VOCABULARY IN DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Vocabulary is the largest area of study for the learners of new

languages. Most researchers agree that vocabulary should be
taught in context because its meaning can be various in different
situations.

If

learners

are

not

aware

of

this

feature,

misinterpretations or miscommunication may occur.

According to Halliday and Hasan, there are vocabulary
patterns in written and spoken texts, which are coherently related.
They suggest there are two principal kinds of models to describe the
relations between vocabulary items in texts; collocation and
reiteration. Reiteration means either restating the item in a larger
part of the discourse by direct repetition or else reasserting its
meaning. Vocabulary is semantically related in the text, in which
direct repetition, synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, superordinates,
and so on are used for lexical cohesion. For example; writers do not
always repeat the same words in their writing, they make various
choices of vocabulary which is strongly related to the topic. tn the
case of speaking, people bring up the topic and expand it by
reiterating the topic through their own vocabulary. Both written and
spoken texts, people tend to choose variations which may be very
natural. Too much direct repetition may look unnatural.

The meaning of vocabulary is the power of lexicalization which is

the use of words to express norms, belief, and values. The
relationship between words and their meanings is not always one to
one but one to many, which means a single word may have multiple
meanings. A word also has meaning potential and its relationship
with other words can come in the form of synonym, antonym, and
collocation. Lexicalization is believed to be the most direct way of
producing an ideological effect.

1 Halliday, M., Hasan; R., Cohesion in English, (London: Longman, 1976)

p.274-277.

Text producers are free to choose words related to social

interests, expressing norms, values, beliefs, or knowledge. They
may use metaphors.
For example:
Labor is a resource. The metaphor equates human work with
natural resource which may lead people to perceive it as the
cheaper.
In the personal advertisements, we often find language of
sexism. Women often describe themselves as petite or fullfigured. A man may describe himself as attractive, fun,
and fit.
In economic discourse, the vocabulary labor skill is often
used to mean human capital and governance to signify
diminished government.
Vocabulary is conceived as the major dimension of discourse
meaning through which ideology, knowledge, beliefs, and values are
produced, controlled, and reproduced. Vocabulary is included as one
of the analytical tools in this course, because The word is the
fundamental object to the study of ideologies.
Since vocabulary is the most direct way of inculcating
ideology, this course pays extra attention to this linguistic feature in
the analysis of the discourse of social wrong. Language and social
wrong constitute each other. The analysis of vocabulary assists you
to uncover the perspective of ones ways of tackling the social
problem since the latter is inculcated in the former and vice versa.

The news we read or hear is shaped by a complex interaction of

ideologies, a fight between those of the owners, the advertisers, the
news staff, and the viewing public. The ideology that wins is
typically that of the owners or the advertisers. Whichever ideology
is in control, the result is that the news we receive is selected news,

2 AR, Mustafa, Discourse Analysis, (Banda Aceh: Ar-Raniry Press, 2004),

p.18.

and expressed in such a way as to sway us towards their way of

looking at events, and thus to share their ideology.
Ideologies can influence the various levels of discourse
structures, from intonation, syntax and images to the many aspects
of

meaning,

such

as

topics,

coherence, presuppositions, metaphors and argumentation, among

many
more.3
A. REPETITION
Repetition or is also known as reiteration means either restating an
item in a later part of the discourse by direct repetition or else
reasserting its meaning by exploiting lexical relations, such as
hyponymy, synonymy, antonym, etc. Lexical relations are the stable
semantic relationships that exist between words and which are the
basis of descriptions given in dictionaries and thesauri: for example,
rose and flower are related by hyponymy; rose is a hyponym of
flower. Eggplant and aubergine are related by synonymy.4 It is
regardless

of

the

geographical

dimension

of

usage

that

distinguishes them.
Example:
1. In the following two sentences, lexical cohesion by synonymy
occurs:

The meeting commenced at six thirty. But from the

moment it began, it was clear that all was not well.
(Here, commence and begin co-refer to the same entity
in the real world.)

3 Teun A Van Dijk, Ideologi and Discourse: A multidisciplinary Introduction,

(Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (Open University), 2000), p. 4.
4 McCarthy, M, Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers, (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2004), p.65.

The meeting commenced at six thirty; the storm

began at eight.
(Here commenced and begin refer to separate events,
but we would still wish to see a stylistic relationship
between them, perhaps to create dry humor or irony)
2. In the following sentence, lexical cohesion by hyponymy occurs:
There was a fine old rocking-chair that his father used

to sit in, a desk where he wrote letters, a nest of small tables

and a dark, imposing bookcase. Now all this furniture was
to be sold, and with it his own past.
(Instead of furniture we could have had all these
items/objects/things, which are examples of general
super-ordinates. Other general super-ordinates, covering
human and abstract areas, include people, creature, idea
and fact.)
Reiteration of this kind is extremely common in English discourse;
we do not always find direct repetition of words, and very ofthen
find considerable variation from sentence to sentence in writing and
from turn to turn in speech. Such variation can add new dimensions
and nuances to meaning, and serves to build up an increasingly
complex context, since every new word, even if it is essentially
repeating or paraphrasing the semantics of an earlier word, brings
with it its own connotations and history of occurrence.5
On the other hand, Halliday classifies reiteration into four
types: the same word, a synonym/near synonym, a superordinate,
and a general word.
Example:
There's a boy climbing that tree.
a. The boy's going to fall if he doesn't take care.
b. The lad's going to fall if he doesn't take care.
5 Ibid, p.66.

c. The child's going to fall if he doesn't take care.

d. The idiot's going to fall if he doesnt take care.
Explanation:
In (a), boy is repeated; in (b), the reiteration takes the form of a
synonym
lad; in (c), of the superordinate term child; and in (d), of a general
word
idiot. It is typical of such general words, at least those referring to
people,
as we have seen, that they carry a connotation of attitude on the
part

of

the speaker, usually one of familiarity (derogatory or intimate).6

It can be concluded that a boy can be replaced in the
following sentences with the boy (the same word), the lad (a
synonym/near-synonym), the child (a superordinate), and the
idiot (a general word). The writer uses some repetition to make an
idea of his/her writing clearer for the reader. So, the writing can be
interpreted correctly.
B. HYPONYM
Hyponym describes a relationship when we can say X is a kind of
Y. In this model one lexeme (gorgonzola) can substitute another
(mozzarella):

Superordinate Term

cheese

Hyponyms
gorgonzola

stilton

cheddar

mozzarella
Hyponymy is particularly important to linguists because it is
the core element in producing dictionary definitions. The nest way
to define a lexeme (e.g. gorgonzola) is to provide a superordinate
6 Halliday, M., Hasan; R., Cohesion in English, (London: Longman, 1976)
p.279-280.

term (cheese) and some distinguishing features. It is usually

possible to trace a path through a dictionary following the
superordinate terms as they become increasingly abstract.
C. SYNONYM
Synonyms are lexemes which have the same meaning.
English has a particularly large number of synonyms for historical
reasons, because its vocabulary has come from different sources
(Germanic, Latin, Greek, French influences).
Are synonyms possible? It is almost always possible to
distinguish meanings between similar words:

Some words only occur in particular contexts (e.g. dialect

words, English/American words like autumn/fall).

Some words only occur in certain styles, e.g. salt (standard

usage) and sodium chloride (scientific).

Some words only occur in certain collocations, e.g. profound

sympathy but not profound water.

Some words are emotionally stronger, e.g. Freedom not

liberty.

Some words overlap in meaning but are not identical (e.g.

govern and direct).
For these reasons some linguists argue that true synonyms

(words with exactly the same meaning) are not possible because
you can always distinguish between them.
Example:
1. Dozing guards allowed a group of peace campaigners to
breach a missile security cordon yesterday.
2. The women protesters claimed to have walked right up to the
cruise launchers.
3. As sentries slept, they tip-toed past sentries at 3 a.m. and
inspected a cruise convoy in a woody copse on Salisbury
Plain.

4. Greenham Common campaigner Sarah Graham said For the

sake of making things more realistic, the copse was protected
by soldiers dug into foxholes.

Explanation:
Guards and sentries are synonyms for soldiers. Others examples
are: claimed and said and slept and dozing, although the last
example is not off the same aspect. Peace campaigners and
protesters could be considered to be either synonyms or nearsynonyms depending on whether the word protester is seen by the
reader as being peaceful or violent.
D. ANTONYM
Antonyms are lexemes which are opposite in meaning. An
antonym is the answer to a question what is the opposite of the
word x?. Unlike synonyms (remember there is some doubt about
whether true synonyms really exist), antonymy definitely exists in
several forms:

Gradable antonyms like happy/sad, large/small, wet/dry;

these

are

capable

of

comparison

(e.g.

you

can

say

wetter/dryer, larger/smaller; there is a scale with wet at one

end and dry at the other.

Complementary

antonyms

such

as

single/married

or

alive/dead; there is no scale of aliveness or firstness; if one

applies, the other does not to be dead is not to be alive.

Converse antonyms like over/under, buy/sell, over/under;

these are mutually dependent (you cannot have a husband
without a wife).
Opposites do not have to be antonyms. For example we have

awkward and clumsy on one hand but skilful and dexterous on the
other. They are opposites but not antonyms. We know antonyms
intuitively. The antonym of little is big and the antonym of large is
small. Large is not the antonym of little even though they are
conceptually opposed.
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E. COLLOCATIONS
Collocation refers to the relationship between words that
frequently occur together, like weapons of mass destruction. Words
often acquire their meanings as a consequence of their collocations.
For example pretty collocates with girl, woman, flower, garden etc.
whereas handsome collocates with boy, man, car, etc.. As a result
the word pretty has acquired a feminine quality and the word
handsome a masculine one.
A word may also acquire different collocational meaning
depending on the word which accompanies it. For example the word
white has a different meaning in the noun phrases white wine,
white noise, white man, white coffee.
There is no reason why particular words tend to go together.
For example, there is no reason why deep collocates with water (we
say deep water) but profound does not (we cannot say profound
water). There is no reason why we say broad daylight but not bright
daylight. There are no rules or explanations for this. We just have to
learn the combinations. Collocation is extremely important for
developing our writing skills. A typical collocation mistake is to
write/say high house rather than tall house so it is important to note
down this kind of mistake and to learn the correct collocations that
you need.
F. EUPHEMISM
A euphemism is a polite expression used in place of words or
phrases that otherwise might be considered harsh or unpleasant to
hear. Euphemisms are used regularly, and there are many examples
in every day language.
Types of Euphemisms
a. To Soften an Expression

Some euphemisms are used in order to make a blunt or

unpleasant truth seem less harsh. Examples of euphemisms that fall
into this category include:

Passed away instead of died

Correctional facility instead of jail

Departed instead of died

Differently-abled instead of handicapped or disabled

Fell off the back of a truck instead of stolen

Ethnic cleansing instead of genocide

Turn a trick instead of engage in prostitution

Negative patient outcome instead of dead

Relocation center instead of prison camp

Collateral damage instead of accidental deaths

Letting someone go instead of firing someone

Put to sleep instead of euthanize

Pregnancy termination instead of abortion

On the streets instead of homeless

b. To Be Polite
Other euphemisms are used to take the place of words or
phrases you might not want to say in polite company. Examples of
euphemisms that fall into this category include:

Adult entertainment instead of pornography

Big-boned instead of heavy or overweight

Portly instead of heavy or overweight

Chronologically-challenged instead of late

Use the rest room instead of go to the bathroom

Break wind instead of pass gas

Economical with the truth instead of liar

Powder your nose instead of use the rest room

Between jobs instead of unemployed

Domestic engineer instead of maid

Sanitation engineer instead of garbage man

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Vertically-challenged instead of short

c. Euphemisms to be Impolite
In some cases, euphemisms are intentionally a grosser or less
pleasant way of saying something. These are usually used when
people are being sarcastic or trying to make light of a serious
subject or make it seem less serious. Examples include:

Bit the big one instead of died

Bit the farm instead of died

Cement shoes instead of dead

Bit the dust instead of died

Croaked instead of dead

Kick the bucket instead of die

Blow chunks instead of vomited

There are a lot of euphemisms in the areas of war and politics

as well. What we call collateral damage means that a lot of
innocent people were killed or had their homes and neighborhoods
bombed back to the Stone Age. At the end of the day, war is about
killing people and breaking a lot of things; it is a foretaste of Hell.
No euphemism (e.g., an action, an incursion, a coalition, a war to
end all wars, Operation Freedom, etc.) can or should seek to
cover this fact. I am no pacifist, but we need to be clear that war is
terrible; it is bloody; and once a war is begun, it is VERY difficult to
ensure that even the best intentions do not turn sour and evil in its
fog. War sets loose and invites the very demons of Hell; it is ugly
and awful no matter what party or president calls for it. It is no
video game, and it should always be a last recourse used only in the
gravest of circumstances.
So euphemisms have a place when charity and discretion are
the goal. But too easily and too often today euphemisms are not
used in charity but rather to hide the truth and to render abstract
and murky what is sinful and wrong. We do well to insist on honesty
in labeling. Charity, yes, but the truth cannot be sacrificed.

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G. METAPHORS
A metaphor is a comparison between two things that replaces
the word or name for one object with that of another. Unlike
a simile that uses like or as (you shine like the sun!), a
metaphor does not use these two words (a famous line from Romeo
and Juliet has Romeo proclaiming Juliet is the sun). Metaphors are
commonly used throughout all types of literature, but rarely to the
extent that they are used in poetry. Here are some examples of
implied metaphors:

Samuel brayed his refusal to leave the party

peacefully. (Compares Samuel to a donkey)

Angrily Sonia barked commands at her

child. (Compares Sonia to a dog)

The words nourished his bruised ego.

(Compares words to food)
For example, if you want to investigate how people use

metaphor to talk about organisations, you can search the data for
all

expressions

containing

the

key

words organisation,

organisational and then work through this limited list to find the
metaphors. However, if you want to investigate which ideas people
talk about metaphorically, or how much metaphor is used, then you
will need to search all the data.
What does metaphor look like in discourse data?
The following description of metaphor captures its basic
essence. It is a description, rather than a definition because it
doesnt tell us exactly what is metaphorical and what is not. It also
uses

metaphors

as

part

of

the

description: device,

seeing.

However, it will serve us as a starting point. Metaphor is a device for

seeing

something

in

terms

(Burke 1945).

11

of

something

else.

In

spoken

and

written

texts,

we

can

usually

only

identify language that has the potential to be metaphor, rather than

language that a speaker or writer intended as metaphor or that a
hearer or reader interpreted as metaphor. To claim that some
language

wasactively

processed

as

metaphor would

require

psycholinguistic evidence or explicit statements from users. Neither

of these types of evidence is usually available. Discourse-based
studies therefore need to clearly state what is included as
metaphor and what is left out, in a process of operationalisation of
a theoretical view of metaphor. What will be identified in discourse
is linguistic metaphor. A linguistic metaphor is a stretch of
language that has the potential to be interpreted metaphorically.7

H. THE SAMPLE TEXT

Sing a song of sixpence, a pocket full of rye,
Four-and-twenty blackbirds baked in a pie,
When the pie was opened, the birds began to sing,
Wasn't that a dainty dish to set before a king?
The king was in his counting-house, counting out his money,
The queen was in the parlour, eating bread and honey,
The maid was in the garden, hanging out the clothes.
Along came a blackbird and pecked off her nose.
There is reiteration of the same word, eg: pie ... pie, king ... king; of
a near-synonym, e.g.: eating ... pecked; of a superordinate. e.g.:
pie ... dish, sixpence ... money, blackbird ... bird; dish might perhaps
also be interpreted as a general word in the modern sense
(anything nice; cf: dishy). There ls also collocational cohesion. e.g.:
king ... queen, parlour garden, dish ... eat, rye ... bread. The
rhyme provides a good illustration of the amount of lexical
cohesion, and the varied nature of lexical cohesion, that is
characteristic of even a very-short text.

7 http://creet.open.ac.uk/projects/metaphor-analysis/procedure.cfm?
subpage=discourse-data

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
AR, Mustafa. (2004). Discourse Analysis. Banda Aceh: Ar-Raniry
Press.
Dijk, Teun A Van. (2000). Ideology and Discourse: A
multidisciplinary Introduction.
Universitat Oberta de Catalunya
(Open University).
Halliday, M., Hasan; R. (1976). Cohesion in English. London:
Longman.
McCarthy, M. (2004). Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1550229.stm
http://creet.open.ac.uk/projects/metaphor-analysis/procedure.cfm?
subpage=discourse-data
Examples of Euphemism. (n.d.). Retrieved November 14th, 2015,
from http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-ofeuphemism.html
Examples of Implied Metaphor. (n.d.). Retrieved November 14th,
2015, from http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-ofimplied-metaphor.html

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