CAPE PENISULA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

BELLVILLE CAMPUS
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
ND : CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
FLUID FLOW
SUBJECT

CHEMICAL PLANT III

LECTURER

Mr L. Kloppers, Mr. W Maree

STUDENT

Richardt Johan Loots

STUDENT NO.

214196585

Topic

Mark
allocation

Title Page

Synopsis

Introduction

Literature Review and

Theory (including in
text referencing)

10

Experimental Set-up
and Procedure

10

Results and Discussion

Calculations

50

Conclusions

Bibliography

10

Total

Mark

100

I certify that this report is my own unaided work, except for the assistance
received from the teaching staff. I undertake not to pass this report onto
any other student

Contents
List of Symbols........................................................................................................................................................ii
I.Synopsis.................................................................................................................................................................iv
1.Introduction...........................................................................................................................................................1
2.Literature Review and Theory...............................................................................................................................2
2.1 Fluid Velocity..................................................................................................................................................2
2.2 Reynolds number...........................................................................................................................................2
2.2.1 Laminar flow...........................................................................................................................................2
2.2.2 Turbulent Flow.........................................................................................................................................2
2.2.3 Transitional flow......................................................................................................................................2
2.3 Head Losses..................................................................................................................................................3
2.3.1 Friction Losses........................................................................................................................................3
2.3.2 Shock Losses...........................................................................................................................................6
3.Experimental Procedure........................................................................................................................................7
3.1 Experimental Setup........................................................................................................................................7
3.2 Apparatus.......................................................................................................................................................7
3.2.1 Pipes used...............................................................................................................................................7
3.2.2 Valves used.............................................................................................................................................7
3.3 Procedure.......................................................................................................................................................8
4. Results and Discussion.........................................................................................................................................9
4.1 Recorded Values.............................................................................................................................................9
4.2 Calculated Values.........................................................................................................................................10
4.3 Discussion....................................................................................................................................................11
4.3.1 Pipes.....................................................................................................................................................11
4.3.2Valves....................................................................................................................................................11
4.3.3 Reccomendations.................................................................................................................................12
5. Conclusions.........................................................................................................................................................12
6.References...........................................................................................................................................................13
Appendix...................................................................................................................................................................A
Pipe Calculations..................................................................................................................................................A
Uncalibrated friction factor..............................................................................................................................A
Calibrated friction factor..................................................................................................................................A
Theoretical friction factor................................................................................................................................A
Valve Calculations................................................................................................................................................B
Uncalibrated Shock constant...........................................................................................................................B
Calibrated shock constant...............................................................................................................................B
Theoretical shock constant..............................................................................................................................B

List of Symbols
Symbol

Description

Unit
2

Cross-sectional area of pipe

m2

Pipe diameter

Friction factor

Dimensionless

Gravitational acceleration constant

m/s2

Head

Change in Head

hf

Friction Head loss in a pipe system

mH2O

Minor loss coefficients for bends and fittings

Dimensionless

Pipe length

Pressure

kPa or dmH2O

Pressure drop

kPa or dmH2O

Volumetric flow rate

m3/s

Re

Reynolds Number

Fluid velocity

Dimensionless
m/s

Greek symbols

Pipe roughness

mm

Fluid viscosity

Pa.s

Density

kg/m3

Subscripts
E

Calibrated values Including error factor

Fanning

H 2O

Properties of water (fluid)

Darcys

I.Synopsis

1.Introduction
Fluid flow or fluid mechanics is the understanding of what influences the flow of
fluids or gases It is based on the analysis of the behaviour of fluids and gases
which is based on the fundamental laws of mechanics and thermodynamics
within a a closed system.
The life-cycles of stars, the creation of atmospheres, the sounds we hear, the
vehicles we drive, the systems we build for flight, energy generation and
propulsion all depends in an important way on the mechanics and
thermodynamics of fluid flow and the interaction of the fluid with its
surroundings.
In this practical it was set out to determine the losses occurred within a closed
system of flow. The losses within a pipe depends on the Reynolds number and
flow rate of the fluid being measured. By knowing the Reynolds number it can be
determined what type of flow is present and the losses can be calculated
accordingly
In the industrial sense or in the processing of fluids and transport of fluids these
values are of utmost importance and can influence various factors such as the
materials of construction, the sizes of the pipes, lengths of pipes, where fluids
bust be cooled or heated, when fluids must be mixed etc. By knowing all this the
most efficient and economical plant can be built according to the specifications
and requirements of the fluid or gas being processed.
The various factors that play a role on the behaviour of a fluid or gas will be
discussed in the next section to obtain a better understanding of how fluids
behave within a certain system and how the materials affect the flow of the fluid.

2.Literature Review and Theory

2.1 Fluid Velocity
Flow velocity in fluids is the vector field that provides the velocity of fluids at a
certain time and position. The velocity of a fluid is dependant on volumetric
flowrate and the area of the pipe. The difference in pressure caused by a pump
causes a fluid to flow in a pipe.

v=

where,

v =velocity

Q
A

[1]

( ms )
3

Q=volumetric
flowrate( )
s
2

A=area of pipe(m )

2.2 Reynolds number

In fluid mechanics, the Reynolds number, Re, is a dimensionless number that
gives a measure of the ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces and quantifies the
relative importance of these two types of forces for given flow conditions

N =

Where,

vd

=density of the fluid

v =Velocity of fluid

.[2]

kg
=viscosity of the fluid (Pa. s)
m3

( )

( ms )

d=diameter of the pipe

( ms )

With the Reynolds number The type of flow can be determined by the following:
5

2.2.1 Laminar flow

Occurs when the fluid flows in parallel layers, with no mixing between the layers.
Where the center part of the pipe flow the fastest and the cylinder touching the
pipe isnt moving at all. The flow is laminar when Reynolds number is less than
2300.
2.2.2 Turbulent Flow
In turbulent flow occurs when the liquid is moving fast with mixing between
layers. The speed of the fluid at a point is continuously undergoing changes in
both magnitude and direction. The flow is turbulent when Reynolds number
greater than 4000.
2.2.3 Transitional flow
Transitional flow is a mix of laminar and turbulent flow, with turbulent flow in the
centre and laminar flow near the edges of the pipe .Reynolds number is in
between 2300 and 4000 for transitional flow.

2.3 Head Losses

Head losses occur when there is a resistance of flow present , which is always
present in pipes, this causes a pressure drop which can be measured with
manometers in this case it was measured in dmH 2O
Factors affecting head loss

Flow Rate
Pipe diameter
Pipe length
Viscosity
Roughness of pipe wall
Corrosion and scale deposits
Pipe fittings and bends
Pipe linearity or straightness
(Hydromatic.com, 2015)

2.3.1 Friction Losses

Friction losses occour due to the nature of the material it is travelling through as
mentioned above this can be due to the roughness of a pipe, friction due to
deposits in the pipe etc.
Calculating pressure losses in laminar flow is achieved with 2 manometric tubes
and two displacement sensors, whearas calculationg pressure losses in turbulent
flow is achieved with two pressure sensors.
The calcu lation can be done with the Darcys formula:
6

4 f F L v2
hf =
2 gd
.[3]

h f =head loss due f riction(m)

Where,

L=Length of pipe(m)

m
v =velocity of the fluid ( )
s
d=diameter of pipe( m)

f F =fanning factor
g=gravitational constant (

m
)
s2

With this formula the head loss can be calculated, in our case we calculated the
fanning factor.
The Moody Chart
When the friction factor is unknown it can be determined with a moody chart
given that you know the Reynolds number(N RE), the diameter of the pipe(D) and
the relative roughness ( / D ) of the pipe. This will yield a theoretical friction
factor different from the one determined with a known head loss.

Absolute roughness( )
Absolute Pipe Roughness is a measure of pipe wall irregularities of commercial
pipes. Other than pipes, it is also used for representing roughness of other
equipment walls. absolute roughness has dimensions of length and is usually
expressed in millimeter (mm). (Enggcyclopedia.com, 2015)
Below is a table listing absolute roughness of some common materials:

Table 1 : Absolute Roughness'

Surface Material

Absolute Roughness
Coefficient - in mm

Aluminum, Lead

0.001 - 0.002

Drawn Brass, Drawn Copper

0.0015

Aluminum, Lead

0.001 - 0.002

PVC, Plastic Pipes

0.0015

Fiberglass

0.005

Stainless steel

0.015

Steel commercial pipe

0.045 - 0.09

PVC pipes were used in the practical

Relative Roughness ( /D )
Relative Roughness of a pipe wall can be defined as the ratio of absolute
roughness to the pipe nominal diameter. (Enggcyclopedia.com, 2015)

Relative roughness= /D
.[4]

If the relative roughness and a Reynolds number is known the friction factor can
then be determined from the moody chart.

2.3.2 Shock Losses

Shock losses is minor losses due to fittings, valves and bends in pipes. When a
pipe is connected to a bend, valve or fitting ,to connect one pipe to another,
minor losses will be present due to irregular shape or geometry that changes the
direction of the flow which causes turbulence
This is due to the fact that all fluids have weight and thus have momentum.
If a change in surface occurs in a pipe such as a valve or fitting the directional
momentum will be changed, turbulence occurs and thus shock losses occurs.
When a fluid flows around a bend,the fluid has to change direction but its
momentum carries it to the outer edge of the bend, this effectively decreases the
pipe diameter and increases the flowrate and this causes an increase in head
(Codecogs.com, 2015)
The general equation for the head loss due to an obstruction is as follows:

h L =K

v2
2g

........[5]

h L =head l oss due shock

where,

K=shock constant

m
v =velocity of the fluid ( )
s
g=gravitational constant (

m
)
s2

with this formula the head loss can be calculated. Again in our case we
calculated the experimental shock constant K
Shock Constants (K)
The K-value represents the multiple of velocity heads that will be lost by fluid
passing through a fitting or valve.
Below is a table of shock constants for fittings used in the practical:

Table 2 : Shock loss constants

Valve type

Shock Constant K

Gate Valve, Fully Open

0.15

Gate Valve, 1/4 Closed

0.26

Gate Valve, 1/2 Closed

2.1

Gate Valve, 3/4 Closed

17

Ball Valve, Fully Open

0.05

Ball Valve, 1/3 Closed

5.5

Ball Valve, 2/3 Closed

200

Diaphragm Valve, Open

2.3

Diaphragm Valve, Half Open

4.3

Diaphragm Valve, 1/4 Open

21

3.Experimental Procedure
3.1
Experimental
Setup

10

Figure 1 : Edibon computer controlled fluid flow bench

3.2 Apparatus
3.2.1 Pipes used

1. Smooth pipe (PVC) with an external diameter of 20mm and an internal

diameter of 16.5mm.
2. Smooth pipe (PVC) with an external diameter of 32mm and an internal
diameter of 26.5mm.
3.2.2 Valves used

1. Gate valve with inner diameter of 20mm.

2. Diaphragm valve with inner diameter of 20mm.
3. Ball valve with inner diameter of 20mm.

11

3.3 Procedure
1. The tubes between the hydraulic bench and the fluid flow bench were
checked to ensure that they were in order. It was important that the tube
from the fluid flow bench drained onto the tank of the hydraulic bench.
2. The wiring of the unit was checked to ensure that it was connected and
turned on.
3. The pump was switched on.
4. The V2 valve was opened and it was important to wait until all the air was
expelled from
the pipe.
5. A pipe, to be used in the experiment, was identified and the inner
diameter was noted.
6. The pressure taps of the corresponding manometer was connected to the
inlet and outlet of the pipe. The manometric tubes were chosen when the
water column differences were lower than 800 mm.
7. The flow rate and pressure drops across the pipe was recorded.
8. Steps 6 7 was repeated for three different flow rates.
9. Steps 5 8 were repeated for several pipes.
10.The gate valve was identified and the pressure taps of the corresponding
manometer were connected to the inlet and outlet of the gate valve. The
manometric tubes were chosen when the water column differences were
lower than 800 mm. 6 and 7.
11.The flow rate and pressure drop across the gate valve was recorded for
three different flow rates.
12.Steps 10 and 11 were repeated for the diaphragm valve and ball valve.

12

4. Results
Discussion

Nr.

and

run

(l/min
)

D1=0.0165m

37.3

0.4

61.9

3.4

74.4

5.7

D2=0.0265m

4.1 Recorded

38.1

-1

65.2

-0.9

76.9

-0.5

(dmH20)

Table 3 : Recorded Pipe Values

Table 4 : Recorded Valve Values

13

Values

Diaphragm

Gate Valve

run

Ball Valve

4.2
Values
Table 5 :
Values

(l/min)

(dmH20)

38.5

-1.1

65.3

-0.9

76.8

-0.6

32

-0.1

53.1

2.1

66.4

4.3

35.9

-1

59.8

-0.9

74.8

-0.6

calculated variables

D1=0.0165m

experime
ntal
values

calibrated
values

Calculated

Calculated Pipe

theoretical
values

Re

hf

fF

hf

fF

fD

m3/s

m/s

Reynolds
Nr.

m2

mH2
0

mH2
0

moody

0.0201

fF

0.000
21

1
0.0006
2

2.90
9

53927.95
8

0.04
0

0.000
38

0.36
0

0.0034
4

2 0.0010

4.82
7

89494.38
6

0.34
0

0.001
18

0.96
0

0.0033
3

14

0.005
03

0.0189
0.004

73

3 0.0012

5.80
2

107566.7
58

0.57
0

0.001
37

1.42
0

0.0034
1

0.0133

0.003
33

1 0.0006

1.15
2

34297.95
2

0.10
0

0.009
80

0.08
0

0.0078
4

0.0230

0.005
75

2 0.0010

1.97
1

58693.60
8

0.09
0

0.003
01

0.10
0

0.0033
5

0.0204

0.005
1

3 0.0012

2.32
5

69226.05
0

0.05
0

0.001
20

0.18
0

0.0043
3

0.0197

0.004
93

D2=0.0265m

0.000
55

15

Table 6 : Calculated valve Values

4.3 Discussion
The friction factors and shock constants obtained is in close range of the
theoretical values which leans towards correct calculations.
These results were only obtained due to the application of a correction factor
whereas if no correction factor was used a negative headloss would be obtained
which is is not possible except if other external forces were present or energy

calculated
variables

Gate Valve

theoretical
values

hf

hf

m3/s

m/s

m2

mH20

mH20

0.000

2.04
25

-0.110

-0.51731

0.06

0.28216
6

0.001

3.46
44

-0.090

-0.14713

0.1

0.16347
4

0.001

4.07
45

-0.060

-0.07091

0.16

0.18909
2

0.000

1.69
77

-0.010

-0.06807

0.26

1.76990
1

0.000

2.81
71

0.210

0.519166

0.7

1.73055
2

0.001

3.52
27

0.430

0.679842

1.14

1.80237
2

0.000

1.90
46

-0.100

-0.54086

0.08

0.43269

0.001

3.17
26

-0.090

-0.17543

0.1

0.19492
8

0.001

3.96
84

-0.060

-0.07475

0.16

0.19933
9

2 09

3 28

1 53
Diaphragm

Calibrated
values

1 64

2 89

3 11

1 60
Ball Valve

experimental
values

2 00

3 25

0.00031
415

16

0.15

2.3

0.05

was added to the system. The uncalibrated values will not be included in the
discussion.
4.3.1 Pipes
For the smooth PVC pipes it can firsly be seen that with a increase in flowrate
there is a increase in the Reynolds number and that the flow is turbulent.
Concerning pipe 1, with a diameter of 0.0165m the calibrated results for fanning
friction factor is basically constant with increase in velocity, whereas the
theoretical values show a decrease in fanning friction factor, this result can may
be due to incorrect calculation or incorrect measurement Other reasons could be
that the error factor applied was not correct or that there was air trapped in the
pipe.
Concerning pipe 2 with a diameter of 0.0265m it can be seen that that the rate
of increase in velocity is about half of pipe one which is due to the difference in
diameter. Comparing the calibrated and theoretical fanning factors it can be seen
that both show an overall decrease in fanning factor with a increase in fluid
velocity and Reynolds and yet a increase in head loss.
So it can be said that with a increase in velocity and Reynolds there is a
decrease in friction factor, remembering that even though there is a decrease in
friction factor , friction losses is still increasing. This may be due to the fact that
with a increase in velocity the flow of the fluid tends to the centre of the pipe
thus decreasing friction in the centre but a increase in total friction losses is still
present collectively.
It may also be said that the higher the Reynolds number, the more constant the
friction factor.
Overall it can be seen that most experimental fanning factors is lower than the
theoretical values obtained and some higher which leads to the fact that these
values are not in perfect agreement.
4.3.2Valves
The experimental fanning friction factors obtained for the valves is in close
mostly in close proximity of the theoretical values except for the ball valve where
the values are as much as 8 time higher than predicted by theory. When
comparing the ball valve shock constants from table 2 it can be seen that if it is
1/3 closed the constant is 5.5 which leads me to believe that the valve was not
opened fully or that the valve is defective and could not be opened fully. This
could also be due to imperfections of the ball and or valve.
It can be seen that with a increase in velocity there is an overall decrease in the
shock constant and a increase in head loss.

17

4.3.3 Reccomendations
Most importantly is to work with a system that is properly calibrated and to
already experimentally know the friction factors and shock coeeficients, this may
be done by repetitive experimental testing or it may be known from the
manufacturers specifications.
Secondly is to ensure that there is no leaks or air entering the system which
could result in pressure losses and increased unpredictability.
Lastly, to eliminate all room for error when taking readings and doing
calculations, by staying focused on the subject at hand

5. Conclusions
The practical was an success, the theory behind the fanning factor and shock
constants is now properly understood and The role it plays in head losses
The experimental and theoretical values for fanning factor and shock coefficients
was successfully calculated and compared to one another by discussion
Although some values were inconsistent with theoretical values it was seen that
with a increase in velocity there was an increase in Reynolds number, a increase
in head losses and a decrease in friction coefficients.
It was discussed that this decrease in the friction coefficient is mostly due to the
fact that fluids tends to the centre of a pipe as velocity is increased and shear
stress is decreased on the bulk of the fluid but still occurs at a increased rate on
the fluid at the outermost point of the pipe.
It may also be concluded that the higher the Reynolds number the smaller the
change in friction coefficients is with a increase in flow. This is due to the
increase in momentum of the fluid.

18

6.References
[1]Streeter, V. & Wylie, E. 1979. Fluid mechanics. New York: McGraw-Hill.
[2]Hydromatic.com,. 2015. Head Loss in Piping Systems - TechInfo.
http://www.hydromatic.com/ResidentialPage_techinfopage_headloss.aspx 10
October 2015.
[3]Enggcyclopedia.com,. 2015. Absolute Pipe Roughness Enggcyclopedia.
http://www.enggcyclopedia.com/2011/09/absolute-roughness/ 10 October 2015.
[4]Codecogs.com,. 2015. Head Loss - Pipes - Fluid Mechanics - Engineering
Numerical Components in C and C++.
http://www.codecogs.com/library/engineering/fluid_mechanics/pipes/head_loss/in
dex.php 11 October 2015.

Q=38.1
1 min=60 s
min

Appendix
Pipe Calculations

0064

*Based on pipe 2 (D=0.0265m)

run 1

m3 /s *

Q=
0.0

1000l=1 m3
H O =
2

Uncalibrated friction factor

*from equation [1]
Area of pipe
D=0.0265m *table 3 values

A=

A=

D2
4
0.02652
4

v=

Q
A

v=

0.00064 m3 / s
0.00055 m2

v =1.152m/ s
2

A=0.00055 m

Fluid Velocity

19

1000 kg
3
m

s
1.152 m/

4 1 m
2
2
0.080 m2 9.81 m/s 0.0265 m
f F=

Head loss

h f =1 dm H 2 O/10

*Table 3

values

f F =0.00784

h f =0.1 m H 2 O

Theoretical friction factor

*From equation [3]
length = 1m

hf =

f F=

4 f F Lv
2 gd

*pipe
*From equation [2]

0.00089 Pa.s

N =

vd

N =

1000 kg /m 1.152 m/s 0.0265m

0.00089 Pa . s

hf 2 gd
4 L v2

s
1.152m/

4 1m
2
2
0.1 m 2 9.81 m / s 0.0265 m
f F=

N =34297.95
*from equation 4 and table table 1-PVC

RR=

f F =0.00980

0.0015
=
=0.00006
D 0.0265

*Moody chart can then be used

to find the theoretical friction
factor as shown on attached
moody chart.

Calibrated friction factor

*area and fluid velocity is the
same

f F =0.0230

h f =(1dm H 2 O+1.4) 2 )/10

h f =0.080 m H 2 O

Valve Calculations
*based on ball valve run 1
20

 h f =0.1 m H 2 O

Uncalibrated Shock constant

Area of valve
D=0.020m *apparatus

A=

D2
4

A=

0.0202
4

*From equation [5]

h L =K

A=0.00031415m 2

K=

Fluid Velocity

m /s *

h L 2 g
v2

0.1 2 9.81 m/s2

K=
1.9046 2

Q=35.9
1 min=60 s
min
0060

v2
2g

Q=
0.0

K=0.54086

1000l=1 m

H O =
2

Calibrated shock constant

1000 kg
3
m

*Area and velocity is constant

h f =((1 dm H 2 O+ 1.4) 2)/10

*from equation [1]

h f =0.08 m H 2 O

Q
v=
A

0.00060 m 3 /s
v=
0.00031415 m2

K=

K=0.43269

v =1.9046 m/ s

Theoretical shock constant

Head loss

h f =1 dm H 2 O/10

0.08 2 9.81 m/s 2

1.90462

*From table 2
*Table 3

K=0.05 for ball valve

values
21

22

23

24