de los esclavos se discute en John H. Russell, El Negro libre en Virginia, 1619-1865 (Baltimore, 1913). La
privacin del derecho de los negros libres de votar se discute en Emory G. Evans, "A Question of Color: Documentos relativos al negro y
al Franchise in Eighteenth-Century Virginia," La Revista de Virginia de Historia y Biografa, 68, abril 1970 .
The controversy over whether slavery caused or preceded racial prejudice can be followed in the articles by the Handlins and Degler
cited above, as well as in Carl N. Degler, Slavery and the Genesis of American Race Prejudice, Comparative Studies in Society and
History , 2, 1959. Winthrop D. Jordan takes a position somewhat midway between the two in his article also cited above, which, however,
he altered in another article, The Influence of the West Indies on the Origins of New England Slavery, William and Mary Quarterly , 18,
Apr. 1961, and in his book White Over Black . Also useful for the viewpoint that racial prejudice preceded enslavement is Milton Cantor,
The image of the Negro in Colonial Literature, New England Quarterly , Dec. 1963. For the decision of Lord Mansfield in the Somersett
case, see Jerome Nadelhaft, The Somersett Case and Slavery: Myth, Reality, and Repercussions, Journal of Negro History , 51, July
1966.
Maryland
There are two studies that deal in some detail with the Negro in colonial Maryland, both fairly dated: Jeffrey R. Brackett, The Negro in
Maryland: A Study of the Institution of Slavery (Baltimore, 1889), and James M. Wright, The Free Negro in Maryland, 16341860 (New
York, 1921). The first chapter of Wright's study is of value for the colonial period. The most recent studies are Jonathan L. Alpert, The
Origin of Slavery in the United Statesthe Maryland Percedent, American Journal of Legal History , July 1970, and Raphael Cassimere,
Jr., The Origins and Early Development of Slavery in Maryland, 1633 to 1715 (Ph.D. thesis, Lehigh University, 1971). For statistics on
the growth of the slave population, one should consult Evarts B. Greene and Virginia D. Harrington, American Population Before the
Federal Census of 1790 (New York, 1932). Legislation dealing with slaves is published in Maryland Archives , especially Volumes 1,13,
and 22, although the dates are sometimes in error. For the career of Jupiter, see C. Ashley Ellefson, Free Jupiter and the Rest of the
World: The Problems of a Free Negro in Colonial Maryland, Maryland Historical Magazine , 66, Spring 1971.
The Carolinas
The best brief discussion of the founding and early history of Carolina is Wesley Frank Craven, The Southern Colonies in the
Seventeenth Century, 16071689 , Vol. 1 of A History of the South (Baton Rouge, La., 1949). A useful monograph dealing with the Negro
in colonial South Carolina is Frank J. Kleinberg, An Appraisal of the Negro in Colonial South Carolina: A Study in Americanization
(Washington, DC, 1941). This study is based mainly on materials of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. A summary of slavery
in South Carolina, though somewhat incorrect in details, is Edward McCrady, Slavery in the Province of South Carolina, 16701770,
American Historical Association Report , 1885. More valuable are M. Eugene Somans, Colonial South Carolina, 1663 (Chapel Hill, NC,
1969), and John Donald Duncan, Servitude and Slavery in Colonial South Carolina 16701776 (Ph.D. dissertation, Emory University,
1972). White servitude and Indian slavery in colonial South Carolina are also discussed in Warren B. Smith, White Servitude in Colonial
South Carolina (Columbia, SC, 1961), and Almon Wheeler Lauber, Indian Slavery in Colonial Times Within the Present Limits of the
United States (New York, 1913). Most of the slave codes and laws dealing with Negroes are in Thomas Cooper and David J. McCord,
Statutes at Large of South Carolina (Columbia, SC, 18361875),Vols. 17, and summaries are in BR Carroll, ed., Historical Collection of
South Carolina , 4 vols. (New York, 1904). Also useful is Howell M. Henry, The Police Control of the Slave in South Carolina (Emory, Va.,
1914). For a good example of the savagery of the slave code of 1696, see William D. McCloughlin and Winthrop D. Jordan, Baptists
Face the Barbarities of Slavery in 1710, Journal of Southern History , 29, Nov. 1963. Alexander Hewett's comment on rice production is
in his An Historical Account of the Rise and Progress of the Colonies of South Carolina and Georgia , 2 vols, (London, 1779). Most of the
work is devoted in Carolina. Population statistics for colonial South Carolina are in EB Greene and Virginia D. Harrington, American
Population Before the Federal Census of 1790 (New York, 1932). Efforts to regulate the ratio of white to black population by imposing
duties on the importation of slaves are discussed in Elizabeth Donnan, The Slave Trade into South Carolina before the Revolution,
American Historical Review , 33, July 1928.
The emergence of the legal status of the slave as a chattel from custom is discussed in an excellent article by M. Eugene Sirmans, The
Legal Status of the Slave in South Carolina, 16701740, Journal of Southern History , 28, Nov. 1962. The author effectively demolishes
the thesis advanced by Oscar and Mary F. Handlin (Origins of the Southern Labor System, William and Mary Quarterly , 7, Apr. 1950)
that South Carolina could not have borrowed its slavery customs from Barbados or any other island colony.
The discussion of contacts in South Carolina between blacks and Indians and the contribution of Africans to rice production in the colony
is based on Peter H. Wood, Slavery in Early South Carolina: The Herskovits Thesis Reconsidered, unpublished paper delivered at
Meeting of the Organization of American Historians, Apr. 1972, which is fully developed, along with many other aspects of black life and
culture in colonial South Carolina, in the same author's Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono
Rebellion (New York, 1974).
The main sources for slavery in North Carolina during the colonial period, a subject that is still in need of study, are John Spencer
Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Carolina (Baltimore, 1896); Rosser Howard Taylor, Slaveholding in North
Carolina: An Economic View, The James Sprunt Historical Publications , University of North Carolina, 18, 1926; Hugh Talmage Lefler
and Albert Ray Newsome, North Carolina: The History of a Southern State (Chapel Hill, NC, 1954; rev. ed., 1963); Guion G. Johnson,
Ante-Bellum North Carolina (Chapel Hill, NC, 1937); and James A. Padgett, The Status of Slaves in Colonial North Carolina, Journal of
Negro History , 14, July 1929. A study of slavery in one of the largest counties of eastern North Carolina is James K. Turner, Slavery in
Edgecombe County, Historical Papers of the Trinity College Historical Society, Series 12 (Durham, NC, 1916). The slave codes are
discussed, though rather generally, in Ernest Clark, Jr., Aspects of the North Carolina Slave Code, 17151860, North Carolina Historical
Review , 39, Spring 1962. Some discussion of treatment of slaves in the courts may be found in Paul M. McCain, The County Court in
North Carolina before 1750, Historical Papers of the Trinity College Historical Society , Series 31 (Durham, NC, 1954). For the tax on free
persons, see Marvin L. Michael Kay, The Payment of Provincial and Local Taxes in North Carolina, 17481771, William and Mary
Quarterly , 3rd Series, 26, Apr. 1969. I am indebted to Dr. Kay for information from the tax receipts about the number of slaves held by
householders in New Hanover and Pasquotank counties. For the petitions to end the discriminatory tax against free persons of color,
signed by whites, including slave-holders, see Legislative Papers, 94-R-R2, 1763, 1771, North Carolina Archives.
Georgia
The best study of the founding of Georgia and its early development is Trevor Richard Reese, Colonial Georgia. A Study in British
Imperial Policy (Athens, Ga., 1963). A brief account of the reasons for settling Georgia, and the prohibition and introduction of slaves, is in
E. Merton Coulter, A Short History of Georgia (Chapel Hill, NC, 1933). Another study is HB Fant, The Labor Policy of the Trustees for
Establishing the Colony of Georgia in America, Georgia Historical Quarterly , 16, 1932. The relationship between Parliament and the
Trustees is discussed in Richard S. Dunn, The Trustees of Georgia and the House of Commons, William and Mary Quarterly , 11, 1954.
The most detailed record of slavery in Colonial Georgia is Allen D. Candler, ed., The Colonial Records of the State of Georgia (Atlanta,
19041915). Volume 21 contains the correspondence of the Trustees; Vol. 24 contains the Whitfield-Bolzius Correspondence; Vol. 18
contains the slave code of 1755 and the acts relating to freedom for slaves and the importation of free persons of color. For a discussion
of the slave code, see also Ralph B. Flanders, Plantation Slavery in Georgia (Chapel Hill, NC, 1933), and Rubye Mae Jones, The Negro
in Colonial Georgia, 17351805 (MA thesis, Atlanta University, 1938). The debate over the ban on Negroes is summarized in Darold D.
Wax, Georgia and the Negro Before the American Revolution, Georgia Historical Quarterly , 41, Mar. 1967. The use of slave labor on
Georgia plantations is discussed in Willard Range, The Agricultural Revolution in Royal Georgia, 17521775, Agricultural History , 21,
1947. Statistics on the Negro population of Georgia are in US Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States. Colonial
Times to 1957 (Washington, DC, 1960).
There is still a need for an overall study of the Negro in colonial Georgia. But some scholars still do not regard this as a subject worthy of
study. In a paper read at the annual meeting of the Georgia Historical Society in Savannah, 15 February 1969 (Published in the Georgia
Historical Quarterly , June 1969), Kenneth Coleman, professor of History, University of Georgia, discusses Colonial Georgia: Needs and
Opportunities. Professor Coleman describes in the paper what has been written and what the author thinks needs to be written about
Colonial Georgia. In this discussion there is not a single mention of the Negro.
The Southern Colonies: An Overview
Reverend Peter Fontaine's observation may be found in Ann Maury, ed., Memoirs of a Hugenot Family. Translated and Compiled from
the Original Autobiography of the Reverend James Fontaine (New York, 1753), pp. 348353. Leonard Price Stavisky's unpublished
study, The Negro Artisan in the South Atlantic States, 18001860: A Study of Status and Economic Opportunity with Special Reference to
Charleston (Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1958), contains some discussion of the colonial period. Carl Bridenbaugh pays
attention to the Negro craftsman in his work, The Colonial Craftsman (New York, 1950). The situation in Charleston is discussed in an
earlier work, Ulrich B. Phillips, The Slave Labor Problem in the Charleston District, Political Science Quarterly, 22 , Sept. 1907, and in
the more recent Richard Walsh, Charleston's Sons of Liberty: A Study of the Artisans 17631789 . For Timothy Ford's observation in
1785, see Joseph W. Barnwell, Diary of Timothy Ford, 17851786, South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine , 13, July
1912. A very useful work on the use of slave mechanics in various colonies is Richard B. Morris, Government and Labor in Early America
(New York, 1964). Still useful are the early sections of WEB DuBois, The Negro Artisan (Atlanta, 1902). The use of slave labor in the
Virginia and Maryland ironworks and the system of rewarding slaves for overwork is discussed in Ronald L. Lewis, Conciliation and
Motivation: Slavery on Chesapeake Iron Plantations Before the American Revolution, unpublished paper delivered at the 1973 sessions
of the Association for the Study of Afro-American Life and History. An interesting discussion of the use of slave labor in a particular
colonial industry is Joseph A. Goldenberg, Black Labor in Colonial Shipyards, unpublished paper delivered at the 1973 sessions of the
Association for the Study of Afro-American Life and History. Peter Biret's advertisement appeared in the South Carolina Gazette , Nov. 20,
1736. The petition of the white shipwrights to the South Carolina Assembly, the report of the committee, and the action of the Assembly,
may be found in James Harold Easterby, ed., The Journal of the Commons House of Assembly (Columbia, SC, 19511962), 4: 541550.
The work of the SPG is discussed in Arthur Lyon Cross, The Anglican Episcopate and the American Colonies (New York, 1902); Edgar
Legare Pennington, Thomas Bray's Associates and their Work Among the Negroes , (Worchester, Mass., 1939); Henry Paget Thompson,
Into All Lands: The History of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 17011950 (London, 1951); and Frank J.
Klingberg, An Appraisal of the Negro in Colonial South Carolina, A Study in Americanization (Washington, DC, 1941). A summary may be
found in Denzil T. Clifton, Anglicanism and Negro Slavery in Colonial America, Historical Magazine, Protestant Episcopal Church ,
March 1970.
For a picture of Charleston society, see Leila Sellers, Charleston Business on the Eve of the American Revolution (Chapel Hill, 1933). J.
Hector St. John Crevecoeur's comment on Charleston society may be found in his Letters from an American Farmer (New York, 1782). On
slave marriage, see Morris Taeplar, The Sociology of Colonial Virginia (New York, 1968). For the episode of Blackman David, see
Jordan, White Over Black , pp. 209210, and Leland J. Bellot, Evangelical Defense of Slavery in Britain's Old Colonial Empire, Journal
of Southern History , 37, Feb. 1971.
The only general history of Negro slavery in the Northern colonies is Edgar J. McManus, Black Bondage in the North (Syracuse, NY,
1973). Although a useful work, it is too small a treatment of the subject, and it is arranged by subjects and not by individual colonies, so
the student will also want to study the works that deal with particular areas.
Pennsylvania and Delaware
The standard history of the Negro in Pennsylvania is Edward R. Turner, The Negro in Pennsylvania, Slavery-Servitude-Freedom. 1639
1861 (Washington, DC, 1911). He is also the author of Slavery in Colonial Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania Magazine of History and
Biography , 36, 1912. Turner's masterful studies have been supplemented by Darold Duane Wax, The Negro Slave Trade in Colonial
Pennsylvania (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington, 1962). Several of the chapters have already appeared in print: Negro
Imports into Pennsylvania, 17201766, Pennsylvania History , 32, July 1965; The Demand for Slave Labor in Colonial Pennsylvania,
ibid. , 34, Oct. 1967; and Quaker Merchants and the Slave Trade in Colonial Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania Magazine of History and
Biography , 86, 1962. An interesting discussion of the limited need for slave labor in Pennsylvania is Alan Tully, Patterns of Slaveholding
in Colonial Pennsylvania: Chester and Lancaster Counties 17291758, Journal of Social History , Spring 1973. The use of Negro slaves
in Philadelphia and the growth of the institution in that city is examined in detail in the important study, Gary B. Nash, Slaves and
Slaveowners in Colonial Philadelphia, William and Mary Quarterly , 3d Series, 30, Apr. 1973. The employment of slaves in the iron
industry is discussed in Joseph E. Walker, Negro Labor in the Charcoal Iron Industry of Southeastern Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania
Magazine of History and Biography , 93, Oct. 1969. Negro slave craftsmen are discussed in Leonard P. Stavisky, Negro Craftsmen in
Early America, America Historical Review , 54, 1949, and Carl Bridenbaugh, The Colonial Craftsman (New York, 1950). White servitude
is analyzed in Chessman A. Herrick, White Servitude in Pennsylvania: Indentured and Redemption Labor in Colony and Commonwealth
(Philadelphia, 1926). The Quaker attitude toward slavery is discussed at length in Thomas E. Drake, Quakers and Slavery in America
(New Haven, Conn., 1950), and more briefly in Herbert Aptheker, The Quakers and Negro Slavery, Journal of Negro History , 25, 1940.
For Pastor Acrelius' comment on the mildness of slavery in Pennsylvania, see Israel Acrelius, A History of New Sweden; o. The
Settlements on the River Delaware (Philadelphia, 1874), For Oberholtzer's discussion of the legal status of slaves and free blacks, see
Ellis P. Oberholtzer, Philadelphia: A History of the City and its People, A Record of 225 Years (Philadelphia, 1912), Vol. 1.
For the banning of slavery and the importation of slaves in New Sweden, see Israel Acrelius, History of New Sweden (Philadelphia,
1874); John Franklin Jameson, William Usselinx (New York, 1887); and Joseph J. Mackley, Some Account of William Usselinx,
Historical Society of Delaware Papers , 3, 1881. Charles Shorter, Slavery in Delaware (MA thesis, Howard University, 1934), devotes
several sections to the colonial period.
Nueva York
Although it does not deal with the everyday life of the slave and contains little about the free Negro, the best study of the Negro in colonial
New York is Edgar J. McManus, A History of Negro Slavery in New York (Syracuse, NY, 1966). Earlier, though inadequate, works are
Edwin V. Morgan, Slavery in New York (Washington, DC, 1891), and Ansel J. Northrup, Slavery in New York (Albany, 1900). Still worth
consulting is Samuel McKee, Labor in Colonial New York, 16641776 (New York, 1935). Specialized studies include William R. Riddell,
The Slave in Early New York, Journal of Negro History , 13, Jan. 1928; Leo H. Hirsch, Jr., The Negro in New York, 17831865, ibid .,
15, 1931; AG Lindsay, The Negro in New York Prior to 1861, ibid ., 6, 1917; Henry McCloskey, Slavery on Long Island, Brooklyn
Common Council Manual , 1864; Aaron H. Payne, The Negro in New York Prior to 1860, Howard Review , 1, 1923; Frank J. Klingberg,
The SPG Program for Negroes in Colonial New York, Historical Magazine of the Protestant Episcopal Church , 8, 1939. The slave
statutes of colonial New York are discussed in Julius Goebel and T. Naughton, Law Enforcement in Colonial New York (New York, 1944),
and Edward Olsen, The Slave Code in Colonial New York, Journal of Negro History , 29, Apr. 1944. Olsen also has a study entitled
Social Aspects of Slave Life in New York, Journal of Negro History , 26, Jan. 1941. A readable summary of slavery in New York may be
found in the first two chapters of Roi Ottley and William J. Weatherby, eds., The Negro in New York: An Informal Social History (New York,
1967). The book is edited from manuscripts in the Schomburg Collection of Negro Literature and History, which were originally prepared
by the Federal Writers Project.
Nueva Jersey
The establishment of slavery in New Jersey is discussed in Richard McCormick, New Jersey from Colony to State, 16091789 (Princeton,
NJ, 1964). The development of slavery in the colony is described in Henry S. Cooley, A Study of Slavery in New Jersey (Baltimore, 1896);
James C. Connolly, Slavery in Colonial New Jersey and the Causes Cooperating Against its Extension, Proceedings of the New Jersey
Historical Society , 3d Series, 10; AO Keasby, Slavery in New Jersey, ibid ., 5; Hubert F. Schmidt, Slavery and Attitudes on Slavery in
Hunterdon, NJ . (Flemington, NJ, 1941). For statistics on the growth of the slave population, see Simeon F. Moss, The Persistence of
Slavery and Involuntary Servitude in a Free States, 16851866, Journal of Negro History , 35. The history of slavery in the late colonial
period is well summarized in Atalanta Brown Lipscomb, The Status of the Negro in New Jersey during the Period 17631804 (MA
thesis, Columbia University, 1942).
The use of slaves in the ironworks and as craftsmen is discussed in Charles S. Boyer, Early Forges and Furnaces in New Jersey
(Philadelphia, 1931), and Leonard Stavisky, The Origins of Negro Craftsmanship in Colonial America, Journal of Negro History , 32.
Comments on the mild nature of slavery in New Jersey will be found in EP Chase, trans., Our Revolutionary Forefathers: The Letters of
Franois Marquis de Barb-Marbois, 17791785 (New York, 1929), and Peter Kalm, Travels in North America (New York, 1932). For the
petition to the Queen asking repeal of the Regulating Act of 1704, see New Jersey Archives , 1st Series, 3: 473. For the legal status of the
Negro in New Jersey, see Marian T. Wright, New Jersey Laws and the Negro, Journal of Negro History , 28, Apr. 1943. She is also the
author of Education of Negroes in New Jersey (New York, 1941), and Negro Suffrage in New Jersey, 17761785, Journal of Negro
History , 33, 1948.
The only study of the free Negro in New Jersey is Laura Foner, The Free Negro in New Jersey (unpublished seminar paper, Graduate
History Department, Rutgers University, 1966). The mixed racial community of Gouldtown is discussed in William Steward and
Theophilus G. Steward, Gouldtown, A Very Remarkable Settlement of Ancient Date (Philadelphia, 1913). The career of John Chavis is
discussed in Sherman W. Savage, The Influence of John Chavis and Lunsford Lane on the History of North Carolina. Journal of Negro
History , 25. See also the sketch of Chavis in the Dictionary of American Biography .
The New England Colonies
The position of the Negro in New England during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries has been studied by only one historian:
Lorenzo J. Greene, whose The Negro in Colonial New England, 16201776 was published in 1942. It is still the only comprehensive
treatment of the subject. A more critical view of the position of the slave in New England, especially in Massachusetts, and still the best
study of slavery in that colony, is George H. Moore, Notes on Slavery in Massachusetts (New York, 1866). The slave trade in New
England is discussed in WEB DuBois, The Suppression of the African Slave Trade to the United States (New York, 1896); Lorenzo M.
Greene, Slaveholding New England and its Awakening, Journal of Negro History , 13, Oct. 1928. Still worth consulting is William B.
Weeden, The Early African Slave Trade in New England, Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society , New Series, 5, 1889. A
good summary of the legal status of the Negro in Massachusetts, but otherwise rather uncritical in its approach to slavery and the free
Negro, is Robert C. Towmbly and Robert M. Moore, Black Puritan: The Negro in Seventeenth Century Massachusetts, William and
Mary Quarterly Review , Apr. 1967. Slavery in Massachusetts is also the subject of an unpublished doctoral dissertation, Lawrence W.
Towner, A Good Master Well Served: A Social History of Servitude in Massachusetts, 16201750 (Northwestern University, 1954), and
an unpublished 1955 MA thesis at Columbia University, Marilyn Anne Lavin, The Negroes of the Old Colony. Indian slavery in New
England is duscussed in Alden T. Vaughan, New England Frontier: Puritans and Indians, 16201675 (Boston, 1965). Relations between
Indians and Negroes are discussed in Carter G. Woodson, The Relation of Negroes and Indians in Massachusetts, Journal of Negro
History , 5, 1920, and Kenneth W. Porter, Relations between Negroes and Indians within the Present Limits of the United States, ibid .,
17, 1932.
For the other New England colonies, see William Johnston, Slavery in Rhode Island, 17551776 (Providence, 1894); Edward Channing,
The Narragnnsett Planters (Baltimore, 1886); Charles A. Battle, Negroes in the Island of Rhode Island (Newport, 1932); William D.
Johnston, Slavery in Rhode Island, 17551776, Rhode Island Historical Society Publications , New Series II, July 1894; JP Parker,
Slavery in Rhode Island (MA thesis, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, 1954); Bernard C. Steiner, A History of Slavery in Connecticut
(Baltimore, 1893); Louise G. Griswold, Slavery in Connecticut (MA thesis, Columbia University, 1950); and Robert A. Warner, New
Haven Negroes: A Social History (New Haven, Conn., 1940). Also useful for Connecticut slavery are two autobiographies by former
Connecticut slaves: Venture Smith, Narrative of the Life and Adventure of Venture Smith, an african; but Resident above Sixty Years in
the United States of America, Related by Himself (Hartford, Conn., 1798), and John Mars, Life of John Mars, A Slave Born and Sold in
Connecticut, Written by Himself (Hartford, Conn., 1864). For separation of families in New Hampshire, see Charles E. Clark, The Eastern
Frontier The Settlement of Northern New England, 16101763 (New York, 1970), p. 350. For the petition of Massachusetts blacks to
the legislature in 1774, see Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States (New York, 1951). For
the laws relating to slaves and free Negroes in the militia, see The Negro in Military Service of the United States: A Compilation of
Records, State Papers, Historical Extracts, etc. Relating to his Military Service and Status from the date of his introduction in British North
America, Chapter 1, National Archives, Microfilm Copy. For the rules of the Society of Negroes organized by Cotton Mather, see Thomas
James Holmes, Cotton Mather: A Bibliography of His Works (Cambridge, Mass., 1940), Vol. 3.
The description of the parade and dinner following the election of the African Governor in Connecticut appears in Orville H. Platt, Negro
Governors of Connecticut, New Haven Historical Magazine , 6, 1900.
The Northern Colonies: An Overview
The most detailed treatment of the refusal of British colonists to distinguish Negroes from mulattoes is Winthrop D. Jordan, American
Chicaroscuro: The Status and Definition of Mulattoes in the British Colonies, William and Mary Quarterly , 3d Series, 19, Apr. 1962, and
the discussion in his White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 15501812 , For Orlando Patterson's description of the
racial system categories in America, Latin America, and the West Indies, see his article, Toward a future that has no pastreflections on
the fate of Blacks in the Americas, The Public Interest , Spring 1972.
Adam Smith one should consult his Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations and The Theory of Moral Sentiments , to
which is added A Dissertation on the Origin of Languages (London, 1767). Useful discussions can be found in Elie Halvy, The Growth of
Philosophical Radicalism , trans. Mary Morris (Boston, 1955), and JB Bury, The Idea of Progress: an Inquiry into its Origin and Growth
(New York, 1955). The contradictory nature of Montesquieu's influence on the slavery controversy is discussed in FTH Fletcher,
Montesquieu's Influence on Anti-Slavery Opinion in England, Journal of Negro History , 18, Oct. 1933.
For discussions of natural rights and the Negro, the following are useful: Mary S. Locke, Anti-Slavery in America (Boston, 1901); William
F. Poole, Anti-Slavery Before the Year 1800 (Cincinnati, 1873); George H. Moore, Notes on the History of Slavery in Massachusetts (New
York, 1866); Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in The American Revolution (Chapel Hill, NC, 1961); James F. Jameson, The American
Revolution Considered as a Social Movement (Princeton, NJ, 1940); Michael Kraus, Slavery Reform in the Eighteenth Century: An
Aspect of Trans-Atlantic Intellectual Cooperation, Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography , 60, 1936; and Bernard Bailyn, The
Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 1967).
Negro Petitions; Benjamin Rush; the Slave Trade
Negro petitions are presented in Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States (New York,
1951); Moore, op. cit.; and Negro Petitions for Freedom, Massachusetts Historical Society Collections , 5th Series, 3, 1877.
Benjamin Rush's views on slavery can be studied in The Autobiography of Benjamin Rush , ed. George W. Corner (Princeton, NJ, 1948);
LH Butterfield, ed., Letters of Benjamin Rush (Princeton, NJ, 1951); and David J. D'Elia, Dr. Benjamin Rush and the Negro, Journal of
the History of Ideas , 30, JulySept. 1969.
Thomas Paine's essays on slavery and the slave trade are published in Philip S. Foner, The Complete Writings of Thomas Paine (New
York, 1945), Vol. 2. For actions against the slave trade the best source is still WEB DuBois, The Suppression of the Slave Trade to the
United States of America, 16381870 (Cambridge, Mass., 1896; reprinted, New York, 1970). Also worth consulting is Peter Duignan and
Clarence Clendenen, The United States and the African Slave Trade, 16191862 (Stanford, Cal., 1963).
For advertisements indicating that runaway slaves were heading for England after learning of Lord Mansfield's decision in the Somersett
case, see Gerald W. Mullin, Flight and Rebellion: Slave Resistance in Eighteenth-Century Virginia (New York, 1972).
The First Abolitionist Society
For the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, see Edward R. Turner, The First Abolition Society in the United
States, Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography , 26, 1912. For Benjamin Franklin and the school for Negro children in
Philadelphia, see Richard I. Schelling, Benjamin Franklin and the Dr. Bray Associates, Pennsylvania Magazine of History and
Biography , 13, Jan. 1939, and for Franklin's views on slavery see Verner W. Crane, Benjamin Franklin on Slavery and American
Liberties, ibid ., 62, Jan. 1938, William E. Juhnke, Benjamin Franklin's View of the Negro and Slavery, Pennsylvania History , 41, Oct.
1974.
The use of Negroes in the colonial militia during wartime is discussed in Benjamin Quarles, The Colonial Militia and Negro Manpower,
Mississippi Valley Historical Review , 45, Mar. 1959. See also advertisements for fugitive slaves who fought in the colonial wars and had
served as privateers in Journal of Negro History , 1, Apr. 1916. The participation of Negroes in the battles of Lexington and Concord and
Bunker Hill is discussed in Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the American Revolution (Chapel Hill, NC, 1961); Herbert Aptheker, The
Negro in the American Revolution (New York, 1940); Frank W. Coburn, The Battle of April 19, 1775 (Lexington, Mass., 1912); and David
E. Phillips, Negroes in the American Revolution, Journal of American History , 5, 1911. John R. Alden's A History of the American
Revolution (New York, 1969) has been called by Professor Jack P. Green the best one-volume history of the Revolution written thus far.
But it has no room in its lengthy discussion of the battles of Lexington and Concord and Bunker Hill for Negro participation. On Trumbull's
painting of the Battle of Bunker Hill, see EH Silver, Painter of the Revolution, American Heritage , 9, 1958. The question of whether Peter
Salem fired the shot that killed Major Pitcairn is a disputed one, but most authorities accept it as accurate.
Lord Dunmore's Black Regiment
The best treatment of Lord Dunmore's proclamation to the slaves and its consequences is the chapter Lord Dunmore's Ethiopian
Regiment in Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the American Revolution . Another study which can be consulted is Francis L. Berkeley, Jr.,
Dunmore's Proclamation of Emancipation (Charlottesville, Va., 1941). For the effects of the proclamation and Dunmore's black regiment
on Maryland and Virginia planters, see Merrill Jensen, The American People and the American Revolution, Journal of American History
, 57, June 1970, and Tad W. Tate, The Coming of the Revolution in Virginia: Britain's Challenge to Virginia's Ruling Class, 17631776,
William and Mary Quarterly , 3d Series, 19, June 1962. For George Washington's changing position on recruiting Negroes in the
Continental Army, the best account is Walter H. Mazyck, George Washington and the Negro (Washington, DC, 1932).
The most complete collection of materials relating to the Negro in colonial wars, in the Battle of Lexington and Concord and the Battle of
Bunker Hill, and also dealing with Lord Dunmore's proclamation and its effects, is The Negro in the Military Services of the United States:
A Compilation of Official Records, State Papers, Historical Records, etc., Chapters 1 and 2, National Archives, Washington, DC
Declaracin de la Independencia
The antislavery activity of Reverend Samuel Hopkins and Moses Brown is discussed in W. Patten, Reminiscences of the Late Reverend
Samuel Hopkins (Boston, 1843); Mack Thompson, Moses Brown, Reluctant Reformer (Chapel Hill, NC, 1962); James F. Reilly, Moses
Brown and the Rhode Island Anti-Slavery Movement (MA thesis, Brown Univeristy, 1939); Arline Ruth Kiven, The Nature and Course of
the Anti-Slavery Movement in Rhode Island, 16371861 (MA thesis, Brown University, 1965); and Norman S. Fiering, The Anti-Slavery
Activities of Samuel Hopkins, DD (17211803) (MA thesis, Columbia University, 1953). For Hopkins' Dialogue , see Samuel Hopkins, A
Dialogue Concerning the Slavery of the Africans (Norwich, Conn., 1776), which also includes Hopkins' letter to the Continental Congress
accompanying his Dialogue . The Dialogue also appears in Samuel Hopkins, Timely Articles on Slavery (Boston, 1854).
Thomas Jefferson's views on slavery have been fully analyzed in many studies. The most recent, and one of the most penetrating, is
William Cohen, Thomas Jefferson and the Problem of Slavery, Journal of American History , 56, Dec. 1969. Valuable discussions may
also be found in Matthew T. Mellon, Early American Views on Negro Slavery: From the Letters and Papers of the Founders of the
Republic (Boston, 1934); the chapter on Jefferson in Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550
1812 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1968); and Robert McCooley, Slavery and Jeffersonian Virginia (Urbana, Ill., 1964). For a defense of Jefferson for
not having manumitted his slaves, see Dumas Malone, Jefferson and His Times (Boston, 19481962), especially Vol. 3. For J. Franklin
Jameson's query, see his The American Revolution Considered as a Social Movement (Princeton, NJ,, 1926).
The inscription on John Jack's gravestone is published in George Tolman, John Jack, the Slave, and Daniel Bliss, the Tory (Concord,
Mass., 1902), p. 4.
discussed in Samuel F. Bemis, Jay's Treaty (New Haven, Conn., 1962), and in Richard B. Morris, The Peacemakers: The Great Powers
and American Independence (New York, 1965). For the complaint of Virginians in 1781, see Petition from Henrico County, 1784, Virginia
Legislative Papers, Virginia State Library, Richmond. The story of the Nova Scotia blacks and their settlement in Sierra Leone is
summarized in Quarles, op. cit. , pp. 177181. A more detailed account is Adams G. Archibald, Story of the Deportation of Negroes from
Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone, Nova Scotia Historical Society, Collections , 7, 18891891. See also Earl Leslie Griggs, Thomas Clarkson,
the Friend of the Slaves (London, 1936), pp. 6668, and Mary Beth Norton, The Fate of Some Black Loyalists of the American
Revolution, Journal of Negro History , 58, Oct. 1973.
The text of the gradual emancipation act of 1780 is in Pennsylvania Statutes at Large , 10: 67. The battle to modify the act of 1780 is
discussed in Robert L. Brunhouse, The Counter-Revolution in Pennsylvania, 177690 (Harrisburg, Pa., 1942), pp. 98108. The letter of
Cato to the Freeman's Journal is quoted in part in Zilversmit, op. cit. , p. 136, but the entire letter is reprinted in Philip S. Foner, A Plea
Against Reenslavement, Pennsylvania History , 29, Apr. 1972. The text of the petition to the General Assembly in 1788 calling for the end
of the slave trade in Pennsylvania and other changes in the act of 1780 is in Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography , 15, 1891,
and the text of the act of 1788 is in JT Mitchell and Henry Flanders, eds., The Statutes at Large of Pennsylvania from 1682 to 1801
(Harrisburg, Pa., 18961915), 13: 54. For the role of the Pennsylvania courts in freeing slaves, see Stanley I. Kutler, Pennsylvania
Courts, the Abolition Act, and Negro Rights, Pennsylvania History , 30, 1963.
Nueva York
The best general discussions of abolition in New York may be found in Zilversmit, The First Emancipation , Chapters 6 and 7; Edgar
McManus, A History of Negro Slavery in New York (Syracuse, NY, 1966). Chapters 8 and 9; and Edgar McManus, Antislavery Legislation
in New York, Journal of Negro History , 46, 1961. Zilversmit and McManus do not agree on the question of whether slavery was still
profitable in New York in the 1780s; the former insists that it was, and the latter argues that the rapid increase in the supply of free labor
made slavery uneconomic. Zilversmit's evidence is convincing. For the New York State Constitution of 1778, see JS Murphy, Interesting
Documents (Containing the Constitution of New York State with its Amendments) (New York, 1819). The report of the Manumission
Society in 1786 is in Minutes, New York Manumission Society, 1: 2123, New York Historical Society. The constitution of the Society is
also in the Minutes. For the history of the Society, see Thomas Robert Mosely, A History of the New York Manumission Society, 1785
1849 (Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1963).
Jupiter Hammon's Address to the Negroes of the State of New York , 1787, is in Carter G. Woodson, ed., The Mind of the Negro As
Reflected in Letters Written During the Crisis, 18001860 (Washington, DC, 1926). See also Stanley Austin Ransom, Jr., America's First
Negro Poet: The Complete Works of Jupiter Hammon of Long Island (New York, 1970). William Hamilton's statements are in his letter to
John Jay, Mar. 8, 1796, John Jay Papers, Columbia University Library. For evidence that white workers supported abolition, see Alfred F.
Young, The Democratic-Republicans of New York: The Origins 17631797 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1967). The comment on slave
advertisements is in the Forlorn Hope of Apr. 19, 1800.
Nueva Jersey
The long process involved in achieving gradual emancipation in New Jersey is traced in the following sources: Henry Scofield Cooley, A
Study of Slavery in New Jersey, Johns Hopkins Studies in Historical and Political Science (Baltimore, 1922); Simeon Moss, The
Persistence of Slavery and Involuntary Servitude in a Free State (16851866), Journal of Negro History , 35, 1950; Zilversmit, The First
Emancipation , pp. 142136, 173174, 184193, 220221. For the New Jersey legislature's request for revision of the Articles of
Confederation, see Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774 1789 (Washington, DC, 19031937), 11: 637640. On the work of
David Cooper, see Notices of David Cooper, Friends' Review , 15: 18621863. The manuscript copies of the correspondence between
Samuel Allinson and William Livingston are in the Rutgers University Library. Joseph Bloomfield's optimistic statement of 1794 is in his
letter to Samuel Coates, June 30, 1794, Bloomfield Mss ., New Jersey Historical Society, Newark, NJ The liberation of his slaves by
Joseph Bloomfield is discussed in Atalanta Brown Lipscomb, The Status of the Negro in New Jersey during the Period 1763 to 1804
(MA thesis, Columbia University, 1942), p. 86. The report of the New Jersey Abolition Society of 1798 is in Minutes of the Society, Mss . in
the Quaker Collection, Haverford College, Pennsylvania. The full text of the 1804 petition of the Abolition Society to the New Jersey
legislature is published in the Trenton (NJ) True American , Feb. 6, 1804. The statistics of slaves in New Jersey from 1790 to 1860 may be
found in The Negro in New Jersey, Report of a Survey by the Interracial Committee, Dec. 1932 , p. 77. The text of the laws of 1784, 1786,
1787 may be found in Laws of the State of New Jersey, December 1703November 1799 , compiled by William Patterson (Newark, NJ,
1800), and the text of the Act of 1804 is in Laws of the State of New Jersey , Compiled and Published under the Authority of the
Legislature, by Joseph Bloomfield (Trenton, NJ, 18001811). For the abolition of the slave trade in New Jersey and New York, see WEB
DuBois, The Suppression of the African Slave-Trade to the United States of America, 16381870 (New York, 1970), pp. 239240.
For the ruling of the Chief Justice of New Jersey in 1846, see New Jersey Reports (Jersey City, 1886), 30: 372373. The census statistics
on the decline of slavery in the middle states are in JD DeBow, Statistical View of the United States and a Compendium of the Seventh
Census (Washington, DC, 1864), p. 82.
Slavery Banned in the Northwest
For James Madison's interpretation of the reasons for the ban on slavery in the Ordinance of 1787, see his letter to Robert Walsh, Nov.
27, 1819, in Gaillard Hunt, ed., The Writings of James Madison (New York, 19001910), 9: 910. Staughton Lynd's analysis is
presented in his article, The Compromise of 1787, Political Science Quarterly' , 81, 1966, and reprinted in his book, Class Conflict,
Slavery, and the United States Constitution (Indianapolis, 1967). For the Negro population in 1790, see US Bureau of Census, Negro
Population of the United States, 17901915 (Washington, DC, 1915), p. 51.
The Ordinance of 1787 and the attempt to eliminate the ban against slavery are discussed in Bernice E. Finney, The Prohibition of
Slavery in the Old Northwest, 17841830 (MA thesis, Howard University, 1939); Jacob P. Dunn, ed., Slavery Petitions and Papers,
Indiana Historical Society Publications , 2, 1895; Jacob P. Dunn, A Redemption from Slavery (Boston and New York, 1888); N. Dwight
Harris, The History of Negro Servitude in Illinois and of the Slavery Agitation in that State, 17191864 , (Chicago, 1904), and FS Philbrick,
ed., The Laws of the Indiana Territory, 18011809, Illinois State Historical Library Collections , 21, Law Series. 2: 1930. The text of the
laws in the Indiana Territory establishing Negro servitude may be found in Emma Lou Thornbrough, The Negro in Indiana: A Study of a
Minority, Indiana Historical Collections 37, (1957): 89.
For John S. Rock's statement, see Philip S. Foner, ed., The Voice of Black America (New York, 1972), p. 206. John Jay's comment is in his
letter to Granville Sharp (1788), in Henry P. Jackson, ed., The Correspondence and the Public Papers of John Jay (New York, 1890
1893), 3: 342. For the celebrations of free blacks in the Southern cities over the abolition of slavery in New York, see Freedom''s Journal ,
13, 20 July 1827.
William W. Freehling's position is set forth in his article The Founding Fathers and Slavery, American Historical Review , 77, Feb. 1972.
Independent Chronicle , Nov. 7, 1793, and the reply of Frenchmen is in the Baltimore Daily Intelligencer , Dec. 4, 1793. For Jefferson's
letter to Governor Drayton, see HA Washington, ed., The Writings of Thomas Jefferson (Washington, DC, 18531854), 4: 9798.
to Toussaint by the editor of the New York (state) Mechanic is reprinted in The People's Advocate (Concord, New Hampshire), Aug. 5,
1842 which also carried the poetic tribute by Whittier. For the effort to denigrate Toussaint in comparison with Christophe, see Hubert
Cole, Christophe, King of Haiti (New York, 1968), and the review of the book by Selden Rodman, New York Times Book Review , Jan. 14,
1968, p. 10. Aim Csaire's evaluation is in his Toussaint Louverture: La Rvolution Franaise et le.Problme Colonial (Paris, 1961), pp.
307310.
The Republic of Haiti
The prophecy by William Wells Brown is in his St. Domingo: Its Revolutions and its Patriots (Boston, 1855).
(Boston, 1968). Kirkland's letter to McPherson, Sept. 28, 1800, is in the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. James Monroe's letter to
Jefferson, Sept. 5, 1800, is in SM Hamilton, ed., Writings of James Monroe (New York, 18981903), 3: 201. The slave conspiracies in
North Carolina in 1800 is mentioned in RH Taylor, Slave Conspiracies in North Carolina, North Carolina Historical Review , 5, Jan.
1928, and Wish, op. cit ., p. 315. For the panic in South Carolina in 1802 following report of a planned landing of blacks by a French
squadron, see Howard A. Ohiline, Georgetown, South Carolina: Racial Anxieties and Militant Behavior, 1802, South Carolina Historical
Magazine , 73, My 1972.
Defense of Black Revolution
The letter of Henry W. De Saussure to Oliver Wolcott, Jr., Charleston, Dec. 28, 1801, is in the Oliver Wolcott Papers, Connecticut Historical
Society, and Thomas Dwight's observation is in his letter to Hannah Dwight, Boston, Jan. 21, 1802, Dwight-Howard Papers,
Massachusetts Historical Society. JP Martin's defense of the blacks of Saint Domingue is in American Museum , 12 (1791): 299300;
David Rice's is in his Slavery Inconsistent with Justice and Good Policy (Philadelphia, 1792), p. 9; Theodore Dwight's is in his An Oration
Spoken before the Connecticut Society for the Promotion of Freedom and the Relief of Persons Unlawfully Holden in Bondage,
Convened in Hartford on the 8th Day of May, AD, 1794 , pp. 20, 23.
The Lesson of Saint Domingue
Thomas Paine's warning is in his letter to William Short, Nov. 1791, in Philip S. Foner, ed., Complete Writings of Thomas Paine (New
York, 1945), 2: 1321. An Account of a Plot by the Negroes of Goree is in American Museum 2 (1792): 304307. The poetic warning is
entitled Lines on the Devastation of St. Domingo, and is in ibid . 12 (Appendix I, 1792): 1314. The verse from the Rural Magazine is
reprinted in Jordan, op. cit ., p. 379. For the stand of the American Convention of Abolition Societies, see Minutes , 1793, p. 23; 1795, pp.
2425, George Thatcher's warning is in Annals of Congress , 5th Cong., 2nd Sess., pp. 13061313. Genet's evaluation of Jefferson's fear
of Saint Domingue is in Turner, op. cit ., p. 53. For Jefferson's insistence that the way to prevent another Saint Domingue is through
remedial measures, see his letter to St. George Tucker, Aug. 28, 1797, in Paul L. Ford, ed., The Writings of Thomas Jefferson
(Washington, 19031904), 8: 335.
Response of Slave-Owners
For the action in Burke County, North Carolina, see Edward W. Phifer, Slavery in Microcosm, Burke County, North Carolina, in Allen
Weinstein and Frank Otto Gatell, ed., American Negro Slavery: A Modern Reader (New York, 1968), p. 85. For South Carolina's law of
1800 and Charleston's ordinance of 1806, see George B. Eckhard, ed., A Digest of the Ordinances of the City Council of Charleston from
the Year 1783 to October 1844, to Which are annexed the Acts of the Legislature which Relate Exclusively to the City of Charleston
(Charleston, 1844), pp. 376378. For measures adopted in North Carolina, see Taylor, op. cit ., p. 21, and Aptheker, American Negro
Slave Revolts , pp. 7476.
Reactions to the Louisiana Purchase, Missouri Historical Review , Jan. 1969. For the debates and votes on the Breckenridge Bill, see
Annals of Congress , 8th Cong., 1st Sess., pp. 240242; Everett Somerville Brown, ed., William Plumer, Memorandum of Proceedings in
the United States Senate, 18031807 (New York, 1923), pp. 115122; ES Brown, The Senate Debate on the Breckenridge Bill for the
Government of Louisiana, 1804, American Historical Review , 22, Jan. 1917. The last is a collection of documents that reprints the
debates as recorded in the private journal of Senator William Plumer of New Hampshire. Thomas Paine's position is set forth in his
Address to the Inhabitants of Louisiana, in Philip S. Foner, ed., Complete Writings of Thomas Paine (New York, 1945), 2: 963968, and
his letter to Jefferson, Jan. 25, 1805, ibid ., 14561464. For a brief discussion of York, William Clark's slave, see Donald Zochert, 'This
nation never saw a black man before,' American Heritage , 22, Feb. 1971.
Decline of Abolitionism
For the attacks on the antislavery societies by Southern legislatures, see Samuel Shepard, ed., The Statutes at Large of Virginia, from
October Session 1793 to December Session 1806, Inclusive (Richmond, 18351836), 1: 363365; Palmer and McRae, op. cit ., 9: 178;
Maryland Gazette , Dec. 12, 1791. For the resolution of the 1801 abolitionist convention condemning Gabriel's rebellion, see Minutes of
the Proceedings of a Convention of Delegates from the Abolition Societies (Philadelphia, 1801), pp. 3839.
The decline of the antislavery societies under the impact of Saint Domingue may be traced in Minutes , American Convention for
Promoting the Abolition of Slavery and Improving the Condition of the African Race (Philadelphia, 1806); Mary S. Locke, Antislavery in
America (Boston, 1901), pp. 108109; James Francis Reilly, Moses Brown and the Rhode Island Anti-Slavery Movement (MA thesis,
Brown University, 1941), pp. 4850; Norman B. Wilkinson, Papers of the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery,
Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography , 68, July 1944; Edward Needles, An Historical Memoir of the Pennsylvania Society for
the Promotion of the Abolition of Slavery (Philadelphia, 1848), pp. 5456; Thomas R. Mosely, A History of the New York Manumission
Society (Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1963), pp. 311314. For the anonymous abolitionist who defended Gabriel's
insurrection, see Humanitas (pseudonym), Reflections on Slavery; With Recent Evidence of its Inhumanity (Philadelphia, 1803). Peter
Early's statement appears in Annals of Congress , 9th Cong., 2nd Sess., p. 238.
The United States and the Black Republic
For the breaking off of trade between the United States and Haiti, see Henry Adams, op. cit ., 3: 138142; Logan, op. cit ., pp. 151187;
and Donald L. Robinson, Slavery in the Structure of American Politics, 7765 1820 (New York, 1971), pp. 370371.
Abolition of the African Slave Trade
For the abolition of the slave trade in England, see Thomas Clarkson, History of the Abolition of the Slave Trade (London, 1828); Jean
Tripp, The Liverpool Movement for the Abolition of the English Slave Trade, Journal of Negro History , 13, July 1928; ECP Lascelles,
Granville Sharp and the Freedom of Slaves in England (London, 1928). For the influence of Saint Domingue on the abolition of the slave
trade in England, see Alan M. Rees, Pitt and the Achievement of Abolition, Journal of Negro History , 39, July 1954. Wilberforce's
refutation of the idea of Negro inferiority is discussed in William Baker, William Wilberforce on the Idea of Negro Inferiority, Journal of the
History of Ideas , 31, 1970. DuBois' estimate of importance of Saint Domingue on the abolition of the slave trade in the United States is in
Suppression of the African Slave Trade , p. 94. The best account of the factors behind the reopening of the slave trade in South Carolina
in 1803 is Patrick S. Brady, The Slave Trade and Sectionalism in South Carolina, 17871808, Journal of Southern History , 38, Nov.
1972. See also, however, John H. Wolfe, Jeffersonian Democracy in South Carolina (Chapel Hill, NC, 1940), pp. 188192. For David
Baird's warning in Congress, see Annals of Congress , 8th Cong., 1st Sess., p. 996.
Jefferson's message to Congress on the closing of the slave trade is in Annals of Congress , 9th Cong., 2nd Sess., p. 14. The best
discussion of the committee activities and the debates in Congress is in Robinson, op. cit ., pp. 324338. See also DuBois, op. cit ., pp.
94108. For the text of the speech by the Reverend Peter Williams, Jr., see Philip S. Foner, The Voice of Black America (New York, 1972),
pp. 1925. The speech of Jedidiah Morse is in his A Discourse Delivered at the African Meeting-House in Boston, July 14, 1808, in
Grateful Celebration of the Abolition of the African Slavetrade (Boston, 1808).
There is a considerable body of literature dealing with the black Seminoles and the Seminole wars. The present discussion is based on
the following sources: Edward C. McReynolds, The Seminoles (Norman, Okla., 1957); James Hugo Johnston, Documentary Evidence of
the Relations of Negroes and Indians, Journal of Negro History , 14, Jan. 1929; Wyatt F. Jeltz, The Relations of Negroes and Chochtaw
and Chicksaw Indians, ibid ., 33, Jan. 1948; Kenneth W. Porter, Negroes on the Southern Frontier, ibid.,; Kenneth W. Porter, Negroes
and the East Florida Annexation Plot, 18111813, ibid ., 30, Jan. 1945; Kenneth W. Porter, Negroes and the Seminole War, 1817
1818, ibid ., 36, July 1951; Kenneth W. Porter, The Seminole in Mexico, 18501861, Hispanic American Historical Review, 21, Feb.
1951; Kenneth W. Porter, Negroes and the Seminole War, 18351842, Journal of Southern History , 30, Nov. 1964; Kenneth W. Porter,
Florida Slaves and Free Negroes in the Seminole War, 18351842, Journal of Negro History , 28 (Oct. 1943); Lois Katz Brown, Negro
Indian Relations in the Southern States, 15261890 (MA thesis, University of Toledo, 1968); J. Leitch Wright, Jr., A Note on the First
Seminole War as Seen by the Indians, Negroes and Their British Advisers, Journal of Southern History , 34, Nov. 1968; Frank Laumer,
Massacre (Gainesville, Fla., 1968). A tribute to the Seminoles is a pictorial history by Irvin W. Peithman entitled The Unconquered
Seminoles (St. Petersburg, Fla., 1969).
The article in the Albany (NY) Argus is reprinted in National Trades Union , Mar. 26, 1836.
Routes to Freedom
The statement of the Virginia Assembly in freeing the two slaves who had informed on Gabriel is quoted in Berlin, op. cit ., p. 132. The
comment of the Maryland abolitionist on freedom suits is in John S. Tyson, Life of Elisha Tyson, the Philanthropist (Baltimore, 1825), p.
15, and that of the Delaware abolitionists is in the Report of the Delaware Abolition Society to the American Convention, Dec. 11, 1802,
and quoted in Berlin, op. cit ., p. 23.
The best study of self-purchase is Herbert Aptheker, They Bought Their Way to Freedom, Opportunity , Apr. 1940, and reprinted in his To
Be Free: Studies in American Negro History (New York, 1948), pp. 3140. Cases involving self-purchase may be found in Helen T.
Caterall, ed., Judicial Cases Concerning American Slavery and the Negro (Washington, DC, 1929), 2: 275, 479. Illustrations of blacks
who bought themselves and relatives and freedom out of slavery may be found in Constance McG. Green, The Secret City: A History of
Race Relations in the Nation's Capital (Princeton, NJ, 1967), p. 16; Lorenzo J. Greene, Self-Purchase by Negroes in Cole County,
Missouri, Midwest Journal , 2, Winter, 1948; Luther P. Jackson, Manumission in Certain Virginia Cities, Journal of Negro History , 15,
1937; Benjamin Quarles, Black Abolitionists (New York, 1969), pp. 5860, Samuel Eliot Matisqn, Manumission by Purchase, Journal of
Negro History , 33, Jan. 1948. On the limited number of self-purchases in Virginia, see James Hugo Johnston, Race Relations in Virginia
and Miscegenation in the South (Amherst, Mass., 1970), pp. 8,44. For Negroes who owned slaves and the importance of benevolent
reasons for the practice, see Calvin D. Wilson, Negroes Who Owned Slaves, Popular Science Monthly , 82, Nov. 1912, and John Hope
Franklin, The Free Negro in the Economic Life of Ante-Bellum North Carolina North Carolina Historical Review , 19, Oct. 1942.
The advertisements dealing with fugitive slaves may be found in the Virginia Gazette (Richmond), Apr. 15, 1795; Norfolk (Virginia) Herald
, Jan. 16, Feb. 5, 14, Mar. 2, 9, 12, 19, May 16, Aug. 1, 1799.
Danger of Reenslavement
For the incidence of kidnapping in Virginia, see Berlin, op. cit ., pp. 172185, and for the operation of kidnapping rings in Delaware, see
John Gary Dean, The Free Negro in Delaware: A Demographic and Economic Study, 17901860 (MA thesis, University of Delaware,
1970), pp. 3840. The difficulty of convicting kidnappers is outlined in the Minutes of the Delaware Abolition Society, Nov. 11, 1803,
Historical Society of Delaware. The report of the Charleston grand jury is in John Lofton, Insurrection in South Carolina: The Turbulent
World of Denmark Vesey (Yellow Springs, Ohio, 1964), p. 87. For debt peonage and other infringements on the freedom of free blacks in
Delaware, see Richard B. Morris, The Course of Peonage in a Slave State, Political Science Quarterly , 65, June 1950.
For the practice of kidnapping in Illinois, see Alexander Davidson and Bernard Stuve, A Complete History of Illinois from 1673 to 1876
(Springfield, Ill., 1877), pp. 319320.
Resisting Reenslavement
For the case of John Read, see West Chester (Pa.) Village Record , Dec. 20, 1820, May 16, Aug. 9, 15, 21, 1821 (copies in Chester
County Historical Society, West Chester, Pennsylvania); What Right Had a Fugitive Slave of Self-Defense Against His Master?
Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography , 13, 1889; William R. Leslie, The Pennsylvania Fugitive Slave Act of 1826, Journal of
Southern History , 18, Nov. 1952.
Free Blacks in the South
There are a number of specialized studies of free blacks in the South that, though extending beyond 1820, include material on the period
here under discussion. Among them are Berlin, op. cit.; Charles S. Sydnor, The Free Negro in Mississippi before the Civil War, American
Historical Review , 32, July 1927; E. Horace Fritchett, The Traditions of the Free Negro in Charleston, South Carolina, Journal of Negro
History , 25, Apr. 1940; John Hope Franklin, The Free Negro in North Carolina , 17901860 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1943); Jeffrey R. Brackett,
The Negro in Maryland (Baltimore, 1889); John H. Russell, The Free Negro in Virginia, 16191865 (Baltimore, 1903); Ralph B. Flanders,
The Free Negro in Ante-Bellum Georgia, North Carolina Historical Review , 9, Feb. 1943; Annie LW Stahl, The Free Negro in AnteBellum Louisiana, Louisiana Historical Quarterly , 25, Apr., 1942; Henry S. Robinson, Some Aspects of the Free Negro Population of
Washington, DC, 18001862, Maryland Historical Magazine , Spring 1969; Luther P. .Jackson, Free Negro Labor and Property Holding
in Virginia, 18301860 (New York, 1942); John Hope Franklin, The Free Negro in the Economic Life of Ante-Bellum North Carolina,
North Carolina Historical Review , 19, Oct. 1942. The articles by Sydnor, Fritchett, and Franklin are also reprinted in John H. Bracey, Jr.,
August Meier, and Elliott Rudwick, eds., Free Blacks in America, 18001860 (Belmont, Cal., 1971).
For restrictions and attacks on the rights of free Negroes in the South after 1790, see Berlin, op. cit ., pp. 170190; Syndor, op. cit ., p. 17;
Johnson, Race Relations , p. 43; Russell, op. cit ., p. 63. For restrictions on suffrage, see Bracket, op. cit ., pp. 186187; JS Bassett,
Suffrage in the State of North Carolina, American Historical Association Report , 1895; John Gary Dean, The Free Negro in Delaware,
op. cit ., p. 11; Roger W. Shugg, Negro Voting in the Ante-Bellum South, Journal of Negro History , 21. For restrictions on meetings in
Baltimore and the keeping of dogs by free blacks in the same city, see Brackett, op. cit ., pp. 199, 216, and for restrictions on freedom of
movement, see Sydnor, op. cit ., p. 7. For the petition of free persons of color to the South Carolina Senate in 1791, see Herbert Aptheker,
Petition of South Carolina Negroes, Journal of Negro History , 31, Jan. 1946, and reprinted in the same author's Documentary History of
the Negro People in the United States , pp. 2628. For the declaration of the Supreme Court of Louisiana, see Helen T. Caterall, ed.,
Judicial Cases Concerning American Slavery and the Negro (Washington, DC, 1936), 3: 571. For legislation by Congress and
ordinances adopted by the city government of Washington relating to the free Negro, see Robinson, op. cit ., and Worthington G. Snethen,
The Black Code of the District of Columbia (New York, 1848).
The discussion of segregation of blacks in the South during this period is based on the following sources: C. Vann Woodward, The
Strange Career of Jim Crow , 1st ed. (New York, 1955), pp. 1314; 2d ed. (New York, 1957), p. xvii; Richard C. Wade, Slavery in the
Cities, The South, 18201860 (New York, 1964), pp. 266268; Roger A. Fischer, Racial Segregation in Ante-Bellum New Orleans,
American Historical Review , 74, Feb. 1969; Frederic Bancroft, Slave Trading in the Old South (Baltimore, 1937), p. 219.
The discussion of the economic status of free blacks in the South is based on Berlin, op. cit ., pp. 200232; Wade, op. cit ., p. 325; Lofton,
op. cit ., pp. 8586; Leonard P. Stavisky, The Negro Artisan in the South Atlantic States: 18001860: A Study of Status and Economic
Opportunities with Special Reference to Charleston (Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1951), pp. 219233. For the petition from
Richmond free blacks for a new cemetery, see Petition, Dec. 10, 1810, Virginia State Library, and for reprisal law and McPherson's
comment, see Christopher McPherson, A Short History of the Life of Christopher McPherson (Lynchburg, 1855), p. 6.
Free Blacks in the North
For the 1788 law of Massachusetts barring Negroes, see Theron Metcalf, ed., General Laws of Massachusetts , Mar. 26, 1788, Chapter
54, Sect. 6, p. 322, 32426. The investigation of 18211822 is in Theodore Lyman, Jr., Free Negroes and Mulattoes , Massachusetts
House of Representatives Report, Jan. 16, 1822; John Daniels, In Freedom's Birthplace; A Study of the Boston Negroes (Boston and New
York, 1941), pp. 2829. For the laws of New Jersey, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois excluding Negroes, see James H. Wright, New Jersey
Laws and the Negro, Journal of Negro History , 65; Carter G. Woodson, The Negroes of Cincinnati Prior to the Civil War, Journal of
Negro History , 1, Jan. 1916; Journal of the Convention of the State of Illinois , pp. 31, 9296, 255, 453455; Emile Kettleborough,
Constitution Making in Indiana , 1: 361 363, 414, 421; Charles B. Galbreath, History of Ohio (New York, 1925), 1: 167202; Helen T.
Catterall, Judicial Cases Concerning American Slavery and the Negro (Washington, DC, 1937), 5: 3. For the Black Laws of Illinois, see
Samuel H. Treat, Bennett Scales, Robert Blacknell, The Statutes of Illinois (Chicago, 1858), 2: 821830.
The discussion of the campaign to restrict the rights of free blacks in Pennsylvania is based on the following sources: Edward R. Turner,
The Negro in Pennsylvania: Slavery-Servitude-Freedom, 16391861 (Washington, DC, 1911), pp. 122, 136, 148, 152153; Charles M.
Snyder, The Jacksonian Heritage in Pennsylvania Politics, 18331848 (Harrisburg, Pa., 1958), p. 105; Elias P. Oberholtzer, Philadelphia:
A History of the City and its People, A Record of 225 Years (Philadelphia, 1912), 2: 286288; Stanley I, Kutler, Pennsylvania Courts, The
Abolition Act, and Negro Rights, Pennsylvania History , 30, 1963; James Forten, A Series of Letters by a Man of Color (Philadelphia,
1813); Appeal of Forty Thousand Citizens threatened with disfranchisement, to the People of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1838).
The discussion of Negro suffrage in the North outside of Pennsylvania is based on the following sources: Emil Olbrich, The Development
of Sentiment in Negro Suffrage to 1860 (Madison, Wis., 1912); George H. Moore, Notes on the History of Slavery in Massachusetts (New
York, 1866), pp. 187190; Journal of the Proceedings of the Convention of Delegates, Convened at Hartford, August 26, 1818, for the
Purpose of Forming a Constitution of Civil Government for the People of Connecticut (Hartford, Conn., 1901), pp. 46, 90; IH Barlett, From
Slave to Citizen, The Story of the Negro in Rhode Island (Providence, 1954), pp. 2022; Marion Thompson Wright, Negro Suffrage in
New Jersey, 17761785, Journal of Negro History , 33, 1948; Dixon Ryan Fox, The Negro in Old New York, Political Science Quarterly
, 33, June 1917; Thomas EV Smith, Political Parties and their Places of Meeting in New York City (New York, 1893), p. 10; Herman D.
Bloch, The New York Negro's Battle for Political Rights, 17771865, International Review of Social History , 10, 1964; Laws of the State
of New York (Albany, 1813), 2: 9495, 253254; AB Street, The Council of Revision of the State of New York, its Historyand its Vetoes
(Albany, 1859), pp. 266269; 362364; A Report of the Debates and Proceedings of the Convention of the State of New York (Albany,
1823); Mary Joyce Adams, The History of Suffrage in Michigan, Publications of the Michigan Political Science Association , 3, Mar.
1898; Ohio House of Representatives, Report of the Committee on the Colored Population of Ohio , reprinted in Journal , Feb. 1, 1832.
The discussion of the economic status of black workers in the North is based on the following sources: Whittington Bernard Johnson,
Negro Laboring Classes in Early America, 17501820 (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Georgia, 1970), Chapter 6; Amett Lindsay, The
Economic Condition of the Negroes of New York Prior to 1861, Journal of Negro History , 6, Apr. 1921; Charles H. Wesley, Negro Labor
in the United States, 18501925 (New York, 1927), Chapter 2; WEB DuBois, The Philadelphia Negro (Philadelphia, 1899), Chapter 1;
Julian Rammelkamp, The Providence Negro Community, 18201842, Rhode Island History . 7, Jan. 1948; Donald Martin Jacobs, A
History of the Boston Negro from the Revolution to the Civil War (Ph.D. dissertation Boston University, 1968), pp. 8182. For the
valedictorian address at the New York African School, see Charles C. Andrews, The History of the New York African Free Schools
(New York, 1830), p. 132. An interesting account of the rise of a black pauper and transient labor class in a specific Northern community
is Carl D. Oblinger, Alms for Oblivion: The Making of a Black Underclass in Southeastern Pennsylvania, 17801860, in John E. Bodnar,
ed., The Ethnic Experience in Pennsylvania (Lewisburg, Pa. 1973).
Banneker, from Notes Taken in 1836 (Baltimore, 1854); John HB Lagroe, Memoir of Benjamin Banneker (Baltimore, 1854); Will W. Allen,
Benjamin Banneker, Afro-American Astronomer (Washington, DC, 1915); Henry E. Baker, Benjamin Banneker, Journal of Negro History
, 3, 1919; William B. Settle, The Real Benjamin Banneker, Negro History Bulletin , 16, Jan.Apr. 1953. The Banneker-Jefferson
correspondence has been frequently published, and may be found most conveniently in Aptheker, Documentary History , pp. 2225. For
the Federalist attack on Jefferson in this matter, see William L. Smith, The Pretensions of Thomas Jefferson to the Presidency Examined
(np, 1796), pp. 8, 10. David Rittenhouse's praise of Banneker is in his letter to James Pemberton, Philadelphia, Aug. 6, 1791, the
original of which is in the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. A detailed account of Banneker's role in the laying out of the nation's capital
is Silvio A. Bedini, Benjamin Banneker and the Survey of the District of Columbia, 1791, Columbia Historical Society Records , 1969
1970.
Dr. James Derham
The best study of black medical practitioners in early America is Herbert M. Morais, The History of the Negro in Medicine (Washington,
D:C., 1967); chapters 2 & 3. A sketch of James Derham is also in Kelly Miller, The Historic Background of the Negro Physician, Journal
of Negro History , 1, Apr. 1916. For Derham's relations with Rush, see Betty L. Plummer, Benjamin Rush and the Negro (MA thesis,
Howard University, 1969). For Caesar's cure, see Morais, op. cit ., pp. 207208.
Black Artists and Musicians
The black artist in early America is discussed in Alain L. Locke, The Negro in Art: A Pictorial Record of the Negro Artist and the Negro
Theme in Art (Washington, DC, 1940), and in Edward Strickland, Our 'Forgotten' Negro Artists, Masses & Mainstream , Sept. 1954. For
Joshua Johnston, see Katherine Scarborough, An Early Negro Portrait Artist: Joshua Johnston, Negro History Bulletin , 31, Feb. 1968.
The comment on Stephen Fortune is by Bishop Henry McNeal Turner, and may be found in Philip S. Foner, ed., The Voice of Black
America (New York, 1972), p. 563. For black musicians in early America, see Eileen Southern, The Music of Black Americans: A History
(New York, 1971), pp. 105112.
Black Teachers
Negro teachers are discussed in Carter G. Woodson, The Education of the Negro Prior to 1861 (New York, 1915), pp. 120140;
Southern, op. cit ., pp. 8081; CW Bimie, The Education of the Negro in Charleston, South Carolina before the .Civil War, Journal of
Negro History , 12, Jan. 1927; W. Sherman Savage, The Influence of John Chavis and Lunsford Lane on the History of North Carolina
ibid ., 25, Jan. 1940.
Black Actors
The African Grove Theater is discussed in Loften Mitchell, Black Drama: The Story of the American Negro in the Theater (New York,
1967), pp. 2426; in Herbert Marshall and Mildred Stock, Ira Aldridge: The Negro Tragedian (New York, 1958), pp. 2847; and in George
CC Odell, Annals of the New York Stage, 18211835 (New York, 1928).
Black Preachers
For the many black preachers in this period, see Carter G. Woodson, The History of the Negro Church (Washington, DC,). Richard Allen's
early life may be traced in Rt. Rev. Richard Allen, The Life Experience and Gospel Labor of the Rt. Rev. Richard Allen (New York, 1960),
pp. 125; Charles Wesley, Richard Allen, Apostle of Freedom (Washington, DC, 1935), which also has important biographical information
about Absalom Jones and other black religious figures in early America. For Absalom Jones, see Absalom Jones, Narrative of the Life of
Rev. Absalom Jones (np, nd); William Douglas, Annals of the First African Church in the United States (Philadelphia, 1862), pp. 118123.
Daniel Coker's early life is set forth in Journal of Daniel Coker, A Descendant of Africa (Baltimore, 1820). For Lemuel Haynes, see
Timothy Mather Cooley, Sketches of the Life and Character of the Rev. Lemuel Haynes (New York, 1837); W, H. Morse, Lemuel Haynes,
Journal of Negro History , 4, 1919; William Yates, ed., Rights of Colored Men. A Book of Facts (Philadelphia, 1838), pp. 4045. There is
no biography of Prince Saunders, but there is a brief sketch in the Dictionary of American Biography .
Black Businessmen
For Negro businessmen in early America, see Abram L. Harris The Negro as Capitalist (Philadelphia, 1936), pp. 615; JH Harmon, Jr.,
The Negro as a Local Business Man, Journal of Negro History , 14, Apr. 1929; Edmund Berkeley, Jr., Prophet Without Honor:
Christopher McPherson, Free Person of Color, Virginia Magazine of History and Biography , 67, Apr. 1969. For the comment of the New
Yorkers on the black barber, see Henry Bradshaw Fearon, Sketches of America: A Narrative of a Journey of Five Thousand Miles
Through the Eastern and Western States of America (London, 1818), pp. 5859, and Isaac Candler, A Summary of America (London,
1824), p. 284. A brief sketch of Samuel Fraunces is John W. Davis, Samuel Fraunces: Revolutionary Patriot and Citizen-Extraordinary,
Negro History Bulletin , 30, Nov. 1967.
There is no biography of Pierre Toussaint, but the following are useful: HFS Lee, Memoir of Pierre Toussaint, Born a Slave in Santo
Domingo (Boston, 1854); Henry Binsse, Pierre Toussaint, A Catholic Uncle Tom, US Catholic Historical Society Records & Studies , 13,
1918; and Leo R. Ryan, Pierre Toussaint, 'God's Image Carved in Ebony,' ibid., 25 , 1935. The latter is mainly a summary of the
contents of the Papers of Pierre Toussaint, which are deposited in the manuscript division of the New York Public Library. Paul Cuffe is
discussed in the first chapter of Sheldon H. Harris, Paul Cuffe: Black America and the African Return (New York, 1972); HW Sherwood,
Paul Cuffe, Journal of Negro History , 8, Apr. 1923; and Peter Williams, A Discourse on the Death of Paul Cuffe, reprinted in Foner, ed.,
The Voice of Black America . The life of James Forten is presented in Ray Allen Billington, James Forten: Forgotten Abolitionist, Negro
History Bulletin , 13, Nov. 1949; Robert Purvis, Remarks on the Life and Character of James Forten (Philadelphia, 1842); and William C.
Nell, Patriots of the American Revolution (Boston, 1855), pp. 166175.
There is a survey of the emergence of the black elite in Boston, in Adelaide Cromwell Hill, The Negro Upper Class in BostonIts
Development and Present Social Structure (Ph.D. dissertation, Radcliffe College, 1962). But there is no study of the more important black
elite of Philadelphia. Some discussion of the families that made up this elite may be traced in Richard Bardolph, The Negro Vanguard
(New York, 1959.)
The Black Vanguard and the Black Masses
The discussion of Christopher McPherson is based on his A Short History of the Life of Christopher McPherson , and Berkeley, Jr., op. cit
., James Forten's appeal to the Pennsylvania legislature in 1813 is in his Letters from a Man of Colour, on a Late Bill before the Senate of
Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1813), extracts from which are to be found in Aptheker, ed., Documentary History , pp. 5965. Paul
Preston's view on the yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia may be found in Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 13,
(1912): 287. For Benjamin Rush's letters on the role of blacks in the yellow fever epidemic, see LH Butterfield, ed., Letters of Benjamin
Rush (Princeton, 1951), 1: 638658. Richard Allen and Absalom Jones's pamphlet is A Narrative of the Proceedings of the Black People
During the Late Awful Calamity in Philadelphia in the Year 1793 (Philadelphia, 1795).
Black Antislavery Spokesmen
The Allen and Jones pamphlet contains An Address to those who Keep Slaves and Approve the practice, To the People of Colour, and
A Short Address to the Friends of Him Who hath No Helper. Othello's antislavery tract Negro Slavery may be found in Carter G.
Woodson, ed., Negro Orators and Their Orations (Washington, DC, 1925), pp. 1425. For the text of Cyrus Bustill's address to
Philadelphia slaves, see Melvin H. Buxbaum, ed., Cyrus Bustill Addresses the Blacks of Philadelphia, William and Mary Quarterly , 29,
Jan. 1972.
of independent African churches in the South is discussed in Berlin, op. cit ., pp. 395398, and W. Harrison Daniel, Virginia Baptists and
the Negro in the Antebellum Era, Journal of Negro History , 56, Jan. 1971.
Black Schools
Education for blacks and the establishment of African Schools is discussed in Carter G. Woodson, The Education of the Negro Prior to
1861 (Washington, DC, 1919), pp. 255307; Marion T. Wright, The Education of Negroes in New Jersey (New York, 1941), pp. 1933; A
Brief Sketch of the Schools for Black People and their Descendants Estsablished by the Religious Society of Friends in 1770
(Philadelphia, 1967), pp. 317; A Short History of the African Union Meeting and School-House Erected in Providence in the Years 1819,
'20, '21, with Rules for the Future Government (Providence, 1821), pp. 37; Charles C. Andrews, The History of the New-York African
Free-Schools (New York, 1830; reprinted New York, 1969); Thomas Robert Mosley, A History of the New York Manumission Society,
17851849 (Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1963), Chapter 4; William O. Bourne, History of the Public School Society of the
City of New York (New York, 1869), pp. 366367; Constitution of the Education Society for the People of Color in New England with an
Address of the Executive Committee to the Public (Boston, 1817); Arthur O. White, Blacks and Education in Antebellum Massachusetts:
Strategies for Social Mobility (Ph.D. dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1969).
Elisha Dick's warning against African schools is in William P. Palmer, ed., Calendar of Virginia State Papers (Richmond, 18751893), 9:
178. For white hostility to African Schools in the South, see Berlin, op. cit ., pp. 141145. The opposition to Sunday Schools is set forth in
Levi Coffin, Reminiscences of Levi Coffin (Cincinnati, 1876), pp. 6971, and Genius of Universal Emancipation , Sept. 1821. The story
of James McPherson's school venture is related in Edmund Berkeley, Jr., Prophet Without Honor, Christopher McPherson, Free Person
of Color, Virginia Magazine of History and Biography , 52, June 1967.
For the Pennsylvania Augustine Society for the Education of People of Colour, see Prince Saunders, An Address Delivered at Bethel
Church, Philadelphia, on the 30th of September 1818 before the Pennsylvania Augustine Society for the Education of People of Colour
(Philadelphia, 1818). Arthur Donaldson's Philadelphia school for black children is described in his The Juvenile Magazine No. 3 .
(Philadelphia, 1813). Copy in Boston Public Library, Rare Book Room. The poem by MAB in the last number of the Juvenile Magazine
(Aug. 1813) is also reprinted in William Gribbin, Advice from a Black Philadelphia Poetess of 1813, Phylon , 34, No. 1, 1973.
Blacks and Public Schools
For the beginnings of public schools for blacks in Philadelphia, see Harry Charles Silcox, A Comparative Study in School
Desegregation: The Boston and Philadelphia Experience 18001881 (Ph.D. dissertation, Temple University, 1972). The battle for public
schools for blacks in Boston is discussed in White, op. cit .; Lorenzo Greene, Prince Hall: Massachusetts Leader in Crisis, Freedomways
, 1, Fall 1961; and Aptheker, Documentary History , pp. 1920.
25. Emigrate or Stay and Fight for Equality: The Initial Debate
Two recent works which deal to some extent with the black emigration movement of the 17901820 period are Edwin S. Redkey, Black
Exodus: Black Nationalist and Back-to-Africa Movements, 18901910 (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1969), and Theodore Draper,
The Rediscovery of Black Nationalism (New York, 1970). Draper's book has come under sharp attack, especially by black scholars, for
what is viewed as its lack of understanding of the appeal of black nationalism among black Americans. See especially the review by Earl
Ofari in The Black Scholar , Oct. 1970, and the exchange between Draper and Ofari in ibid ., June 1971. A critical review of Redkey's
book and an estimate of the black emigration tradition is the review article by Melvin Drimmer in Journal of American Studies (published
by Cambridge University Press for the British Association for American Studies), Feb. 1971.
For Samuel Hopkins' suggestion to Phillis Wheatley that she return to Africa as a missionary, and her rejection of the suggestion, see
Kenneth Silverman, Four New Letters by Phillis Wheatley, Early American Literature , 8, Winter, 1974.
The correspondence between the Union Society of Africans in Newport and the Free African Society of Philadelphia is published in
William Douglass, Annals of the First African Church in the United States of America, now styled the African Methodist Episcopal Church
of St. Thomas (Philadelphia, 1862), pp. 2529.
Role of Paul Cuffe
The most recent and most authoritative study of Paul Cuffe's role in relation to Africa is Sheldon H. Harris, Paul Cuffe: Black America and
the Africa Return (New York, 1972). The work includes letters to and by Cuffe and the journal of his voyage to Sierra Leone. Other studies
of Cuffe are Henry N. Sherwood, Paul Cuffe, Journal of Negro History , 8, Apr. 1923, and the same author's Paul Cuffe and his
Contribution to the American Colonization Society, Proceedings of the Mississippi Valley Historical Association for the Years 191213 ,
6. For plans to deport free Negroes prior to the formation of the American Colonization Society, see Walter L. Fleming, Historic Attempts
to Solve the Race Problem in America Through Deportation, Journal of Negro History , 4, Jan. 1910; Henry N. Sherwood, Early Negro
Deportation Projects, Mississippi Valley Historical Review , 2, Mar. 1916; Brainerd Dyer, The Persistence of the Idea of Negro
Colonization, Pacific Historical Review , 12, Mar. 1943. For the full details of one such early plan, see Ferdinando Fairfax, Plan for
Liberating the Negroes in the United States, American Museum , 8, Dec. 1790.
Birth of the American Colonization Society
There is a considerable body of literature dealing with the American Colonization Society. The most recent study is Peter J. Staudenraus,
The American Colonization Movement, 18161865 (New York, 1961). However, Professor Staudenraus tends to overemphasize the
sincere benevolence of many members of the ACS and pays insufficient attention to the significance of proslavery support and the
Society's role in increasing racial prejudice. An older but still useful work is EA Fox, The American Colonization Society (Baltimore, 1917).
George M. Frederickson's viewpoint is set forth in The Black Image in the White Mind (New York, 1971). For the comment of the editor of
the New York Courier on the Society's founding meeting, and the Sambo piece, see issues of Jan. 1, 13, 1817.
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History of Black Americans -- : From Africa to the Emergence of the Cotton Kingdom
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