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available in the short and long term, and their technological maturity, before discussing CO2 transport
and storage. Current pilot plants and demonstrations are highlighted, as is the importance of optimising
the CCS system as a whole. Other topics briey discussed include the viability of both the capture of
DOI: 10.1039/c3ee42350f
CO2 from the air and CO2 reutilisation as climate change mitigation strategies. Finally, we discuss the
www.rsc.org/ees
1. Introduction
This paper discusses Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS), as one
method to mitigate climate change. This paper will not assess
the science behind anthropogenic climate change, the overwhelming evidence is presented by publications such as.1 The
rationale for deployment of CCS on fossil-fuelled power stations
(and possibly in the future with biomass-red stations) is that,
when deployed in conjunction with other technologies (such as
renewables and nuclear), the overall cost of electricity supply is
minimised. This is because fossil-fuelled power stations are
a
e
SCCS Centre, School of Engineering, The University of Edinburgh, The Kings
Buildings, Edinburgh EH9 3JL, UK
f
Centre for Environmental Policy, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London,
SW7 2AZ, UK
g
Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, SW7
2AZ, UK
h
SCCS, School of Geosciences, The University of Edinburgh, The Kings Buildings,
Edinburgh EH9 3JW, UK
i
Energy Technology and Innovation Initiative, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
k
School of Process, Environmental and Materials Engineering, University of Leeds,
Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
l
Review
1.1
higher base-load eciency in the range of 4852%.5 Supercritical power plants operate with steam parameters in range
of 240 bar/600 C and ultra-super critical plants which operate
in the range of 350 bar/700 C/720 C or higher are under
development.
However, owing to the relatively high-priced materials
required for their construction, the capital cost associated with
supercritical power plants is relatively high6,7 and this is an
active area of on-going research.
For example, Yamamoto et al.8 reported the application of
heat resistant material of high creep rupture strength and high
oxidation resistance up to 650 C, which have already been
developed for boilers and turbines of ultra-supercritical power
plants. Viswanathan5 discussed the materials for ultrasupercritical (USC) plants to withstand operating steam conditions up to 760 C temperature and 35 MPa pressure, which are
under development.
2.
2.1
2.2
Process owsheet
Review
Treb 5 40
Treb 5 273
(1)
Wcomp
>
mol CO2
150
>
>
: 4:023 ln
2:181 Pin . 4:56 bar
Pin
(2)
The improvements include thermally stable solvents such as
piperazine, that can be stripped at 150 C to produce CO2 at 8
bar. Rochelle et al.40 present estimates of thermodynamic eciencies for other common separation processes: desalination
by reverse osmosis 21%, distillation 14 to 35%, and air
separation 25%. Since the minimum work for this separation
is about 110 kWh t1, it is improbable that further improvement
from the current thermodynamic eciency of about 50% will
Review
Fig. 1
Intercooled Absorber/Interheated stripper with 8 m PZ. Stripper bottom at 150 C/7.9 bar. Weq 30.5 kJ mol1 CO2 193 kW h per tonne CO2.
2.4
Review
Table 1
(3)
(4)
Amine
kg0
Piperazine (PZ)
PZ/bis-aminoethylether
2-Methyl PZ/PZ
2-Methyl PZ
2-Amino-2-methyl propanol (AMP)
PZ/aminoethyl PZ
PZ/AMP
Diglycolamine (registered trademark)
Hydroxyethyl PZ
PZ/AMP
2-Piperidine ethanol
Monoethanolamine (MEA)
MEA
Methydiethanolamine (MDEA)/PZ)
MDEA/PZ
Kglycinate
Ksarconinate
MEA/PZ
8
6/2
4/4
8
5
5/2
5/2.3
10
8
2/4
8
11
7
5/5
7/2
6
6
7/2
8.5
7.3
7.1
5.9
2.4
8.1
7.5
3.6
5.3
8.6
3.5
3.6
4.3
8.3
6.9
3.2
5
7.2
avg
107
Capacity
mol kg1
Habs
kJ mol1
Tmax C
Pmax bar
PH2O/
PCO2
0.79
0.67
0.84
0.93
0.96
0.67
0.7
0.38
0.68
0.78
1.23
0.66
0.47
0.99
0.8
0.35
0.35
0.62
64
69
70
72
73
71
71
81
69
72
73
70
70
70
68
69
54
80
163
162
155
151
140
138
134
132
130
128
127
125
121
120
120
120
120
104
14.3
16.3
10.3
9.9
6.1
5.0
4.5
9.1
2.3
3.4
3.3
2.7
2.2
1.8
1.4
1.08
0.73
0.7
0.33
0.28
0.41
0.37
0.49
0.55
0.54
0.25
0.98
0.63
0.61
0.67
0.81
0.92
1.15
1.46
2.17
1.38
Review
2.6
mol CO2
C
where Cp is the heat capacity of the solvent (kJ kg(H2O +
amine)1 K1), DT is the hot side approach T of the cross
exchanger, and C is the capacity of the solvent (mol CO2
kg(H2O + amine)1).
One quantitative measure of the intrinsic solvent capacity is
the dierence between the equilibrium CO2 concentration at
40 C at 5 kPa CO2 and the equilibrium concentration at 40 C at
0.5 kPa. These values allow for a reasonable driving force to
provide 90% CO2 removal at conditions of coal-red power
plants. These convenient units of capacity reect the generalisation that the eective partial molar heat capacity of CO2
loading is typically near zero.
Greater solvent viscosity reduces the heat transfer coecient
in the cross-exchanger. The optimum exchanger design will
result in a greater approach DT with a greater viscosity. Therefore, it is appropriate to weight the intrinsic capacity by the
viscosity to the 0.25 power, as reected in the normalised
capacity given in Table 1, capacity/(m/10)0.25.49
A number of amine systems provide greater normalised
capacity than 7 M MEA. Hindered and tertiary amines usually
provide greater capacity because their intrinsic stoichiometry
requires only 1 mol amine mol CO21, as opposed to two for the
MEA system. As shown in Table 1, methyldiethanolamine, (a
tertiary amine) with piperazine and aminomethylpiperazine (a
hindered amine) with piperazine are quite competitive. Greater
capacity is also provided by diamines such as piperazine
because more equivalents of amine can be loaded into the
solvent before the viscosity becomes unacceptable.
A number of researchers are investigating systems that
precipitate solids or separate a lean amine organic phase from
the rich solvent.5052 These phase change systems will usually
provide greater capacity, but they must deal with the reliability
issues posed by precipitating slurries or two-phase systems.
2.7
(6)
HCO2
PCO2 ;i P*CO2 ;b
kg0 is a property of the amine, and not of the absorber contacting
device. It can be measured in a wetted wall column or similar
2.8
Solvent management
2.9
Development status
Review
2.10
Conclusions
Advanced amine systems will capture CO2 with heat duty less
than 2.7 MJ tCO21 and equivalent work less than 250 kWh
tCO21 (including compression to 150 bar).
The innovations contributing to reduced energy use include:
(1) Thermally stable amines such as 8 m piperazine that can
be regenerated at elevated pressure.
(2) Eective plate-and-frame cross exchangers and high
capacity solvents such as PZ/MDEA and PZ/AMP.
(3) Congurations such as the interheated stripper that
eectively recover heat from the stripper overhead.
(4) Fast amines such as piperazine and absorber intercooling
that provide more reversible absorber operation with greater
rich and lean loading.
(5) Amines with high heat of CO2 absorption that maximise
the energy performance of thermal swing regeneration.
Remaining issues of secondary environmental impact with
advanced amines have acceptable solutions:
(1) Amine oxidation can be minimised by using amines such
as piperazine and MDEA that are resistant to oxidation and by
stripping dissolved oxygen at <100 C.
(2) Nitrosamines can be managed by avoiding secondary
amines or by thermal or UV decomposition.
(3) Vapour losses of amine can be avoided by water wash with
volatile amines or by using non-volatile amines.
(4) Amine aerosol losses can be eliminated by a bre lter.
Review
Fig. 4 Selected IL cation and anion structures. (a) 1,3-dialkylimidazolium [CnCmim]+; (b) N,N-dialkylpyrrolidinium [CnCmpyrr]+;
(c) alkylpyridinium [Cnpyr]+; (d) tetraalkylammonium [CwCxCyCzN]+; (e)
tetraalkylphosphonium [CwCxCyCzP]+; (f) bis(triuoromethylsulfonyl)
imide [NTf2]; (g) triuoromethanesulfonate [OTf]; (h) hexauorophosphate; (i) tetrauoroborate.
H (bar)
Cation
Anion
25 C
[C4C1im]
[C4C1im]
[C6C1im]
[C6(3C1)py]
[(C6H4F9)C1im]
[(C8H4F13)C1im]
[C6C1im]
[C6C1im]
[C5C1im]
[C6C1im]
[C6C1im]
[Et3NBH2C1im]
[PF6]
[NTf2]
[NTf2]
[NTf2]
[NTf2]
[NTf2]
[eFAP]
[pFAP]
[bFAP]
[ace]
[sac]
[NTf2]
53.4
33.0
31.6
32.8
28.4
27.3
25.2
21.6
20.2
60 C
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
33.1 1.2
81.3 0.8
48.6 0.9
45.6 0.3
46.2 0.3
48.5 0.4
44.7 0.5
42.0 0.1
36.0 0.3
32.9 0.2
113.1 16.9
132.2 19.7
Ion selection
Anion eects on most IL-based solvation processes are dominant.94 This not only includes the solubility of CO2 and the
strength of the ILCO2 interactions in solution,95 but also the
solubility and anity of the IL for water.94 Most IL research has
focused on salts with dialkylimidazolium cations ([CnCmim][X]),
enabling an easy comparison of various anion eects. For bulk
liquid CCS applications, prominence is obviously placed on
hydrophobic (water-immiscible) ILs, as many ILs with highly
basic anions absorb very large quantities of water.94 This naturally
leads to selectivity problems when encountering wet ue gases.
The origin of the anion eect on CO2 solubility in ILs has been
investigated through molecular dynamics86 where the anionCO2
interactions were shown to be the strongest solvation forces
present. That study also pointed to mixtures on ILs with molecular solvents providing an optimised hybrid solution for CCS.
The bistriuorosulfonylimide [NTf2] anion generally gives
the best CO2:N2 selectivity and high overall CO2 solubilities with
most IL cations.96 This anion also possesses poor interactions
with water (leading to highly hydrophobic ILs) and generally
favourable physical properties: relatively low viscosities (2050
mPa s), very high thermal stabilities (a measure of the thermal
stability, Tonset of 400500 C) and low melting points (50
0 C). As a general rule, this anion can be employed to test
designer cations (as it is the most likely to yield favourable
physical properties) and yield salts with generally favourable
CCS potential. This opens up the cation for specic tailoring to
include CO2-philic moieties because it is the easiest portion of
an IL to synthetically modify.
3.3
Conventional ILs
Task-specic ILs
Review
Review
Scheme 1
facilitates CO2 transport through the membrane.128 AAILs supported on porous silica displays higher eciency then when used
as a bulk liquid phase. These supported TSILs achieve 2 : 1
IL : CO2 capture capacity through carbamate formation.
However, in the presence of small amounts of water (1% by mass),
the capture capacity can reach an equimolar ratio as shown in
Scheme 2.129 A combination of SILMs and TSILs may be a better
choice for CO2 capture at elevated temperatures and pressures.130
However, there remain drawbacks, including leaching of the IL
through membrane pores when the pressure drop is higher than
the liquid stabilising forces within the matrix. In order to overcome this limitation, polymerisable ILs as membranes could be a
possible option for CO2 separation.100
3.4.7 Poly(IL)s. Poly(ionic liquid)s are a new technology for
CO2 capture. The absorption and desorption of CO2 by poly(IL)s
is faster than bulk ILs.131134 Moreover, desorption by vacuuming
is completely reversible, though would not be energetically
viable in a power generation context. It may be that they are a
potential choice for sorbent and membrane material for CO2
separation. Fig. 6 shows CO2 absorption data for three type of
poly(IL)s:
poly[1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3-butylimidazolium
tetrauoroborate] (PVBIT),
poly[1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3-butylimidazolium hexauorophosphate] (PVBIH), and poly[2-(1butylimidazolium-3-yl)ethyl methacrylate tetrauoroborate]
(PBIMT), which are roughly analogous to polymerised versions
of [CnCmim][BF4]. PVBIT and PVBIH have been reported to take
only 4 min and PBIMT only 3 min to reach 90% capacity, and
Review
Process considerations
Energy performance
Review
4.3
in oxy-coal combustion.172 While the increase in Hg concentration is due to the removal of diluent nitrogen, the increase in
Hg oxidation may be explained by increased chlorine concentration in oxyfuel combustion. Strategies to control Hg emissions include injection of activated carbon sorbents or forcing
oxidation to water soluble Hg2+ forms to then be removed by
conventional FGD scrubbing.
Air Products have developed the possibility of co-removal of
SOx, NOx and mercury during compression using their Sour Gas
Compression technology.173 The process relies on the oxidation
of NO to NO2 to convert SO2 to H2SO4174 in the presence of water.
Mercury will dissolve and react in the nitric acid formed as a
condensate. The technology is based on the lead chamber
process. Further investigations are required to determine the
kinetics at higher pressure. Further pilot-scale work in this area
has been performed by CANMET175 and at the laboratory scale (e.g.
Chalmers University, Sweden176 and Imperial College London177).
Little information on the behaviour under oxyfuel conditions
of other pollutants such as particulates, other trace metals (Pb, As,
Cd, Se, etc.), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), polyaromatic
hydrocarbons, dioxins and other chlorinated compounds are
currently available. More investigations of the release and distribution of these substances under oxyfuel conditions are required.
4.4
Review
4.5
Review
5.
Oxyfuel CFBC
Until recently, the obvious route for oxyfuel combustion was via
conventional pulverised coal-red (PC) boiler technology as
discussed above, and there is already one large European oxyfuel PC demonstration plant, with more planned in the future
(see Section 4.5). However, recently oxy-red uidised bed
combustion (FBC) has also become increasingly important as a
potential technology oering both fuel exibility and the
possibility of ring or co-ring biomass with CO2 capture. For
utility applications, a high velocity version of FBC, in which gas
velocities are of the order of 4 to 8 m s1, called circulating
uidised bed combustion (CFBC) is employed, and this technology is available in the supercritical mode at sizes of up to 460
MWe,187 with larger (550 MWe units) currently being built.188
CFBC is now a widely used technology for the power industry
for dicult fuels (e.g. low volatiles content or high sulphur, ash
or moisture content or for almost any waste material). In this
technology, the fuels are burned in a turbulent bed of an inert
material, thus ensuring high heat transfer rates, and good solid
mixing. Furthermore if sulphur capture is required, limestone
can be added to the bed, ensuring SO2 is removed in solid form
(CaSO4, anhydrite), which can be landlled. While this technology was explored 35 years ago189 in its bubbling bed mode
(uidising velocities 1 to 2.5 m s1), it was not until the last
decade that the oxyfuel FBC technology received serious attention, when two large boiler companies, Alstom190 and Foster
Wheeler, began to carry out pilot-scale test work and other
studies to see if it could be developed as commercial CFBC
boiler technology with CO2 capture.
As discussed above, in oxyring, ue gases must be recycled
in order to keep combustion temperatures to manageable levels
(in the case of CFBC, less than 1000 C). However, unlike oxyred PC units, the hot solids which are an integral part of
CFBC technology can also be used for extra heat transfer and
steam production, either in the primary reaction loop and/or in
external uid bed heat exchangers. This means that unlike PC
systems, where perhaps 7080% of the ue gas must be recycled, lower levels of ue gas recirculation are possible, which
would allow oxyfuel CFBCs of any given thermal output to be
built; these can potentially be 30 or 40% smaller than the
equivalent air-red units, and thus improve plant cost savings.
This lower volume of ue gas means that emissions are best
This journal is The Royal Society of Chemistry 2014
(7)
(8)
(9)
Table 3
Review
List of pilot plant oxyfuel FBC facilities (modied from Wall et al.192)
Location
Size
Purpose
Additional information
3 MWth
0.1 MWth
100 kWth
0.33 MWth
4 MWth
Czestochowa University of
Technology, Poland
ICB-CSIC Spain
0.1 MWth
3 kWth
100 kWth
30 kWth
NA
Review
unused O2, and thus no energy is expended for the gas separation and no gas separation equipment is needed. However,
the eciency of the baseline technology must also be taken into
account. If CLC were to be used for power production with
gaseous fuels, and not pressurised, CLC would limit the eciency of the underlying thermodynamic cycle to that of a steam
cycle, rather than a more ecient combined cycle. However,
where the aim is to produce steam/heat or hydrogen, or if solid
fuels are used, this is normally not an issue. Potentially promising technologies, such as chemical looping reforming, which
avoid this issue, will also be discussed below. The CLC system is
composed of two reactors, an air and a fuel reactor, see Fig. 8.
The fuel is introduced in the fuel reactor, which contains a
metal oxide, MexOy. The fuel and the metal oxide react
according to:
Fig. 7 Sulphation conversion proles under oxy-red conditions for
varied concentrations of H2O (with air-red proles overlaid).
Foster Wheeler commissioned 8 months of trials at CanmetENERGY and these trials demonstrated excellent control on CO2
levels and combustion conditions.205 Overall performance was
excellent, which is a very positive sign for the development of
the technology. Foster Wheeler was also the rst to commercialise supercritical CFBC technology (Lagisza power plant,
Poland) and with this technology as the basis, Foster Wheeler is
now working with the power company ENDESA on the development of a 300 MWe supercritical Flexi-Burn CFBC. The
predicted CO2 capture for this technology is 90% of emissions
and it is anticipated that it could be available by 2020.206 Foster
Wheeler also believes that it could oer such technology at the
600800 MWe size with 600 C steam temperature.
Demonstration tests are currently underway at the 30 MWth
CIUDEN pilot CFB demonstration unit, which will provide a full
experimental CCS platform for the demonstration and validation of exible air/oxyfuel CFB combustion.199,207 An interesting
feature of this unit is that it uses NH3 injection into the cyclone
to help maintain NOx at 120 mg Nm3.
Finally, it must be noted that Alstom has also announced its
intention of carrying out a 100 MWe oxyfuel CFB demonstration; although at the time of writing, no further information
appears to be available in the open literature.208 It appears that
oxy-red CFBC technology is making major strides to enter the
commercial arena, and it is highly probable that it will also be
available as a competitive CCS technology along with oxyfuel PC
technology before the end of the decade.
(10)
The exit gas stream from the fuel reactor contains CO2 and
H2O, and a stream of CO2 is obtained when H2O is condensed.
The reduced metal oxide, MexOy1, is transferred to the air
reactor where it is oxidised, reaction (11):
MexOy1 + 1/2O2 / MexOy
(11)
6. Chemical-looping combustion
6.1
Introduction
Review
means that CLC with solid fuels will require a dierent design
of the fuel reactor, as well as oxygen carriers with other properties. The following key issues have been identied in relation
to fuel reactor performance: solid fuel conversion, gas conversion and CO2 capture.
6.3
Ishida also introduced the name of the process, chemicallooping combustion.212 In 2001, a design based on the circulating uidised-bed principle was presented, see Fig. 9, investigating the critical design parameters of a system such as the
solids inventory and recirculation rate of oxygen carriers
between the reactors and identifying the relationship between
these and the oxygen carrier properties.213
6.2
Applications
Review
6.4
6.5
Modelling
Review
Location
Unit
Oxides tested
Time
Fuel\references
Year
Chalmers
KIER
CSIC
Chalmers
10 kW
50 kW
10 kW
0.3 kW
1410
28
120
810
Nat. gas\575578
Nat. gas\579,580
Nat. gas\581,582
Nat. gas, syngas\227,241,583591
2004
2004
2006
2006
Chalmers
CSIC
KAIST
Vienna UT
Alstom
Nanjing
KIER
Nanjing
IFP-Lyon
Stuttgart
Xian Jiaotong
CSIC
Chalmers
Chalmers
Hamburg
Ohio
10 kW-SF
0.5 kW
1 kW
140 kW
15 kW
10 kW-SF
50 kW
1 kW-SF
10 kW-GSF
10 kW
10 kW-Pr
0.5 kW-SF
0.3 kW-LF
100 kW-SF
25 kW-SF
25 kW-SF
NiO, Fe2O3
NiO, CoO
CuO, NiO
NiO, Mn3O4, Fe2O3,
ilmenite, CaMnO3
Ilmenite, manganese ore
CuO, NiO, Fe2O3
NiO + Fe2O3
Ilmenite, NiO
NiO
NiO, Fe2O3
NiO, CoO
Fe2O3 (ore)
NiO
Ilmenite
CuO/Fe2O3
Ilmenite, CuO, Fe2O3
NiO, Mn3O4, CuO
Ilmenite
Ilmenite
Fe2O3
149
820
?
390
100
230
300
>10
>90
?
15
164
116
24
21
72
Coal, petcoke\245,259,592595
Nat. gas\228,254,596606
CH4\607
Nat. gas, CO, H2\262,608617
Nat. gas\4
Coal, biom.\618621
Nat. gas, syngas\622
Coal, biomass\244,623
CH4, coal, syngas\624,625
Syngas\261
Coke oven gas\626
Coal\260,265,627,628
Kerosene\214,215
Coal\629632
Coal\633
Coal\634
2008
2009
2009
2009
2009
2009
2010
2010
2010
2010
2010
2011
2011
2012
2012
2012
SF solid fuel, GSF gaseous & solid fuel, Pr pressurised, LF liquid fuel.
for the fuel reactor system, and costs downstream of the fuel
reactor to accommodate for incomplete conversion, e.g. oxygen
polishing. Consequently, a good understanding of these costs is
needed to nd the optimal solution and realise the great
potential of this technology.
Review
7.1
For large scale novel energy processes such as the CaL system, it
is essential to carry out detailed process simulation and thermal
integration exercises to assess the viability of the full system
under expected operating conditions, evaluate power generation eciencies and conduct a transparent benchmarking
exercise against more mature CO2 capture technology options. A
variety of research groups have recently conrmed the inherent
thermodynamic advantages of the post-combustion Ca-looping
concept using oxyfuel combustion, with eciency penalties
between 6 and 8% points with respect to reference plants
without CO2 capture.292295 The calcination of the fresh make up
ow of limestone can take up to 310% of the total energy input
to the Ca looping system. But this may be considered not to be
an energy penalty if the solid purge is used for cement applications, desulphurisation, or other large scale uses of CaO. The
synergy between CaL and cement industry has long been recognised, but only recently detailed specic process proposals
and experimental investigations have been reported.284,296
Energy penalties can be further reduced in advanced CaL
concepts that avoid the need of an air separation unit, by
transferring heat from a high-temperature source to the
calciner, which may be operated with lower partial pressures of
CO2 by introducing steam. Although the basic idea is not
new,297,298 only recently there have been works investigating in
detail these processes.299,300 Recent work has also included
experimental studies.301
Several projects have been running in order to prove experimentally the concept of post-combustion CaL using interconnected carbonator and calciner reactors. INCAR-CSIC
designed and operated a 30 kWth test facility made up of two
interconnected circulating uidised-bed reactors (0.1 m ID) that
reported capture eciencies between 70 and 97% under realistic
ue gas conditions in the carbonator reactor. This reactor functioned as an eective absorber of CO2 as long as there was a
As noted above, calcium looping can be combined with reforming and/or gasication processes to produce a hydrogen-rich gas,
high fuel conversions and minimal CO formation. These
processes oer signicant potential for eciency and economic
improvements, but they usually involve higher technical
complexity. For natural gas, the benets of the sorption
enhanced reforming process, SER, and the main experimental
results investigating the concept at laboratory scale are reviewed
by Harrison.289 In principle, the overall process is reduced to a
single reaction step, close to thermal neutrality, that can be
operated at intermediate temperatures (around 650 C) and can
yield over 90% of H2 purity on a dry basis. Several studies have
been recently reported on mathematical modelling of natural gas
SER processes322324 and the SER concept has been also proposed
for alternative fuels, such as propane, methanol or ethanol.325327
Romano et al.328 investigated the potentiality of a SER process
coupled to a combined cycle, calculating a net eciency of 50.2%
with a carbon capture ratio of 88%, which are comparable with
those values obtained for a competitive technology based on
autothermal reforming, but with higher plant simplicity and
lower plant cost. Meyer et al.329 evaluated the feasibility of a novel
ZEG power concept, featuring the production of electrical power
via a close integration of the SER process with a hightemperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC), obtaining eciencies close to 77% with 100% CO2 capture and no NOx emissions.
As mentioned above, CO2 capture with CaO during solid fuel
gasication can be considered the rst application of CaL. In
Review
7.3
Review
Zeolites
8.2
MOFs
Review
8.3
Carbon-based adsorbents
Review
8.4
Mesoporous silicas
9.1
Introduction
Direct air capture is the process of removing CO2 from the air
and generating a concentrated stream of CO2 for sequestration
or re-use. It belongs to a group of technologies referred to as
negative emissions, or carbon dioxide removal (CDR) technologies. Other negative emissions technologies include bioenergy
enhanced carbon capture and storage (BECCS); augmented
ocean disposal (or ocean liming); biochar production and utilisation; the dispersion of naturally occurring bases such as
serpentine and olivine across the land; and the enhancement of
biological CO2 sinks such as reforestation, aorestation and
aquatic biomass via ocean fertilisation. These technologies are
beyond the scope of this paper, though the interested reader
may refer to a recent techno-economic analysis of negative
emissions technologies by McGlashan et al. for more information.424 In fact, we will only very briey review recent developments in air capture technologies here.
Compared with traditional CO2 capture from concentrated
point sources; direct air capture oers a number of purported
advantages. Firstly, air capture provides a means of adjusting
the atmospheric CO2 concentration in the increasingly more
likely event that mitigation eorts fall short of targets and the
atmospheric greenhouse gas inventory reaches dangerous levels
or takes a trajectory towards stabilisation at dangerous levels.
Air capture could also oer an option for addressing CO2
emissions from mobile and distributed sources, such as vehicles, fuel use in buildings and geographically isolated industry,
where direct capture and integration into a centralised CCS
network would be either impractical and/or uneconomical.
Furthermore, direct air capture technology could be installed by
storage site operators to manage fugitive emissions from the
CCS network and leakage from geological formations. In addition, it has been suggested that direct air capture technology
could potentially be situated anywhere, such as deserts, wasteland and the ocean, provided there is access to an available
energy source and sequestration sites. However, there are also
signicant disadvantages to the technology. Removing and
concentrating CO2 from air at 390 ppm to a pure stream
(>90%) implies a greater energy input, and treatment of a vastly
greater volume of gas than CO2 capture from concentrated
point sources. For example, the thermodynamic minimum
energy required to extract CO2 from ambient air is 20 kJ mol1
compared with 8.4 kJ mol1 and 5.3 kJ mol1 to capture and
concentrate CO2 from the ue gases of natural gas-, and coalred power stations containing 5% and 15% CO2 respectively
at 65 C. Furthermore, the actual energy consumed by air
capture technology will be signicantly larger than the thermodynamic minimum, as is the case for CCS systems. Zeman
et al. estimated that the energy demand of a large-scale MEAbased process for CO2 capture from concentrated sources
would be 181 kJ mol1, which is far greater than the thermodynamic minimum energy requirement.425
Direct air capture has been practiced on a small scale for
decades for the purpose of maintaining safe levels of CO2 in
Review
9.2
The most developed approach for wet air capture is the soda/
lime process.431 This uses aqueous sodium hydroxide (NaOH)based solutions to extract CO2 from ambient air in a packedcolumn,432 convection tower433 or spray-tower contactor
system.434 Aer the contactor, the NaOH solution is regenerated
via caustic recovery (or causticisation), where slaked lime (an
aqueous solution of Ca(OH)2) is reacted with the dissolved
sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) product to form a calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) precipitate mud. The CaCO3 mud is ltered,
dried and transferred to a rotary kiln where it is calcined at
temperatures in excess of 900 C to produce a concentrated
stream of CO2 and a calcium oxide (CaO) powder. The CaO
powder is then dissolved in water to regenerate the slaked lime
solution.
The requirement of substantial thermal energy for lime
regeneration represents a signicant drawback of this process.
Baciocchi et al. estimated that process energy demands are
likely to range between 7.6 and 11.6 GJ tCO21 (334510 kJ mol
CO21) with drying, pre-heating and calcining of the CaCO3
accounting for the majority of the total energy demand.435 Other
energy intensive processes considered in the Baciocchi et al.
estimates were CO2 compression and air separation to produce
O2 for an oxyfuel kiln. As a consequence, CO2 abatement costs
for this process are high, typically quoted as 240500 US$ tC1
(65136 US$ tCO21);436 much higher than some estimated cost
of CCS at 3050 US$ tCO21 437 (some authors of this paper
might suggest a more conservative range of costs, from $50
$120 tCO21 depending upon source and capture technology).
Recent papers by the American Physical Society438 and House
Review
Dry air capture systems typically employ solid organoaminebased adsorbents where amine functional groups are either
physically or chemically bound to the surface of a porous-silica;
carbon, metal oxide; or polymer support.442 Much of the work to
date has focused on developing sorbents with high CO2 capacities and has neglected to use realistic desorption conditions,
opting instead for desorption at elevated temperatures in an
inert gas stream generating a dilute CO2 stream. Lackner et al.
have developed an alternative material for extracting CO2 from
ambient air, comprising of an anionic ion-exchange resin with
quaternary amine functionality dispersed onto a polypropylene
membrane.443 The positive charge associated with the quaternary amines is balanced by mobile hydroxyl or carbonate
counter-ions, which adsorb CO2 when dry, and release CO2
when wet. Desorption can be achieved via either contacting the
material with a humidied gas stream or directly with water. Air
capture costs for a system employing this adsorbent have been
estimated by the purveyors as 15 US$ tCO21 with initial costs
including infrastructure and maintenance costs of 200 US$
tCO21. It is considered by a number of the authors of this
article that these costs are unrealistic, on the basis of highly
contentious assumptions concerning mass production and
autonomous operation. A simple analysis by Brandani indicates
that the cost of air capture relative to CO2 capture from a power
station should be around a factor of ten higher.444
9.5
Introduction
The aim of this section is to review the recent literature pertaining to the retrotting of post-combustion CO2 capture
technology to fossil fuel-red power stations and then discuss
the impact of this retrot on the merit order of such a decarbonised power station. The temporal, economic and policy
context of this discussion is in that of the UK in the 2030s where
the current electricity market reform445 (EMR) discussion has
been completed and there are signicant amounts of intermittent renewable power446 in the UK energy system. One
important target is that of having 15% of the UKs energy
supplied by renewable resources by 2020.446
At the time of writing (early 2013), the UK is undergoing an
EMR exercise which is intended to create a policy environment
conducive to suciently de-risk the capital investment associated with the installation of new power generation capacity to
support investment by the international capital markets in UK
power generation, and avoid the foreseen energy gap if this
investment is not made.
From the perspective of a potential investor, risk is associated with the probability and magnitude of an unfavourable
outcome (e.g. prot below expectations). Taking prot as simply
the dierence between annualised revenue and cost, in the
context of a power station, and it is a function of:
Electricity price (feeding into a revenue stream).
Load factor and dispatch frequency (how much and how
oen a power plant can sell energy to the grid).
Annualised capital cost (a function of the initial installed
cost, payback time and discount rate).
Fuel cost.
Carbon cost.
However, given that one will typically select a payback time
and discount rate such that 80% of the original investment is
paid back within 10 years,447,448 carbon prices are likely to be
mandated by the EMR (at least in the UK, although there may be
some market element to this as well) and electricity prices are
10.2
Description of sub-systems
Review
10.3
Integration strategy
HP in
HP out
IP in
IP out
LP in
LP out
Pressure,
P, (bar)
Temperature,
T, ( C)
Enthalpy, H,
(kJ kg1)
130.00
38.00
35.00
2.50
2.50
0.08
535.0
351.2
535.0
41.5
3430
3100
3530
2861
2861
2366
Review
Fig. 12
Introduction
11.2
Basic operation
11.3
Existing experience
Globally, there is approximately 6000 km of pipeline infrastructure in operation for CO2 transportation purposes, most of
which is based in the US and Canada for transporting CO2 to
sites for enhanced oil recovery (EOR).459 At present, most of the
CO2 used for EOR is sourced from natural deposits, though
there are a few projects utilising CO2 from anthropogenic
sources. Table 6 provides a summary of the major long-distance
CO2 pipelines currently operating. There is also limited operational experience of onshore and oshore pipelines transporting CO2, derived from natural gas production, for
sequestration in saline aquifers at the Snhvit LNG facility,
Sleipner, and In Salah.
Ship-based CO2 transport experience is far more limited. At
present, there are only four small ships, transporting food-grade
CO2 in northern Europe.457 Anthony Veder Group operates the
Review
11.4
Review
Table 6
Pipeline
Operator
Location
Canyon Reef
(SACROC)
Bati Raman
Sheep Mountain
North
Cortez
Bravo
Central Basin
Bairoil
Snhvit
Weyburn
Kinder Morgan
USA
Turkish Petroleum
BP AMOCO
Turkey
USA
Kinder Morgan
Kinder Morgan
Kinder Morgan
Statoil
North Dakota
Gasication Co.
BP
Statoil
USA
USA
USA
USA
Norway
USA & Canada
In Salah
Sleipner
Algeria
Norway
Length
[km]
Pressure
[bar]
Source
Purpose
Start
year
4.4
352
140
Gasication Plant
EOR
1972
1.1
9.2
90
772
170
132
Dodan Field
Sheep Mountain
EOR
EOR
1983
1983
19.3
7.3
20
8.3
1
5
803
350
278
180
160
328
186
165
170
McElmo Dome
Bravo Dome
Denver City Hub
Gas manufacturing plant
Separation from natural gas
Gasication Plant
EOR
EOR
EOR
EOR
Storage
EOR
1984
1984
1985
1986
1996
2000
1.0
0.7
17
153
185
100
Storage
Storage
2004
2006
Constituent
Specication
Reason
CO2
N2
Hydrocarbons
H2O
O2
H2S
Glycol
Temperature
>95%
4%
5%
480 mg m3
10 ppm
10200 ppm
0.4 ml m3
65 C
MMP
MMP
MMP
Corrosion
Corrosion
Safety
Operations
Material integrity
The presence of impurities also reduces the density of densephase CO2, particularly at conditions close to the vapourliquid
equilibrium boundary.465,466 As a consequence, pipelines transporting CO2 containing large amounts of impurities must be
operated at higher inlet pressures to achieve the desired
throughput. A thicker walled pipeline or tougher pipeline
material may also be required at a higher infrastructure cost.
Pressure and temperature drops within pipelines are also
aected by the CO2 composition. The presence of impurities
with lower critical temperatures and pressures than CO2
enhance pressure and temperature drops whilst impurities
with higher critical temperatures and pressures, such as H2S,
SO2 and NO2, reduce pressure and temperature drops along a
set length of pipeline.467 To account for increased pressure
drops, more booster stations would be required at shorter
intervals to keep the pressure suciently high to maintain a
dense-phase ow. However, adding more booster station
substantially increases pipeline infrastructure costs, and in any
case, this option is not feasible for subsea pipelines. Alternatively, the pipeline would have to be operated at a higher inlet
pressure.
Yan et al. carried out a cost-benet analysis to determine the
eect of removing typical non-condensable impurities found in
anthropogenic CO2 (N2, H2, O2 and CH4) to dierent levels (1%,
4% and 10%).468 They found that limiting the amount of noncondensable compounds to <4% was optimal in terms of
balancing gas treatment and compression costs, although a
higher limit of <10% may be acceptable for short distances.
11.4.3 The role of impurities in pipeline corrosion. Internal
pipeline corrosion issues are primarily caused by the presence
of an aqueous phase. CO2 dissolves in free water leading to
the formation of carbonic acid, which is highly corrosive to
carbon steel (the material typically used for natural gas and
existing CO2 pipelines). This type of corrosion is termed sweet
corrosion. An aqueous phase may form if the water vapour
content exceeds the saturation vapour level at any point within
the pipeline. Alternatively, accidental ingress of water may
occur due to a malfunction at the gas conditioning facility or
during a maintenance shutdown.
Review
Review
12.1
Review
Review
12.2
Fig. 16 A US-wide assessment of CO2 storage capacity.480 Analytical models have been combined with regional geological models to estimate a
total storage capacity of over 100 Gt in the continental US.
Review
Review
12.3
Background
(13)
(14)
Review
14.
14.1
Despite the fact that CO2 is a renewable, widely available, lowcost and low-toxicity C1 feedstock, current industrial demand
is relatively low, amounting to around 232 Mt per year, with
only a few commercial processes currently using CO2 as a raw
material (Table 8). Most of the current demand is met by
naturally derived CO2 with only 40 Mt obtained from anthropogenic sources of which 70% is used for EOR purposes and
Review
Process
Urea
Methanol
Inorganic
carbonates
Organic
carbonates
Technological
Food
EOR
Total
Industrial
volume
Mt per year
Global
CO2 usage
Mt per year
159.4
55
80
119.6
14
30
4
10
8
50
0.2
10
8
50
232 Mt
Lifetime of
storage
Months
Months
Decades
permanent
Decades
Days to years
Days to years
Permanenta
Whilst EOR oers the potential of permanent storage, most of the CO2
used for EOR is currently not stored.
14.3
CO2-to-fuels
Review
14.4
Future outlook
At present, utilisation of CO2, particularly CO2 from anthropogenic sources, is low. The use of anthropogenic CO2 in place of
CO2 derived from natural deposits will oer small emissions
reductions, although in the context of climate change mitigation, the impact will be insignicant. In the short term,
increased deployment of EOR has the potential to oer the
largest economic stimulus for large point sources to capture
and subsequently store their CO2. However, a clear framework
for regulating and incentivising wide-scale deployment of CCS
and EOR that also addresses potential liability issues associated
with EOR coupled with permanent storage needs to be established. Further work is also required to assess the feasibility and
any potential deployment issues associated with EOR and
permanent storage particularly at o-shore locations.
CO2-to-fuels technology is far from commercial status and
will have to compete with other unconventional methods of
producing liquid fuels, such as GTL and CTL in addition to
other means of storing and utilising energy such as high eciency batteries and ultracapacitors. The future of CO2-to-fuels
technology, therefore, remains highly uncertain because of
the inherent thermodynamic eciency penalties.
Introduction
Review
16.1
Review
Project
Type, fuel
Country
Project
Type, fuel
Pre-combustion, coal
Post-combustion, coal
Industrial application, gas
Pre-combustion, coal
Oxyfuel, coal
UK
Poland
Netherlands
UK
UK
Pre-combustion, coal
Post-combustion, gas
Pre-combustion, coal
Oxyfuel, coal
Pre-combustion, coal,
petcoke, biomass
Post-combustion, coal, biomass
Industrial application, gas
UK
Italy
France
Post-combustion, coal
Post-combustion, gas
Romania
UK
Review
Review
The CCS Directive itself does not address the specic mechanics
of liability. Hence, we must look to the Environmental Liability
Directive and the Emissions Trading Scheme Directive given
that the CCS Directive delegates this matter to them.
Further to Article 34 of the CCS Directive, the Environmental
Liability Directive brings storage site operations within the
liability framework of the European Union. As such, operators
of CCS sites have obligations in respect of the prevention and
remediation of environmental damage associated with such
sites. This applies to all relevant environmental damage and
corresponding duties of prevention (Article 5) and remediation/
mitigation (Article 6) under the Environmental Liability Directive. Financial security measures are also to be undertaken by
storage site operators further to Article 14 of the Environmental
Liability Directive. A exible interpretation of Article 14 allows
for the use of ceilings on nancial instruments. It also allows for
the exclusion of liability on behalf of operators, where they are
not at fault or are otherwise not negligent.
17.3.
Review
17.4
17.5
17.7
Review
Review
18.
Conclusions
Acknowledgements
PSF thanks the RCUK Energy Programme and Engineering and
Physical Sciences Research Council for support under EP/
K000446 and Matt Boot-Handford for a PhD studentship
under EP/I010912/1. Joseph Yao thanks the Grantham Institute
at Imperial College for their support.
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