PRERAK

Table of Contents
CERTIFICATE……………………………..…………………………………………….……...i
PREFACE….…………………………………………………………………………………….ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT……………………………..……………………………………….iii
LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………………… iv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION/RATIONALE ........................................................... 2
1.1 Company’s Profile................................................................................................... 2
CHAPTER 2: CELLULAR STRUCTURE ................................................................... 5
2.2 Cluster .................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Types of Cells .......................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER 3: GSM ARCHITECTURE ........................................................................ 8
3.1 Architecture of the GSM Network ........................................................................... 8
3.2 Mobile Station (MS) ................................................................................................ 9
3.3 Base Station Subsystem (BSS) ............................................................................... 10
CHAPTER 4: FUNCTIONING OF MOBILE STATION ............................................ 13
4.1Network Subsystem ................................................................................................ 14
4.2 The Operation and Support System: ...................................................................... 16
4.3 Network Management Center (NMC) .................................................................... 17
4.4 Additional Functional Elements ............................................................................ 17
CHAPTER 5: GSM Network Areas ............................................................................ 18
CHAPTER 6: GSM SERVICES ................................................................................. 20
6.1 Services Provided by GSM .................................................................................... 20
6.2 GSM Subscriber Services ...................................................................................... 21
6.3 GSM Specifications: .............................................................................................. 22
6.4 Different Personal Communication Services (Pcs) .................................................. 22
6.5 Other Features ...................................................................................................... 23
6.6 GSM Features ....................................................................................................... 23
6.7 GSM Features ....................................................................................................... 24
CHAPTER 7: INTERFACES IN COMMUNICATION ............................................. 25
Interfaces ................................................................................................................... 25
Protocols over the A, A-Bis and Um interfaces ............................................................ 26
Radio link aspects ....................................................................................................... 27
From Speech to Radio Waves...................................................................................... 31
CHAPTER 8: COADING ........................................................................................... 32
8.1 The GSM Speech Coding....................................................................................... 32
8.2 The GSM Channel Coding .................................................................................... 32
CHAPTER 9: TRANSMISSION ................................................................................ 37
9.13 Antennas ............................................................................................................. 42
9.13.1 Base Station Antennas ...................................................................................... 42
9.13.2 Mobile Unit Antennas ....................................................................................... 43
CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................. 44
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 45
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION/RATIONALE
1.1 COMPANY’S PROFILE:
Nokia Siemens Networks is a telecommunications solutions supplier which was created as the
result of a merger (by means of a joint venture) between Siemens AG's COM division (minus its
Enterprise business unit) and Nokia's Network Business Group.
The new company was announced on 19 June 2006. The Nokia Siemens Networks brand
identity, created by London and Tokyo based branding agency Moving Brands, was created
within a two month timeframe and subsequently launched at the 3GSM World Congress in
Barcelona in February 2007.Nokia Siemens Networks then began full operations on 1 April 2007
and has its headquarters in Espoo, Greater Helsinki, Finland, while the West-South Europe
headquarters and three of its five divisions are based in Munich, Germany.
The Services division is based in India. Nokia Siemens Networks has operations in some 150
countries.
It is foreseen that, combined 2005 revenue of more than € 15 billion, the new company would be
one of the largest telecommunication equipment makers in the world. Telecommunications
solutions supplier Nokia Siemens has acquired mobile network management provider Apertio for
€140 million.
Bristol, UK based Apertio provides customer management tools to mobile operators, as well as
―convergence‖ tools that enable the delivery of multimedia content to handsets. Apertio‘s ―One‖
suite also caters to the growing Mobile Virtual Network Operators (MVNO) market.
Apertio software is currently used by carriers including Orange, T-Mobile, O2 and Vodafone and
the company has offices in the United States, Germany, Thailand, Malaysia and China.
Page 2 [SKIT/2010/EC-B/58]
Fig: 1.1 GSM market share on 30-09-07
Nokia-Siemens Networks in India is providing telecommunication solutions to Vodafone.

Talking particularly about Rajasthan telecom circle, Nokia-Siemens has divided Rajasthan into 8
clusters, namely, Bikaner, Udaipur, Kota, Jaipur, ROJ(Alwar), Jodhpur, GangaNagar, Ajmer.
Talking about its Network Equipments, Nokia-Siemens has established MSCs, BSCs & BTSs for
Vodafone as follows:
1 There are around 15 MSCs all over Rajasthan, out of which 13 are in Jaipur & 2 in Jodhpur.
2 4 GMSC all over Rajasthan.
3 4 Home Location Register (HLR).
4 68 BSCs for Vodafone in Rajasthan.
5 Over 2500 sites in Jaipur cluster.
1.2 HISTORY OF GSM
The idea of cell-based mobile radio systems appeared at Bell Laboratories (in USA) in the early
1970s. However, mobile cellular systems were not introduced for commercial use until the
1980s. During the early 1980s, analog cellular telephone systems experienced a very rapid
growth in Europe, particularly in Scandinavia and the United Kingdom, but also in France and
Germany. Each country developed its own system, which was incompatible with everyone else's
in equipment and operation. This was an undesirable situation, because not only was the mobile
equipment limited to operate only within the boundaries of each country, which in a unified
Europe were increasingly unimportant, but there was also a very limited market for each type of
equipment , so economies of scale and the subsequent savings could not be realized.
In order to overcome these problems, the Conference of European Posts and Tele
Communication (CEPT) formed, in 1982, the Groupe Spécial Mobile (GSM) in order to develop
a pan-European mobile cellular radio system (the GSM acronym became later the acronym for
Global System for Mobile communications). The standardized system had to meet certain
criteria:
 Good subjective speech quality

 Support for international roaming
 Ability to support handheld terminals
 Support for range of new services and facilities
 Spectral efficiency
 Low mobile and base stations costs
 Compatibility with other systems such as Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
In 1989, the responsibility for the GSM specifications passed from the CEPT to the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). The commercial use of GSM started around
mid-1991, and by 1993 there were 36 GSM networks in 22 countries. Although standardized in
Europe, GSM is not only a European standard. Over 200 GSM networks (including DCS1800
and PCS1900) are operational in 110 countries around the world. In the beginning of 1994, there
were 1.3 million subscribers worldwide, which had grown to more than 5.4 million subscribers
by October 1997. With North America making delayed entry into the GSM field with a
derivative of GSM called PCS1900, GSM systems exist on every continent, and the acronym
GSM now aptly stands for Global System for Mobile Communications.
CHAPTER 2
CELLULAR STRUCTURE
2.1 The Cellular Structure
In a cellular system, the covering area of an operator is divided into cells. A cell corresponds to
the covering area of one transmitter or a small collection of transmitters. The size of a cell is
determined by the transmitter‘s power.
The concept of cellular systems is the use of low power transmitters in order to enable the
efficient reuse of the frequencies. In fact, if the transmitters used are very powerful the
frequencies cannot be reused for hundred of kilometers as they are limited to the covering area of
the transmitter.
The frequency band allocated to a cellular mobile radio system is distributed over a group of
cells and this distribution is repeated in all the covering area of an operator. The whole number
of radio channels available can then be used in each group of cells that form the covering area of
an operator. Frequencies used in a cell will be reused several cells away. The distance between
the cells using the same frequency must be sufficient to avoid interference. The frequency reuse
will increase considerably the capacity in number of users.
In order to work properly, a cellular system must verify the following two main conditions:
 The power level of a transmitter within a single cell must be limited in order to reduce the
interference with the transmitters of neighboring cells. The interference will not produce any
damage to the system if a distance of about 2.5 to 3 times the diameter of a cell is reserved
between transmitters. The receiver filters must also be very performant.
 Neighboring cells cannot share the same channels. In order to reduce the interference, the
frequencies must be reused only within a certain pattern.
In order to exchange the information needed to maintain the communication links within the
cellular network, several radio channels are reserved for the signaling information.
2.2 Cluster
The cells are grouped into clusters. The number of cells in a cluster must be determined so that
the cluster can be repeated continuously within the covering area of an operator. The typical cells
in each clusters is very important. The smaller the number of cells per cluster is, the bigger the
number of channels per cell will be. The capacities of each cell will be therefore increased.
However a balance must be found in order to avoid the interference that could occur between
neighbouring clusters. This interference is produced by the small size of the clusters (the size of
the cluster is defined by the number of cells per cluster). The total number of channels per cell
depends on the number of available channels and the type of cluster used.
Fig:2.1 Group Of Clusters
Fig: 2.2 A Cluster Fig 2.3 Frequency Reuse
2.3 Types of Cells
The density of population in a country is so varied that different types of cells are used:
Macro cells
Micro cells
Selective cells
Umbrella cells
2.3.1 Macro cells
The macro cells are large cells for remote and sparsely populated areas.
2.3.2Micro cells
These cells are used for densely populated areas. By splitting the existing areas into smaller cells,
the number of channels available is increased as well as the capacity of cells. The power level of
the transmitters used in these cells is then decreased, reducing the possibility of interference
between neighboring cells.
2.3.3Selective cells
It is not always to define a cell with a full coverage of 360 degrees. In some cases, cells with a
particular shape and coverage are needed. These cells are called selective cells. A typical
example of selective cells is the cells that may be located at the entrances of tunnels where
coverage of 360 degrees is not needed. In this case, a selective cell with coverage of 120 degrees
is used.
2.3.4Umbrella cells
A freeway crossing very small cells produces an important number of handovers among the
different small neighboring cells. In order to solve this problem, the concept of umbrella cells is
introduced. An umbrella cell covers several microcells. The power level insides an umbrella cell
is increased comparing to the power levels used in the micro cells that form the umbrella cell.
When the sped of the mobile is too high, the mobile is handed off to the umbrella cell. The
mobile will then stay longer in the same cell (in this case the umbrella cell). This will reduce the
number of handovers and the work of the network.
CHAPTER 3
GSM ARCHITECTURE
3.1 Architecture of the GSM Network
A GSM network is composed of several functional entities, whose functions and interfaces are
specified. The GSM network can be divided into three broad parts. The Mobile Station is
carried by the subscriber.
The Base Station Subsystem controls the radio link with the Mobile Station.
The Network Subsystem, the main part of which is the Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC),
performs the switching of calls between the mobile users, and between mobile and fixed network
users.
The MSC also handles the mobility management operations. The Mobile Station Subsystem
communicates across the Um interface, also known as the air interface or radio link. The Base
Station Subsystem communicates with the MSC across the A interface.
Fig:3.1 GSM Network Elements
3.2 Mobile Station (MS)
The mobile station (MS) consists of the Mobile Equipment (The terminal) and a smart card called
the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM).
3.2.1. Mobile Equipment (ME)
The mobile equipment is the hardware used by the subscriber to access the network. This may be
a telephone, Fax machine, computer etc. The hardware has an identity number associated with it,
which is unique for that particular device and permanently stored in it. This identity number is
known as International Mobile equipment Identity (IMEI).
There are 3 types of Mobile Equipment which are listed below:
3.2.1.1. Vehicle Mounted: These

devices are mounted in a vehicle and the antenna is physically mounted to the outside of the
vehicle.
3.2.1.2. Portable Mobile Unit: This

equipment can be handheld when in operation but the antenna is not connected to the handset of
the unit.
3.2.1.3. Hand Portable Unit :

This equipment comprises of a small telephone handset not much bigger than a calculator. The
antenna would be connected to the handset.
3.2.2. Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
The SIM card is a card, which plugs into the mobile equipment. This card identifies the mobile
subscriber and also provides other information regarding the service the subscriber should
receive. The subscriber is identified by an identity number called the International Mobile
Subscriber identity (IMSI).
Thus the SIM contains several pieces of information:
3.2.2.1. International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI):
This number identifies the mobile subscriber. It is only transmitted over the air during
initialization.
3.2.2.2. Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI):

This number identifies the subscriber; it is periodically changed by the system
Management to protect the subscriber from being identified by someone
Attempting to monitor the radio interface.
3.2.2.3. Location Area Identity (LAI):
Identifies the current location of the subscriber, so that he can be paged within a certain area.
3.2.2.4. Subscriber Authentication Key (Ki):

This is used to authenticate the SIM card.
3.2.2.5. Mobile Station International services Digital Network (MSISDN):

This is the Telephone number of the mobile. It is comprised of a country
Code, a national code and a subscriber number.
SIM cards are designed to be difficult to duplicate. The SIM can be protected by the use of
Personal Identity number (PIN).
3.3 Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

The GSM Base Station sub-system is the equipment found at cell site. It comprises of a
combination of digital and RF equipment. The BSS provides the link between the mobile
equipment and the MSC.
The BSS communicate with the mobile station over the digital air interface and with the MSC via
2Mbps (E1) link.
The BSS is composed of two parts which communicate across the standardized Abis interface,
allowing operation between components made by different suppliers.
3.3.1. Base Transceiver Station (BTS) :

The Base
Transceiver station houses the radio transceiver that define a cell and handles the radio-link
protocols with the mobile station. In a large urban area, there will be a large number of BTSs
deployed, thus the requirements for a BTS are ruggedness, reliability, portability, and minimum
cost.
It also has a limited amount of control functionality; this reduces the amount of traffic which
needs to pass between the BTS and BSC to make it faster. Each BTS cabinet will provide 1 to 6
RF carriers, which in turn, will provide 7 to 48 simultaneous telephone calls. The BSC will mange
the function whereas the BTS will execute the function or carry out measurements to assist the
BSC. A group of BTSs are connected by a BSC.
3.2.2. Base Station Controller (BSC) :
The Base Station Controller manages the radio resources for one or more BTSs. It is a high-
capacity switch that handles radio-channel setup, frequency hopping, cell configuration data, and
control of radio frequency (RF) power levels in BTS.
One BSC may control approximately 50 BTSs. Any information as required by the BTS for
operation will be received via the BSC. The BSC switching matrix allows the BSC to perform
‗handovers‘ between radio channels on separate BTSs, under its control, without involving the
MSC.
Fig 3.2 mobile equipment

Fig 3.3 Subscriber identity module
ME + SIM = MS
Fig 3.4 BSC
Fig 3.5 BSC
Fig 3.6 Installation Of BTS And BSC
CHAPTER 4
FUNCTIONING OF MOBILE STATION
Fig 4.1
HANDSET TOWER
4.1Network Subsystem
The central component of the Network Subsystem is the Mobile services Switching Center
(MSC). It acts like a normal switching node of the normal telephones of the land lines and in
addition provides all the functionality needed to handle a mobile subscriber, including
registration, authentication, location updating and inter-MSC handovers. These services are
provided in conjunction with several functional entities, which together form the Network
Subsystem. The MSC provides the connection to the public fixed network (PSTN or ISDN) and is
the interface between the GSM and the PSTN networks for both telephony and data. Signaling
between functional entities in the Network Subsystem uses Signaling System Number 7 (SS7),
used for trunk signaling in ISDN and widely used in current public networks.
4.1.1. Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC):
The MSC performs the telephony switching functions of the system. It controls calls to and from
other telephone and data systems. It also performs such functions as toll ticketing, network
interfacing, common channel signaling, and others.
Thus the MSC is primarily responsible for:
1 Traffic management
2 Call set-up
3 Call Routing to a roaming subscriber
4 Termination
5 Charging and accounting information
4.1.2. Home Location Register (HLR) :
The HLR is a database used for storage and management of subscriptions. The HLR is considered
the most important database, as it stores permanent data about subscribers, including a
subscriber‘s service profile, location information, and activity status. When an individual buys a
subscription from one of the PCS operators, he or she is registered in the HLR of that operator.
1 Subscriber ID (IMSI and MSISDN)
2 Current Subscriber VLR
3 Supplementary services subscribed to
4 Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)
5 Mobile Subscriber Roaming Number (MSRN)
4.1.3. Visitor Location Register (VLR) :
The VLR is a database that contains temporary information about subscribers that is needed by
the MSC in order to service visiting subscribers. The VLR is always integrated with the MSC.
When a mobile station roams into a new MSC area, the VLR connected to that MSC will request
data about the mobile station from the HLR. Later, if the mobile station makes a call, the VLR
will have the information needed for call setup without having to interrogate the HLR each time.
Although each functional entity can be implemented as an independent unit, all manufacturers of
switching equipment to date implement the VLR together with the MSC, so that the geographical
area controlled by the MSC corresponds to that controlled by the VLR, thus simplifying the
signaling required. Note that the MSC contains no information about particular mobile stations—
this information is stored in the location registers.
The additional data stored in the VLR is:
1 Mobile Status (busy/free/no answer etc)
2 Location Area Identity (LAI)
3 Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)
4 Mobile Subscriber Roaming Number (MSRN)
4.1.4. Authentication Center (AUC) :
A unit called the AUC provides authentication and encryption parameters that verify the user‘s
identity and ensure the confidentiality of each cell. The AUC protects network operators from
different types of fraud found today‘s cellular world. Authentication center is a protected database
that stores a copy of the secret key stored in each subscriber‘s SIM card, which is used for
authentication and encryption over the radio channel.
4.1.5. Equipment Identity Register (EIR) :
The EIR is a database that contains information about the identity of mobile equipment that
prevents calls from stolen, unauthorized, or defective mobile stations. The AUC and EIR are
implemented as stand-alone nodes or as a combined AUC/EIR node. The EIR is a database that
contains a list of all valid mobile equipment on the network, where each mobile station is
identified by IMEI. An IMEI is marked as invalid if it has been reported stolen or is not type
approved.
The EIR database consists of lists of IMEIs organized as follows:
 WHITE LIST Contains those IMEIs, which are known to have

 Been assigned to valid mobile equipment
 BLACK LIST Contains IMEIs of mobiles which have been

 Reported stolen or which are to be denied for
 some other reason.
 GRAY LIST Contains IMEIs of mobiles which have problems.

 These are not, however sufficiently significant to
 Warrant a ―black listing‖.
4.2 The Operation and Support System:
The operations and Maintenance center (OMC) is a centralized facility that supports the day to
day management of the cellular network as well as providing a database for long term network
engineering and planning tools. An OMC manages a certain area of the PLMN thus giving
regionalized network management.
The OMC is connected to all equipment in the switching system to the BSC. The implementation
of OMC is called Operation and Support System (OSS).The OSS is the functional entity from
which the network operator monitors and controls the system. The purpose of OSS is to offer the
customer cost-effective support for centralized, regional and local operational and maintenance
activities that are required for a GSM network. An important function of OSS is to provide a
network overview and support the maintenance activities of different operation and maintenance
or
Organizations.
1 There are 2 types of OMC these are detailed below:
2 OMC(R) – OMC assigned specifically to the Base Station System
3 OMC(S) _ OMC assigned specifically to the Network Switching System
4 The OMC should support the following function:

5 Event/ Alarm Management
6 Fault Management
7 Configuration Management
8 Security Management
Fig4.2 operation and support system
4.3 Network Management Center (NMC)
The network management center offers the ability to provide hierarchical regionalized network
management of a complete GSM system. It is responsible for operations and maintenance at the
network level support by the OMCs which are responsible for regional network management.
The NMC is therefore a single logical facility at the top of the network management hierarchy.
4.4 Additional Functional Elements
Other functional elements shown in Figure 1 are as follows:
4.4.1 Message center (MXE) - The MXE is a node that provides integrated voice, fax, and data
messaging. Specifically, the MXE handles short message service, cell broadcast, voice mail, fax
mail, e-mail, and notification.
4.4.2 Mobile service node (MSN) -The MSN is the node that handles the mobile intelligent
network (IN) services.
4.4.3 Gateway mobile services switching center (GMSC) - A gateway is a node used to
interconnect two networks. The gateway is often implemented in an MSC. The MSC is then
referred to as the GMSC
.
4.4.4 GSM interworking unit (GIWU) - The GIWU consists of both hardware and software
that provides an interface to various networks for data communications. Through the GIWU,
users can alternate between speech and data during the same call. The GIWU hardware
equipment is physically located at the MSC/VLR.
CHAPTER 5
GSM Network Areas
The GSM network is made up of geographic areas. As shown in Fig.2, these areas include cells,
location areas (LAs), MSC/VLR service areas, and public land mobile network (PLMN) areas.
Fig 5.1 GSM network area
The cell is the area given radio coverage by one BTS. The GSM network identifies each cell via
the cell global identity (CGI) number assigned to each cell. The location area is a group of cells.
It is the area in which the subscriber is paged. Each LA is served by one or more BSC, yet only
by a single MSC (Fig. 3). Each LA is assigned allocation area identity ( LAI) number.
Fig 5.2 division of MLR/VLR service area
Fig 5.3 GSM AREA
An MSC/VLR service area represents the part of the GSM network that is covered by one MSC
and one which is reachable, as it is registered in the VLR of the MSC (Fig 5.4).
Fig 5.4 MLR/VLR area registered by one MSC
The PLMN service area is an area served by one network operator.
Fig 5.5 The PLMN Service Area
CHAPTER 6
GSM SERVICES
6.1 Services Provided by GSM
6.1.1Supplementary services
GSM supports a comprehensive set of supplementary services that complement and support the
telephony and data services. They are all defined in GSM standards.
A partial listing of supplementary services follows.
6.1.1.1 Call forwarding. This service gives the subscriber the ability to forward
incoming calls to another number if the called mobile unit is not reachable, if it is busy,
if there is no reply, or if call forwarding is allowed unconditionally.
6.1.1.2 Barring of Outgoing Calls. This service makes it possible for a mobile
subscriber to prevent all outgoing calls.
6.1.1.3 Barring of Incoming Calls : This function allows the subscriber to prevent
incoming calls. The following two conditions for incoming call barring exist: baring of
all incoming calls and barring of incoming calls when roaming outside the home PLMN.
6.1.1.4 Advice of Charge (AoC): The AoC service provides the mobile subscriber with
an estimate of the call charges. There are two types of AoC information: one that
provides the subscriber with an estimate of the bill and one that can be used for
immediate charging purposes. AoC for data calls is provided on the basis of time
measurements.
6.1.1.5 Call Hold: This service enables the subscriber to interrupt an ongoing call and
then subsequently reestablish the call. The call hold service is only applicable to normal
telephony.
6.1.1.6 Call Waiting: This service enables the mobile subscriber to be notified of an
incoming call during a conversation. The subscriber can answer, reject, or ignore the
incoming call. Call waiting is applicable to all GSM telecommunications services using a
circuit-switched connection.
6.1.1.7 Multiparty service: The multiparty service enables a mobile subscriber to
establish a multiparty conversation - that is, a simultaneous conversation between three
and six subscribers. This service is only applicable to normal telephony.
6.1.1.8 Calling Line Identification presentation/restriction: These services supply the
called party with the integrated services digital network (ISDN) number of the calling
party. The restriction service enables the calling party to restrict the presentation. The
restriction overrides the presentation.
6.1.1.9 Closed User Groups (CUGs): CUGs are generally comparable to a PBX. They
are a group of subscribers who are capable of only calling themselves and certain
numbers.
6.1.1.10 Explicit Call Transfer (ECT): This service allows a user who has two calls to
connect these two calls together and release its connections to both other parties.
6.2 GSM Subscriber Services
There are two basic types of services offered through GSM: telephony (also referred to as
teleservices) and data (also referred to as bearer services). Telephony services are mainly voice
services that provide subscribers with the complete capability (including necessary terminal
equipment) to communicate with other subscribers. Data services provide the capacity necessary
to transmit appropriate data signals between two access points creating an interface to the
network. In addition to normal telephony and emergency calling, the following subscriber
services are supported by GSM:
6.2.1 Dual-tone multifrequency (DTMF) - DTMF is a tone signaling scheme often used for
various control purposes via the telephone network, such as remote control of an answering
machine. GSM supports full-originating DTMF.
6.2.2 Facsimile group III - GSM supports CCITT Group 3 facsimile. As standard fax
6.2.3 machines are designed to be connected to a telephone using analog signals, a special fax
converter connected to the exchange is used in the GSM system. This enables a GSM-connected
fax to communicate with any analog fax in the network.
6.2.4 short message services - A convenient facility of the GSM network is the
6.2.5 short message service. A message consisting of a maximum of 160 alphanumeric
characters can be sent to or from a mobile station. This service can be viewed as an advanced
form of alphanumeric paging with a number of advantages. If the subscriber's mobile unit is
powered off or has left the coverage area, the message is stored and offered back to the
subscriber when the mobile is powered on or has reentered the coverage area of the network.
This function ensures that the message will be received.
6.2.6 cell broadcast - A variation of the short message service is the cell
6.2.7 broadcast facility. A message of a maximum of 93 characters can be broadcast to all
mobile subscribers in a certain geographic area. Typical applications include traffic congestion
warnings and reports on accidents.
6.2.8 Voice mail - This service is actually an answering machine within the network, which is
controlled by the subscriber. Calls can be forwarded to the subscriber's voice-mail box and the
subscriber checks for messages via a personal security code.
6.2.9 fax mail - With this service, the subscriber can receive fax messages at any
6.2.10 Fax machine. The messages are stored in a service center from which they can be
retrieved by the subscriber via a personal security code to the desired fax number.
6.3 GSM Specifications:
Before looking at the GSM specifications, it is important to understand the following basic
terms:
6.3.1 Bandwidth —the range of a channel's limits; the broader the bandwidth, the
faster data can be sent.
6.3.2 bits per second (bps) —a single on-off pulse of data; eight bits are equivalent to
one byte
6.3.3 frequency —the number of cycles per unit of time; frequency is measured in
hertz (Hz)
6.3.4 kilo (k) —kilo is the designation for 1,000; the abbreviation kbps represents 1,000
bits per second
6.3.5 megahertz (MHz) —1,000,000 hertz (cycles per second)
6.3.6 milliseconds (ms) —one-thousandth of a second
6.3.7 watt (W) —a measure of power of a transmitter
6.4 DIFFERENT PERSONAL COMMUNICATION SERVICES (PCS)

systems vary among the different PCS networks. Listed below is a description of the
specifications and characteristics for GSM.
6.4.1 Frequency band —The frequency range specified for GSM is 890 to 960 MHz
(mobile station to base station).
6.4.2 Duplex distance —The duplex distance is 45 MHz. Duplex distance is the
distance between the uplink and downlink frequencies. A channel has two frequencies, 45
MHz apart.
6.4.3 Channel separation — The separation between adjacent carrier frequencies. In
GSM, this is 200 kHz.
6.4.4 Modulation —Modulation is the process of sending a signal by changing the
characteristics of a carrier frequency. This is done in GSM via Gaussian minimum shift
keying (GMSK).
6.4.5 Transmission rate —GSM is a digital system with an over-the-air bit rate of 270
kbps.
6.4.6 Access method —GSM utilizes the time division multiple access (TDMA)
concept. TDMA is a technique in which several different calls may share the same carrier.
Each call is assigned a particular time slot.
6.4.7 Speech coder —GSM uses linear predictive coding (LPC). The purpose of LPC
is to reduce the bit rate. The LPC provides parameters for a filter that mimics the vocal tract.
The signal passes through this filter, leaving behind a residual signal. Speech is encoded at
13 kbps.
6.5 Other Features
6.5.1 Quality: With digital, sound quality is sharp and clear. Background sounds and
static are vastly reduced and cross-line conversations are also eliminated. In comparison with
analogue there are also far fewer dropouts, and overall the quality is more like that of a fixed
telephone.
6.5.2 Security: Unlike analogue, everything you say and send within the digital
network is safe and secure. Some features are user authentication that prohibits unauthorized
access, encryption key distribution that guarantees the privacy of the call and caller
identification restrictions that can prevent the delivery of the calling users‘ number to the
receiver.
6.5.3 Convenience: With digital, better technology means better battery life. You get
up to twice as much talk time from each battery charge, compared with analogue. In addition
the digital service allows more calls to be handled at any one time, therefore reducing
congestion in areas of dense population and high usage.
6.5.4 Roaming: With digital, you are able to use your mobile phone, and number in
other countries around the world that operate a GSM network. Your home carrier must have
a roaming agreement in place and must be notified before leaving so that you can be
activated in that country. All you need to do is switch on the phone at your destination and
you will automatically log into the network.
6.6 GSM Features

6.6.1 Call forwarding
6.6.2 All calls
6.6.3 No answer
6.6.4 Engaged
6.6.5 Unreachable
6.6.6 Call barring

6.6.7 Outgoing – Bar certain outgoing call (e.g. ISD)
6.6.8 Incoming – Bar certain incoming call (useful if in other country)

6.6.9 Global roaming – visit any other country with GSM and a roaming agreement and use
your phone and existing number *
6.6.10 SMS – Short Message Service – Allows you to send text messages to and from phones
6.6.11 Multi Party Calling – Talk to five other parties as well as yourself at the same time
6.6.12 Call Holding
6.6.13 Call waiting
6.6.14 Mobile Data Services – Allows handsets to communicate with computers

6.6.15 Mobile Fax Services – Allows handsets to send, retrieve and receive faxes that you can
download to nearest fax machine.
6.7 GSM Features
6.7.1 Available by 1998
6.7.2 Upgrade and improvements to existing services

6.7.3 Majority of the upgrade concerns data transmission, include bearer services and
packet switched data at 64 Kbit/s and above
6.7.4 DECT access to GSM
6.7.5 PMR/Public Access Mobile Radio (PAMR)-like capabilities
6.7.6 GSM in the local loop

6.7.7 Virtual Private Networks
6.7.8 Packet Radio
6.7.9 SIM enhancements

6.7.10 Premium rate services (e.g. Stock prices sent to your phone)
CHAPTER 7
INTERFACES IN COMMUNICATION
Interfaces
 Um The air interface is use for exchange between a MS and a BSS. LAPDm is a
modified version of the ISDN LAPD, s used for signaling
 Abis This is a BSS internal interface linking the BSC and a BTS, and it has not been
standardized the Abis interface allows control of the radio equipment and radio frequency
allocation in the BTS.
 A The A interface is between the BSS and the MSC. The A interface manages the
allocation of suitable radio resources to the MSs and mobility management.
 B The B interface between the MSC and the VLR uses the Map/B protocol. Most
MSCs are associated with a VLR, making the B interface ―internal‖. Whenever the MSC needs
access to data regarding a MS located in its area, it interrogates the VLR using the MAP/B
protocol over the B interface.
 C The C interface between the HLR and a GMSC or a SMS-G. Each call originating
outside of GSM (i.e., a MS terminating call from the PSTN) has to go through a Gateway to
obtain the routing information required to complete the call, and the MAP/C protocol over the C
interface is used for this purpose. In addition, the MSC may optionally forward billing
information to the HLR after call clearing.
 D The D interface is between the VLR and the HLR, and uses the MAP/D protocol
to exchange the data related to the location of the MS and to the management of the subscriber.
 E The E interface interconnects two MSCs. The E interface exchanges data related
to handover between the anchor and relay MSCs using the Map/E protocol.
 F The F interface connects the MSC to the EIR, and uses the MAP/F protocol to
verify the status of the IMEI that the MSC has retrieved from the MS.
 G The G interface interconnects two VLRs of different MSCs and uses the Map/G
protocol to transfer subscriber information, during e.g. a location update procedure.
 H The H interface is between the MSC and the SMS-G, uses the Map/H protocol to
support the transfer of short messages.
 I The I interface is the interface between the MSC and the MS. Messages
exchanged over the I interface are relayed transparently through the BSS.
Protocols over the A, A-Bis and Um interfaces
a.
Fig 7.1 Protocols Over The A, A-Bis And Um Interfaces
 The CM, MM and RR layers together correspond to layer three in the ISO OSI protocol
suite, and layer two is composed of LAPD and LAPDm. Customarily, the lower three layers
terminate in the same node. Not so in GSM, where the functionality is spread over distinct
functional entities with standardized interfaces between them. For instance, the RR part of layer
three is spread over the MS, BTS, BSC, and MSC.
 CM The Communication Management (CM) layer consists of setting up calls at the

user‘s request. Its functions are divided in three: Call control, which manages the circuit oriented
services; Supplementary services management, which allows modifications and checking of the
supplementary services configuration; Short Message Services, which provides point-to point
short message services.
 MM The Mobility Management (MM) layer is in charge of maintaining the location
data, in addition to the authentication and ciphering procedures.
 RR The Radio Resource (RR) Management layer is in charge of establishing and

maintaining a stable uninterrupted communications path between the MSC and the MS over
which signaling and user data can be conveyed. Handovers are part of the RR layers
responsibility. The BSC, BTS, and MS control most of the functions, though some are performed
by the MSC (in particular for inter-MSC handovers.).
 RR’ The RR‘ layer is the part of the RR functionality which is managed by the BTS.
 LAPDm LAPDm provides for the layer two protocol over the air-interface. This
protocol is a modified version of the LAPD (Link Access Protocol for the ISDN D-channel)
protocol. The main modification are due to the tight synchronization required in TDMA and bit
error protection mechanism required over the air-interface, making the corresponding
functionality of the LAPD protocol redundant. A length indicator replaces the LAPD frame
flags, and the FEC field is removed.
 BTSM The Base Transreceiver Station Management (BTSM) is responsible for

transferring the RR information (not provided for in the BTS by the RR‘ protocol) to the BSC.
 LAPD This is the ISDN LAPD protocol (Link Access Protocol for the ISDN D-channel)
providing error-free transmission between the BSC and MSC.
 BSSAP The Base Station System Application Part (BSSAP) is split into two parts,
the BSSMAP and the DTAP. The message exchanges are handled by SS7. Messages, which are
not transparent to the BSC are carried by the Base Station System Management Application Part
(BSSMAP), which supports all of the procedures between the MSC and the BSS that require
interpretation and processing of information related to single calls, and resource management.
The Direct Transfer Application Part (DTAP) caters for the messages between the MSC and MS
that are transparent to the BSC (MM and CM messages).
 SCCP the Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) from SS7
 MTP The Message transport Part (MTP) of SS7.
Radio link aspects
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU), which manages the international

allocation of radio spectrum (among many other functions), allocated the bands
890-915 MHz for the uplink (mobile station to base station) and 935-960 MHz for the downlink
(base station to mobile station) for mobile networks in Europe. Since this range was already
being used in the early 1980s by analog systems of the day, the CEPT had the foresight to
reserve the top 10 MHz of each band for the GSM network that was still being developed.
Eventually, GSM will be allocated the entire 2x25 MHz bandwidth.
Where are GSM Frequencies Used?
GSM networks presently operate in three different frequency ranges. These are:
 GSM 900 (also called GSM) – operates in the 900 MHz frequency range and is most
common in Europe and the world.
 GSM 1800 (also called PCN (Personal Communication Network), and DCS 1800) –
operates in the 1800 MHz frequency range and is found in a rapidly-increasing number of
countries including France, Germany, Switzerland, the UK, and Russia. A European
Commission mandate requires European Union members to license at least one DCS
1800 operator before 1998.
 GSM 1900 (also called PCS (Personal Communication Services), PCS 1900, and DCS 1900) –
the only frequency used in the United States and Canada for GSM. Note that the terms PCS is
commonly used to refer to any digital cellular network operating in the 1900 MHz frequency
range, not just GSM.
For the GSM -900 systems, two frequency bands have been made available:
 890 – 915 MHz for the uplink (direction MS to BS)
 935 – 960 for the downlink (direction BS to MS).
The 25 MHz bands are then divided into 124 pairs of frequency duplex channels with 200 kHz
carrier spacing using Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA). Since it is not possible for a
same cell to use two adjacent channels, the channel spacing can be said to be 200 kHz
interleaved. One or more carrier frequencies are assigned to individual Base Station (BS) and a
technique known as Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is used to split this 200 kHz radio
channel into 8 time slots (which creates 8 logical channels). Its frequency and the TDMA frame
time slot number therefore define a logical channel. By employing eight time slots, each channel
transmits the digitized speech in a series of short bursts: a GSM terminal is only ever
transmitting for one-eighth of the time.
8-slot TDMA together with the 248 physical half-duplex channels. This corresponds to 1984
logical half-duplex channels. This corresponds to roughly 283 (1984 / 7) logical half-duplex
channels per cell. This is because acell can only use one seventh of the total number of
frequencies,
Fig 7.2 Typical Cellular Scheme
Seven sets of frequencies are sufficient to cover an arbitrarily large area, providing that the
repeat-distance d is larger than twice the maximum radius r covered by each transmitter.
Each of the frequency channels is segmented into 8 time slots of length 0.577 ms (15/26 ms).
The 8 time slots make up a TDMA frame of length 4.615 ms (120/26 ms). The recurrence of one
particular time slot every 4.615 ms makes up one basic channel.
The GSM system distinguishes between traffic channels (used for user data) and control
channels (reserved for network management messages). In this overview, we consider only the
Traffic Channel/Full-Rate Speech (TCH/FS) used to carry speech at 13 kbps.
TCHs for the uplink and downlink are separated in time by three bursts periods, so that the
mobile does not has to transmit and receive simultaneously. TCHs are defined using a 26-frame
multiframe (i.e. a group of 26 TDMA frames). The length of a 26-frame multiframe is 120 ms,
which is how length of a burst period is defined (120 ms / 26 frames / 8 burst periods per frame).
Out of the 26 frames, 24 are used for traffic, one is used for the Slow Associated Control
Channel (SACCH) and one is currently unused.
Fig7.3 : The TDMA Frame Structure
Data are transmitted in bursts, which are placed within the time slots. The transmission bit rate is
271 kb/s (bit period 3.79 microseconds). To allow for time alignment errors, time dispersion etc,
the data burst is slightly shorter than the time slot (148 out of the 156.25 bit periods available
within a time slot).
The burst is the transmission quantum of GSM. Its transmission takes place during a time
window lasting (576 + 12/13) microseconds, i.e. (156 + ¼) bit duration. A normal burst contains
two packets of 58 bits (57 data bits + 1 stealing bit) surrounding a training sequence of 26 bits.
The 26-bit training sequence is of a known pattern that is compared with the received pattern in
order to reconstruct the rest of the original signal (multipath equalization). The actual
implementation of the equalizer is not specified in the GSM specifications. Three ―tail‖ bits are
added on each side.
GSM can use slow frequency hopping where the mobile station and the base station transmit
each TDMA frame on a different carrier frequency. The frequency-hopping algorithm is
broadcast on the Broadcast Control Channel. Since multipath fading is dependent on carrier
frequency, slow frequency hopping help mitigate the problem. Frequency hopping is an option
for each individual cell and a base station is not required to support this feature.
From Speech to Radio Waves

Fig depicted the sequence of operations from speech to radio waves and from radio waves to
speech. These operations are described in following sections.
Fig. 7.4 The Sequence Of Operations
CHAPTER 8
COADING
8.1 The GSM Speech Coding

The full rate speech codec in GSM is described as Regular Pulse Excitation with Long Term
Prediction (GSM 06.10 RPE-LTP). A good overview of this algorithm has been done by Jutta
Degener and Carsten Bormann at the Technical University of Berlin. Moreover, they have
developed a software implementation of the GSM 06.10 speech codec, which is available in the
public domain. The encoder divides the speech into short-tem predictable parts, long-term
predictable part ant the remaining residual pulse. Then, it encodes that pulse and parameters for
the two predictors. The decoder reconstructs the speech by passing the residual pulse first
through the long-term prediction filter, and then through the short-term predictor.
Fig:8.1 GSM 06.10 Codec

Note that the Phase 2 of GSM defines a new half rate speech encoder (GSM 06.20 RPE-LTP)
8.2 The GSM Channel Coding

Channel coding introduces redundancy into the data flow in order to allow the detection or even
the correction of bit errors introduced during the transmission.
The speech-coding algorithm produces a speech block of 260 bits every 20 ms (i.e. bit rate 13
kbit/s). In the decoder, these speech blocks are decoded and converted to 13 bit uniformly coded
speech samples. The 260 bits of the speech block are classified into two groups. The 78 Class II
bits are considered of less importance and are unprotected. The 182 Class I bits are split into 50
Class la bits and 132 Class Ib bit (see fig)
Fig:8.2 Audio Sample: 1 Block = 260 Bits(20 Ms)
Class Ia bits are protected by 3 parity bits for error detection. Class I b bits are then added together
with tail bits before applying to the convolution code with rate r =1/2 constraint length K = 5.
The resulting 378 bits are then added to the 78 unprotected Class II bits resulting in a complete
coded speech frame of 456 bits.
Fig:8.3 TCH/FS Transmission Mode
8.3 Error Correcting Codes
The GSM standard uses a 3-bit error redundancy code to enable assessment of the correctness of
the bits which are more sensitive to errors in the speech frame (the category Ia 50-bits). If one of
these bits are wrong, this may create a loud noise instead of the 20 ms speech slice. Detecting
such errors allows the corrupted block to be replaced by something less disturbing (such as an
extrapolation of the preceding block).
The polynomial representing the detection code for category Ia bits is
At the receiving side, the same operation is done and if the remainder differs, an error is detected
and the audio frame is eventually discarded.
8.4 Convolutional Coding / Decoding

Convolutional coding consists in transmitting the results of convolutions of the source sequence
using different convolution formulas. The GSM convolutional code consists in adding 4 bits (set
to ``0'') to the initial 185 bit sequence and then applying two different convolutions: polynomials
are respectively
and .
The final result is composed of twice 189 bits sequences, see Figure.
Convolutional decoding can be performed using a Viterbi algorithm. A Viterbi decoder logically
explores in parallel every possible user data in sequence. It encodes and compare each one
against the received sequence and picks up the closest match: it is a maximum likelihood
decoder. To reduce the complexity (the number of possible data sequence double with each
additional data bit), the decoder recognizes at each point that certain sequences cannot belong to
the maximum likelihood path and it discards them. The encoder memory is limited to K bits; a
Viterbi decoder in steady-state operation keeps only paths. Its complexity increases
exponentially with the constraint length K.
The GSM convolutional coding rate per data flow is 378 bits each 20 ms, i.e.: 18.9 kb/s.
However, before modulate this signal, the 78 unprotected Class II bits are added .So, the GSM
bit rate per flow is 456 bits each 20 ms i.e. 22.8 kb/s.
8.5 Interleaving / De-interleaving

Interleaving is meant to decorrelate the relative positions of the bits respectively in the code
words and in the modulated radio bursts. The aim of the interleaving algorithm is to avoid the
risk of loosing consecutive data bits. GSM blocks of full rate speech are interleaved on 8 bursts:
the 456 bits of one block are split into 8 bursts in sub-blocks of 57 bits each. A sub-block is
defined as either the odd- or the even-numbered bits of the coded data within one burst. Each
sub-blocks of 57 bit is carried by a different burst and in a different TDMA frame. So, a burst
contains the contribution of two successive speech blocks A and B. In order to destroy the
proximity relations between successive bits, bits of block A use the even positions inside the
burst and bits of block B, the odd positions (see Fig ).
Fig8.4 : Interleaving Operation
De-interleaving consists in performing the reverse operation. The major drawback of interleaving
is the corresponding delay: transmission time from the first burst to the last one in a block is
equal to 8 TDMA frames (i.e. about 37 ms).
8.6 Ciphering / Deciphering

A protection has been introduced in GSM by means of transmission ciphering. The ciphering
method does not depend on the type of data to be transmitted (speech, user data or signaling) but
is only applied to normal bursts.
Ciphering is achieved by performing an ―exclusive or‖ operation between a pseudo-random bit
sequence and 114 useful bits of a normal burst (i.e. all information bits except the 2 stealing
flags). The pseudo-random sequence is derived from the burst number and a key session
established previously through signaling means. Deciphering follows exactly the same operation.
8.7 Modulation / Demodulation

GSM uses the Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) with modulation index h = 0.5, BT
(filter bandwidth times bit period) equal to 0.3 and a modulation rate of 271 (270 5/6) kbauds.
The GMSK modulation has been chosen as a compromise between high spectrum efficiency (of
the order of 1 bit/Hz) and a reasonable demodulation complexity. The constant envelope allows
the use of simple power amplifier and the low out-of-band radiation minimizes the effect of
adjacent channel interference. GMSK differs from Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) in that a pre-
modulation Gaussian filter is used. The time-domain impulse response of the filter is described
in Equation 1, where and B is the half power bandwidth.
A Block Diagram Of A GMSK Modulator In Figure 8.5
The Viterbi algorithm can also be used as a Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimator (MLSE)
equalizer. Therefore, a GSM receiver can contain two different implementations of the Viterbi
algorithm.
8.8 RF Power levels

The various power classes that correspond to different transmitter power levels can classify radio
equipment in GSM. Table 1 shows the characteristics of each power class for both mobile
stations and base stations. The minimum mobile station power level is 20 mW (13dBm).
*dBm = 10 log10 (Power [mW])/1 mW )
Table 1: Power Levels in the GSM System
CHAPTER 9
TRANSMISSION
The transmission function includes two sub-functions:
9.1.1 The first one is related to the means needed for the transmission of user information.
9.1.2 The second one is related to the means needed for the transmission of signaling
information.
Not all the components of the GSM network are strongly related with the transmission functions.
The MS, the BTS and the BSC, among others, are deeply concerned with transmission.
However, other components, such as the register HLR, VLR or EIR, are only concerned with the
transmission for their signaling needs with other components of the GSM network.
9.2 Discontinuous transmission

Minimizing co-channel interference is a goal in any cellular system, since it allows better service
for a given cell size, or the use of smaller cells, thus increasing the overall capacity of the
system. Discontinuous transmission (DTX) is a method that takes advantage of the fact that a
person speaks less that 40 percent of the time in normal conversation, by turning the transmitter
off during silence period. An added benefit of DTX is that power is conserved at the mobile unit.
The most important component of DTX is, of course, Voice Activity Detection. It must
distinguish between voice and noise inputs, a task that is not as trivial as it appears, considering
background noise. If a voice signal is misinterpreted as noise, the transmitter is turn off and a
very annoying effect called clipping is heard at the receiving end. If, on the other hand, noise is
misinterpreted as a voice signal too often, the efficiency of DTX is dramatically decreased.
Another factor to consider is that when the transmitter is turned off, there is total silence heard at
the receiving end, due to the digital nature of GSM. To assure the receiver that the connection is
not dead, comfort noise is created at the receiving end by trying to match the characteristics of
the transmitting end‘s background noise.
9.3 Discontinuous reception

Another method used to conserve power at the mobile station is discontinuous reception. The
paging channel, used by the base station to signal an incoming call, is structured into sub-
channels. Each mobile station needs to listen only to its own sub-channel. In the time between
successive paging sub-channels, the mobile can go into sleep mode, when almost no power is
used.
9.5 Timing advance
The timing of the bursts transmissions is very important. Mobiles are at different distances from
the base stations. Their delay depends, consequently, on their distance. The aim of the timing
advance is that the signals coming from the different mobile stations arrive to the base station at
the right time. The base station measures the timing delay of the mobile stations. If the bursts
corresponding to a mobile station arrive too late and overlap with other bursts, the base station
tells, this mobile, to advance the transmission of its bursts.
9.6 Radio Resources Management
The radio resources management (RR) layer oversees the establishment of a link, both radio and
fixed, between the mobile section and the MSC. The main functional components involved are
the mobile station, and the Base Station Subsystem, as well as the MSC. The RR layer is
concerned with the management of an RR-session, which is the time that a mobile is in dedicated
mode, as well as the configuration of radio channels including the allocation of dedicated
channels.
An RR-session is always initiated by a mobile station through the access procedure, either for an
outgoing call, or in response to a paging message. The details of the access and paging procedure
such as when a dedicated channel is actually assigned to the mobile, and the paging sub-channel
structure, are handled in the RR layer. In addition, it handles the management of radio features
such as power control, discontinuous transmission and reception, & timing advance.
9.7 HANDOVER
In a cellular network, the radio and fixed links required are not permanently allocated for the
duration of a call. Handover or handoff as it is called in North America, is switching of an on-
going call to a different channel or cell. The execution and measurements required for handover
from one basic functions of the RR layer.
9.7.1 There are four different types of handover in the GSM system, which involve transferring
a call between:
9.7.2 Channels (time slots) in the same cell,
9.7.3 Cells(Base Transceiver Stations) under the control of the same Base Station Controller
(BSC),
9.7.4 Cells under the control of different BSCs, but belonging to the same Mobile services
Switching Center (MSC), and
9.7.5 Cells under the control of different MSCs.
The first two types of handover, called internal handovers, involve only one Base Station
Controller (BSC). To save signaling bandwidth, they are managed by the BSC without involving
the Mobile services Switching Center (MSC), except to notify it at the completion of the
handover. The last two types of handovers, called external handovers, are handled by the MSCs
involved. An important aspect of GSM is that the original MSC, the anchor MSC, remains
responsible for most call-related functions, with the exception of subsequent inter-BSC
handovers under the control of the new MSC, called the relay MSC.
Handovers can be initiated by either the mobile or the MSC (as a means of traffic load
balancing). During its idle time slots, the mobile scans the Broadcast Control Channel of up to 16
neighboring cells, and forms a list of the six best candidates for possible handover, based on the
received signal strength. This information is passed to the BSC and MSC, at least once per
second, and is used by the handover algorithm.
The algorithm for when a handover decision should be taken is not specified in the GSM
recommendations. There are two basic algorithms used, both closely tied in the power control.
This is because the BSC usually does not know whether the poor signal quality is due to
multipath fading or to the mobile having moved to another cell. This is especially true in small
urban cells.
The ‗minimum acceptable performance‘ algorithm gives precedence to power control over
handover, so that when the signal degrades beyond a certain point, the power level of the mobile
is increased. If further power increases do not improve the signal, then a handover is considered.
This is the simpler and more common method, but it creates ‗smeared‘ cells boundaries when a
mobile transmitting at peak power goes some distance beyond its original cell boundaries into
another cell.
The ‗power budget‘ method uses handover to try to maintain or improve a certain level of signal
quality at the same or lower power level. It thus gives precedence to handover over power
control. It avoids the smeared cell boundary problem and reduces co-channel interference, but it
is quite complicated.
9.8 Mobility Management

The mobility management layer (MM) is built on top of the RR layer, and handles the functions
that arise from the mobility of the subscriber, as well as the authentication and security aspects.
Location management is concerned with the procedure that enables the system to know the
current location of a powered-on mobile station so that incoming call routing can be completed.
9.9 Location updating

A powered-on mobile is informed of an incoming call by a paging message sent over the
PAGCH channel of a cell. One extreme would be to page every cell in the network for each call,
which is obviously a waste of radio bandwidth. The other extreme would be for the mobile to
notify the system, via location updating messages, of its current location at the individual cell
level. This would require paging messages to be sent to exactly one cell, but would be very
wasteful due to the large number of location updating messages. A compromise solution used in
GSM is to group cells into location areas, mobile stations and paged in the cells of their current
location area.
The location updating procedures, and subsequent call routing, use the MSC and two location
registers: the Home Location Register (HLR) and the Visitor Location Register (VLR). When a
mobile station is switched on in a new location area, or it moves to a new location area or
different operator‘s PLMN, it must register with the network to indicate its current location. In
the normal case, a location update message is sent to the new MSC/VLR, which records the
location area information, and then sends the location information to the subscriber‘s HLR. The
information sent to the HLR is normally the SS7 address of the new VLR, although it may be a
routing number. The reason a routing number is not normally assigned, even though it would
reduce signaling, is that there is only a limited number of routing numbers available new
MSC/VLR and they are allocated on demand for incoming calls. If the subscriber is entitled to
service, the HLR sends a subset of the subscriber information, needed for call control, to the
MSC/VLR, and sends a message to the old MSC/VLR to cancel the old registration.
For reliability reasons, GSM also has a periodic location updating procedure. If an HLR or
MSC/VLR fails, to have each mobile register simultaneously to bring the database up to date
would cause overloading. Therefore, the database is updated as location-updating events occur.
The enabling of periodic updating, and the time period between periodic updates, is controlled by
the operator, and is a trade-off between signaling traffic and speed of recovery. If a mobile does
not register after the updating time period, it is deregistered.
A procedure related to location updating is the IMSI attach and detach. A detach lets the network
know that the mobile station is unreachable, and avoids having to needlessly allocate channels
and send paging messages. An attach is similar to a location update, and informs the system that
the mobile is reachable again. The activation of IMSI attach/detach is up to the operator on an
individual cell basis.
9.10 Authentication and security
Since the radio medium can be accessed by anyone, authentication of users to prove that they are
whom they claim to be is a very important element of a mobile network. Authentication
involves two functional entities, the SIM card in the mobile, and the Authentication Center
(AuC). Each subscriber is given a secret key, one copy of which is stored in the SIM card and
the other in the AuC. During authentication, the AuC generates a random number that it sends to
the mobile. Both the mobile and the AuC then use the random number, in conjunction with the
subscriber‘s secret key and a ciphering algorithm called A3, to generate a signed response
(SRES) that is sent back to the AuC. If the number sent by the mobile is same as the one
calculated by the AuC, the subscriber is authenticated.
The same initial random number and subscriber key are also used to compute the ciphering key
using an algorithm called A8. This ciphering key, together with the TDMA frame number, use
the A5 algorithm to create a 114 bit sequence that is XORed with the 114 bits of a burst (the two
57 bit blocks). Enciphering is an option for the fairly paranoid, since the signal is already coded,
interleaved, and transmitted in a TDMA manner, thus providing protection from all but the most
persistent and dedicated eavesdroppers.
Another level of security is performed on the mobile equipment itself, as opposed to the mobile
subscriber. As mentioned earlier, each GSM terminal is identified by a unique International
Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) number. A list of IMEIs in the network is stored in the
Equipment Identity Register (EIR). The status returned in response to an IMEI query is one of
the following:
White-listed: The terminal is allowed to connect to the network.
Grey-listed: The terminal is under observation from the network for possible problems.
Black-listed: The terminal has either been reported stolen, or is not type approved (the correct
type of terminal for a GSM network). The terminal is not allowed to connect to the network.
9.11 Communication management

The Communication Management layer (CM) is responsible for Call Control (CC),
supplementary service management, and short message service management. Each of these may
be considered as a separate sub layer within the CM layer. Call control attempts to follow the
ISDN procedures specified inQ.931, although routing to a roaming mobile subscriber is
obviously unique to GSM. Other functions of the CC sub layer include call establishment,
selection of the type of service (including alternating between services during a call), and call
release.
9.12 Call routing

Unlike routing in a fixed network, where a terminal is semi-permanently wired to a central
office, a GSM can roam nationally and even internationally. The directory number dialed to
reach a mobile subscriber is called the Mobile Subscriber ISDN (MSISDN), which is defined by
the E.164 numbering plan. This number includes a country code and a National Destination
Code, which identifies the subscriber‘s operator. The first few digits of the remaining subscriber
may identify the subscriber‘s HLR within the home PLMN.
An incoming mobile terminating call is directed to the Gateway MSC (GMSC) function. The
GMSC is a switch, which is able to interrogate the subscriber‘s HLR to obtain routing
information, and thus contains a table linking MSISDNs to their corresponding HLR. A
simplification is to have a GMSC handle one specific PLMN. It should be noted that the GMSC
function is distinct from the MSC function, but is usually implemented in an MSC.
The routing information that is returned to the GMSC is the Mobile Station Roaming Number
(MSRN), which is also defined by the E.164 numbering plan. MSRNs are related to the
geographical numbering plan, and not assigned to subscribers, nor are they visible to subscribers.
The most general routing procedure begins with the GSMC querying is called subscriber‘s HLR
for an MSRN. The HLR typically stores only the SS7 address of the subscriber‘s current VLR,
and does not have the MSRN (see the location updating section). The HLR must therefore query
the subscriber‘s current VLR, which will temporarily allocate an MSRN from its pool for the
call. This MSRN is returned to the HLR and back to the GMSC, which can then route the call to
the new MSC. At the new MSC, the IMSI corresponding to the MSRN is looked up, and the
mobile is paged in its current location area.
See fig.
Fig : 9.1 Call Routing For A Mobile Terminating Call
9.13 ANTENNAS
Mobile station radios require antennas to be omni – directional in the horizontal plane (looking
from above) but to have very little upward radiation. This is because at any time, the mobile unit
could be at any point around the full range of the base station antenna. There are several styles of
antenna used for this purpose, which are generally variations of the dipole antenna.
9.13.1 BASE STATION ANTENNAS
The several types of antenna used for the mobile base station are:
 Bent or Folded Dipole Antenna: It is considered as a bent or folded conductor whose

horizontal dimension is one-half wavelength.
 Ground Plane Antenna: The co-axially fed antenna is physically convenient for many
applications. The finite ground plane tends to incline the radiation pattern maximum
slightly upward instead of horizontal plane.
 Stacked Antenna: A stack of several half-wave dipole antennas reduces the radiation
in the vertical direction and effectively increases the omni-directional horizontal gain.
 Corner reflector antenna: For the case of cell sectorisation, the base station antenna
must radiate only over a specific angle (e.g. 60 degree). For this antenna, a half wave
dipole is placed in the corner of a V-shaped wire plane reflector at 0.25 degree to 0.65
degree spacing from the vertex and wires are typically spaced less than .01 degree
apart.
9.13.2 MOBILE UNIT ANTENNAS
 Car Mobile Antenna: It must be omni-directional and as small as possible and must
not be adversely affected by the car body. The location of the antenna is usually on
the roof, trunk and the rear fender (bumper). The whip antenna is one possibility,
which is a/4 vertical conductor with the body acting as a ground plane.
 Portable Radio Antenna: They are usually either short (1/4 or less) vertically
conductor whip antennas or normal mode helical designs. Ideally, for maximum
convenience, the antenna should not even protrude from the body of the portable
radio. The antenna used for portables encounter the following problems:
 There is no ground plane as in the case for mobiles, so its efficiency is reduced.
 The user may not be pointing the antenna in the optimum direction or even worse, it may be held
horizontally. In either case the antenna may not be in the best orientation for the correct
polarization reception.
 The user‘s head may cause disturbances by mismatching the antenna impedance. The long-term
health of holding portable telephone close to the head for extended periods of time is at present
unknown.
CONCLUSION
The GSM system, and its sibling systems operating at 1.8 GHz (called DCS1800) and 1.9 GHz
(called GSM1900 or PCS1900), are a first approach at a true personal communication system.
The SIM card is a novel approach that implements personal mobility in addition to terminal
mobility. Together with international roaming, and support for a variety of services such as
telephony, data transfer, fax, Short Message Service, and supplementary services, GSM comes
close to fulfilling the requirements for a personal communication system: close enough that it is
being used as a basis for the next generation of mobile communication technology in, the
Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS).
Another point where GSM has shown its commitment to openness, standards and interoperability
is the compatibility with the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) that is evolving in most
industrialized countries but the potential of GSM is and real power of its capabilities is yet to be
harnessed and will influence the human life in a big way in the future. The future has a lot to see
in terms of the new generation state-of-the -art cellular phones and other devices being used in
common.
Indeed! GSM is making the world a small place!
REFERENCES
1. Company web site www.nokiasiemensnetworks.com

2. http://www.tutorialspoint.com/gsm/gsm_operations.htm
3. http://www.tutorialspoint.com/cgi-
bin/printversion.cgi?tutorial=gsm&file=gsm_security.htm
4. http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/ni/3G/casestudies/GSM-FINAL.pdf
5. http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&ct=res&cd=2&url=http%3A%2F%2Fww
w.bioone.org%2Fperlserv%2F%3Frequest%3Dget-
abstract%26doi%3D10.1667%252FRR3497.1&ei=XyixSqyhJ4_6sgOenJC9Cw&usg=A
FQjCNH0ByxRY9TMsePU4DNM_jJbcK88XQ
6. http://www.judyb.com/gsmdata/artholley.htm

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Table of Contents

1.1 COMPANY’S PROFILE:

Nokia-Siemens Networks in India is providing telecommunication solutions to Vodafone.

 Good subjective speech quality

2.1 The Cellular Structure

Fig: 2.2 A Cluster Fig 2.3 Frequency Reuse

2.3.1 Macro cells

3.1 Architecture of the GSM Network

Fig:3.1 GSM Network Elements

3.2.1. Mobile Equipment (ME)

3.2.1.1. Vehicle Mounted: These

3.2.1.2. Portable Mobile Unit: This

3.2.1.3. Hand Portable Unit :

3.2.2. Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)

3.2.2.2. Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI):

3.2.2.4. Subscriber Authentication Key (Ki):

3.2.2.5. Mobile Station International services Digital Network (MSISDN):

3.3 Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

3.3.1. Base Transceiver Station (BTS) :

3.2.2. Base Station Controller (BSC) :

Fig 3.2 mobile equipment

Fig 3.4 BSC

Fig 3.6 Installation Of BTS And BSC

4.1.1. Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC):

4.1.2. Home Location Register (HLR) :

4.1.3. Visitor Location Register (VLR) :

4.1.4. Authentication Center (AUC) :

4.1.5. Equipment Identity Register (EIR) :

 WHITE LIST Contains those IMEIs, which are known to have

 BLACK LIST Contains IMEIs of mobiles which have been

 GRAY LIST Contains IMEIs of mobiles which have problems.

4 The OMC should support the following function:

Fig4.2 operation and support system

4.4 Additional Functional Elements

Other functional elements shown in Figure 1 are as follows:

Fig 5.1 GSM network area

Fig 5.2 division of MLR/VLR service area

Fig 5.4 MLR/VLR area registered by one MSC

The PLMN service area is an area served by one network operator.

Fig 5.5 The PLMN Service Area

6.4 DIFFERENT PERSONAL COMMUNICATION SERVICES (PCS)

6.6 GSM Features

6.6.6 Call barring

6.6.8 Incoming – Bar certain incoming call (useful if in other country)

6.6.14 Mobile Data Services – Allows handsets to communicate with computers

6.7 GSM Features

6.7.1 Available by 1998

6.7.2 Upgrade and improvements to existing services

6.7.6 GSM in the local loop

6.7.9 SIM enhancements

Fig 7.1 Protocols Over The A, A-Bis And Um Interfaces

 CM The Communication Management (CM) layer consists of setting up calls at the

 RR The Radio Resource (RR) Management layer is in charge of establishing and

 BTSM The Base Transreceiver Station Management (BTSM) is responsible for

 SCCP the Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) from SS7

 MTP The Message transport Part (MTP) of SS7.

Radio link aspects

The International Telecommunication Union (ITU), which manages the international

Where are GSM Frequencies Used?

From Speech to Radio Waves

Fig. 7.4 The Sequence Of Operations

8.1 The GSM Speech Coding

Fig:8.1 GSM 06.10 Codec

8.2 The GSM Channel Coding